An Introduction to
Student Development
Theory
The purpose of this presentation is to provide a base line understanding of the major
categories of student development theory. We will also focus on how utilizing the principles
of these theories will provide insight to the student experience in a variety of contexts.
Paul Shepherd
http://www.renewingleadership.org
Student Development Theories
Between 1960 and the present, an explosion of developmental theory related to college
students found its way into student affairs literature. While a truly comprehensive model of
student development does not exist, existing models were grouped into several categories
(Evans, Forney, Guido-DiBrito, 1998).
I. Cognitive Theories
These theories look at the way students think.
Examples: William Perry’s Intellectual and Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Women’s Moral Development
Marcia Baxter-Magolda’s Epistemological Refflection Model
II. Psychosocial and Identity Development Theories
These theories examine student’s identity.
Examples: Arthur Chickering’s Seven Vectors of Student Development
Ruthellen Josselson’s Identity Development in Women
Vivienne Cass’ model of GLBT Identity Development
Nancy Schlossberg’s Transition Theory
IV. Environment Interaction Theories
These theories examine how students interact with their environment.
Examples: Alexander Astin’s Involvement Theory
Kurt Lewin’s Interactionist Perspective
Nevitt Sanford’s Challenge and Support
Nancy Schlossberg’s Marginality and Mattering
Cognitive Development Theory
William Perry’s Theory of Intellectual and Moral Development
Perry developed his theory while working as the director of Harvard’s Bureau of Study
Counsel. The counsel engaged in research examining how students interpret and make
meaning of the teaching and learning process.
Perry Developed Nine Positions which describes “the typical course of development of
students’ patterns of thought”.
1. Basic Duality
2. Multiplicity Prelegitimate
3. multiplicity legitimate but subordinate
4. Multiplicity Coordinate
5. Relativism Subordinate
6. Relativism
7. Commitment Foreseen
8-9 Evolving Commitments
To make Perry’s theory more useful, it can be broken down into three major concepts:
1. Dualism – “represents a mode of meaning making that tends to view the world
dichotomously (good-bad, right-wrong, black-white)”. Knowledge is obtained from
authorities.
2. Multiplicity – “honoring diverse views when the right answers are not yet
known”.
3. Relativism – “Recognition of the need to support opinions and the realization that
rationale people can legitimately disagree on some matters”.
As students progress through these positions, their reasoning become more complex as they
begin to realize their experiences may directly contradict what they have been taught or
previously experienced.
In what contexts do we see students moving through these positions?
Evans, Forney, Guido-DiBrito, 1998
Psychosocial and Identity Development Theory
Arthur Chickering’s Vectors of Student Development
Chickering first outlined his theory in his landmark book, Education and Identity (1969). While
employed at Goddard College, Chickering was responsible for evaluating the impact of
innovative curricular practices on student development. He administered sixteen hours worth
of achievements tests, personality inventories, and other instruments to students at the end of
their sophomore and senior years.
Chickering identified seven “vectors” students move through on their “journey toward
individuation”.
1. Developing Competence – students gain intellectual, physical, and interpersonal
competence
2. Managing Emotions – ability to recognize and control emotions in a variety of
contexts
3. Moving through Autonomy toward Interdependence – ability to become
emotionally and instrumentally independent, primarily from parents and peer groups.
4. Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships – ability to develop an
increased tolerance for others, a capacity for intimacy, and healthy intimate
relationships based on trust, independence, and individuality.
5. Establishing Identity – ability to develop a sense of self by clarification of physical
needs, characteristics, and personal appearance. Identity also includes, “comfort with
gender and sexual orientation, a sense of one’s social and cultural heritage, a clear selfconcept with ones roles and lifestyle, a secure sense of self in light of feedback from
significant others, self acceptance and self esteem, and personal stability and integration
(Evans et.al., 1998).
6. Developing Purpose – ability to develop a sense of purpose in one’s life, leading to
plans and priorities for careers, avocations, and life styles.
7. Developing Integrity – ability to develop a personally valid set of beliefs that has
internal consistency and provides a guide for behavior. Development of a personal
responsibility.
Evans, Forney, Guido-DiBrito, 1998
Battle of the Vectors
1. David has starting attending multicultural events on campus and encouraging others on this floor to come
with him. David is from a small town in central Wisconsin and has not attended events like these before.
2. Joy is a senior in college. She has worked in an internship this past summer in her field and now is
starting to make plans for job searching and looking at companies that she would like to work for. She is
really excited and feels good about the career she is about to enter.
3. Manuel is a first year student in college and is enrolled in a philosophy class. He really enjoys the class
and is interested in pursuing philosophy as a major. Manuel often stays after class to talk to his professor
to learn more about philosophy.
4. Von was raised in a deeply religious family that taught him that everything bad that happened to anyone
was a test or punishment by God. When Von moved away from home and entered college, he went to a
speaker on campus that shared a personal story of how her parents were killed in a car accident caused by
the drunk driver. Von left the speaker thinking that perhaps God doesn’t punish us, but that we do
horrible things to ourselves as people.
5. Kiesha just finished her first year of college and has decided to move back to her parent’s house and work
at the same job she had as a high school student. Kiesha was excited at first, but after a while, she
becomes increasingly annoyed with home life. Kiesha feels that her job is not challenging anymore and
does not like having to let her parents know where she is all the time.
6. Jason is a junior in college and is a highly involved student leader on campus. Jason has maintained
many friendships with a wide variety of people, but has only told his closest friend that he is Gay. Jason
decides that he is going too open up to people and become active in the gay community.
7. Carla is a senior in college and is engaged to her boyfriend of two years. Carla discovers that Ben has
been sleeping with Carla’s roommate and calls off the engagement and moves in with other friends. Carla
seems to be dealing with the heartbreak well, until finally she sobbingly vents her feelings to her new
roommate.
8. Jamal is a sophomore in college and is friends with Shelly who is in his History class. Shelly is helping
to build a house for habitat for humanity and invited Jamal to help. Jamal is hesitant at first because he
does not have any construction experience, but decides to join Shelly. Jamal becomes more interested in
habitat for humanity and decides to research woodworking and construction. Now Jamal is President of
his campus habitat for humanity organization.
9. Glenda is a freshman in college and has decided before she arrived on campus that she would create a
moral code to help guide her through the “temptations” of college life. Her code includes her abstaining
from alcohol, sex, tobacco, and drugs. Glenda had no problems talking with her friends about why she
decided to live her life by this code. Toward the end of her first year, some friends on her cube invited
Glenda to a “going away” party. Glenda decided to go and after some encouragement from her friends
decided to drink a beer. Glenda enjoyed her beer and then proceeded to enjoy more and more. Glenda
became extremely intoxicated and needed to have her friends help her home. The next day Glenda is
tremendously disappointed in herself.
10. Tina is a senior in college and feels that one of her most important goals for her college life is to find a
person to spend the rest of her life with. Tina is a strong student and has lots of talent, but she does not
believe that she has anything to offer. She frequently throws herself into unhealthy relationships in her
attempt to find her life partner. Tina finally meets Faye who convinces Tina that she does not need a
partner to fulfill her. Faye gives Tina the self-confidence to be herself and use her talents.
11. Tyler decides to enroll in his campus ROTC program. Tyler is interested in military life for a career and
like the structure and feelings of “brotherhood” he gets from his ROTC classmates. Tyler believes he is
learning valuable lessons in how to be a leader and how to work in a team environment.
12. Carl is a junior in college and has gotten himself into credit card debt. Carl is having a hard time
managing his money, so he decides to invest in a budget software program for his computer. Carl is now
learning how to budget his money, so he can pay off his debt and have some money left over to do things
with friends. Carl is now well on his way to debt free life!
13. Heather is a graduate student and is about to take her comprehensive exams before she graduates.
Heather is extremely nervous and finds it difficult to study. She has a very negative attitude about the
tests and swears that she will fail every part and will not graduate with her peers.
14. Kevin is a freshman in college and an African American man. Kevin has not really ever thought about his
culture. He knew the history and heard stories of discrimination and civil rights battles from his parents
and grandparents, but didn’t really think that had anything to do with him. As Kevin began to move
through his first year he was invited to join the African American student group on campus. After
attending one meeting Kevin’s eyes were opened to all the rich culture that he never really paid attention
to. Kevin now has a new understanding and appreciation of his culture.
Environment Interaction Theory
Alexander Astin’s Involvement Theory
Rather than examining development itself, Astin’s approach focuses on factors that facilitate
development. He argued that for student learning to occur, students need to become active
and involved with their surroundings. Astin’s work serves as the rationale for student
development practitioners’ efforts to create opportunities for students to become involved in
and out of the classroom.
Astin defined involved as, “the amount of physical and psychological energy that the student
devotes to the academic experience”. Involvement is measured by behavior (what the student
actually does) as opposed to a students feeling or thoughts.
Astin’s five basic assumptions
1. “Involvement refers to the investment of physical and psychological energy in various
objects”. An object can be anything from the student experience as a whole to a specific
activity.
2. “Regardless of the object, involvement occurs along a continuum”. Some students will
spend more time than others in any given activity. Some students will be more
involved in certain activities over others.
3. “Involvement has both quantitative and qualitative features”. A quantitative feature
would be physical time spent. A qualitative feature would be the seriousness with
which the object is approached.
4. “The amount of student learning and personal development associated with any
educational program is directly proportional to the quality and quantity of student
involvement in the program”. The more students are able to put into any given
program, the more benefit they will enjoy because of that involvement.
5. “The effectiveness of any educational policy or practice is directly related to the
capacity of that policy or practice to increase student involvement”. Student
development practitioners should make intentional efforts to increase the opportunities
for students to become involved in their community.
In what ways do we or could we actively involve students?
Evans, Forney, Guido-DiBrito, 1998
Other Useful Theories
The Interactionist Perspective: B=f(PXE)
B=
P=
E=
Marginality and Mattering (Nancy Schlossberg)
5 Aspects of Mattering:
1. Attention
2. Importance
3. Ego extension
4. Dependence
5. Appreciation
Challenge and Support (Nevitt Sanford)
• “Defining a range of optimal dissonance”
• How much challenge a person can tolerate is dependent
upon the amount of support available