Western Michigan University
ScholarWorks at WMU
Dissertations
Graduate College
12-1976
A Study of Competitiveness between Sexes and the
Effect of Communication Messages upon the
Building of Trust
Shirley A. VanHoeven
Western Michigan University
Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations
Part of the Educational Administration and Supervision Commons
Recommended Citation
VanHoeven, Shirley A., "A Study of Competitiveness between Sexes and the Effect of Communication Messages upon the Building of
Trust" (1976). Dissertations. 2824.
http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/2824
This Dissertation-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access
by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for
inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks
at WMU. For more information, please contact [email protected].
A STUDY OF COMPETITIVENESS
BETWEEN SEXES AND THE EFFECT OF COMMUNICATION
MESSAGES UPON THE BUILDING OF TRUST
by
S h i r l e y A. Van Hoeven
A D is s e rta tio n
S u b m itte d to t h e
F a c u lty o f The G rad u ate C o lle g e
in p a r t i a l fu lf illm e n t
of th e
D egree o f D o c to r o f E d u c a tio n
W estern M ichigan U n iv e r s ity
K alam azoo, M ichigan
December 1976
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f th e c o p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am In d e b te d to D r. K en n eth F. Simon who i n i t i a l l y en co u rag ed me to
c o n tin u e my e d u c a tio n a t W e ste rn M ichigan U n iv e r s ity in th e E d u c a tio n a l
L e a d e rsh ip program .
H is c o n tin u e d s u p p o rt gave me encouragem ent e s s e n t i a l
to th e f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e p ro g ram .
I am g r a t e f u l to D r. Rodney W. R o th , C h a irp e rs o n o f th e D o c to ra l Ad­
v is o r y and D i s s e r t a t i o n Review C om m ittee, f o r h i s c a r e f u l e v a lu a tio n and
c o n tin u e d s u p p o rt o f t h i s s tu d y .
I a ls o th a n k o t h e r members o f th e
Com mittee, Dr. Kenneth F. Simon and D r. Gene S. Booker f o r t h e i r e v a lu a tio n
and a n a ly s i s o f th e s tu d y .
D r. C a ro l V. Ryan, who r e s ig n e d from th e D o c to ra l
A dvisory and D i s s e r t a t i o n Review Com mittee b e c a u s e o f a move to a n o th e r
c i t y , was m ost h e l p f u l i n t h e i n i t i a l s ta g e s o f th e developm ent o f th e s tu d y .
My c o ll e a g u e s . D r. R ic h a rd J . D ie k e r, Dr. S te v en C. R hodes,
Dr. E rn e st L. S te c h , and D r. S h i r l e y C. Woodworth, t h e i r s tu d e n ts and
m ine, d e s e rv e my g r e a t e s t a p p r e c i a t i o n .
T h e ir a s s i s t a n c e and p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in th e r e s e a r c h was i n v a l u a b le to me.
I am d e e p ly a p p r e c i a t i v e to D o re th a E. M o rtim o re, my t y p i s t , f o r th e
h o u rs she h a s s p e n t ty p in g t h e f i n a l m a n u s c rip t.
My c h il d r e n , D ebbie and J e f f , d e s e r v e my s p e c i a l th a n k s f o r t h e i r
p a tie n c e and c o n tin u e d s u p p o r t f o r me th ro u g h o u t th e e n t i r e d o c to r a l program .
I am m ost d e e p ly g r a t e f u l t o my husband Don who h a s been my g r e a t e s t s o u rc e
o f s t r e n g t h , u n d e rs ta n d in g , and en co u rag em en t.
W ith o u t h i s c o n s ta n t lo v e
and su p p o rt t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n w ould n o t h av e been p o s s ib l e .
S h i r l e y A, Van Hoeven
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f th e c o p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
INFORMATION TO USERS
This material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While
the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document
have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original
submitted.
The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand
markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction.
1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document
photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing
page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages.
This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent
pages to insure you complete continuity.
2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it
is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have
moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a
good image of the page in the adjacent frame.
3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being
photographed the photographer followed a definite method in
"sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper
left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to
right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is
continued again - beginning below the first row and continuing on until
complete.
4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value,
however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from
"photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver
prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing
the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and
specific pages you wish reproduced.
5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as
received.
University Microfilms International
300 North Zeeb Road
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 USA
St. John's Road, Tyler's Green
High Wycombe, Bucks, England HP10 8HR
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n of th e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t c
77-9304
VAN HOEVEN, S h irle y Ann, 1935A STUDY OF COMPETITIVENESS BETWEEN
SEXES AND THE EFFECT OF COMMUNICATION
MESSAGES UPON THE BUILDING OF TRUST.
Western Michigan U n iv e rs ity , Ed.D ., 1976
Education, adm inistration
Xerox University Microfiims, AnnArbor, Michigan 48106
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f th e c o p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.
II.
FACE
PROBLEM STATEMENT...................................................................................................
1
Need and S i g n if ic a n c e o f S t u d y ..............................................................
3
O verview o f th e S t u d y ................................................................................
4
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL HYPOTHESES . . . .
C o n p e tltlo n
7
.......................................................................................................
7
T r u s t .....................................................................................
E f f e c t s o f C o m m u n ic a tio n ...........................................................................
14
P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma G a m e .............................................................
P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma Game-Sex D if f e r e n c e s
III.
17
.....................................
20
P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma G am e-C o m p etltlv n ess and T r u s t . . . .
23
P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma G am e-E ffects o f Com munication . . . .
28
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY...............................................................................
31
P o p u la tio n and S a n ç l e ...............................................................................
31
Game C o n d i t i o n s .............................................................................................
32
I n s tr u m e n ta tio n
32
.............................................................................................
The G a m e ...................................................................................................
P ro c e d u re s and I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r C o l le c t io n o f D ata . . .
IV.
33
35
O p e r a tio n a l H yp o th eses ...............................................................................
37
S t a t i s t i c a l P ro c e d u re s ...............................................................................
38
D ata A n a l y s i s ..................................................................................................
40
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA..............................................................
41
H y p o th e sis O n e ..................................................................................................
41
111
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
CHAPTER
V.
H y p o th e s is T w o ............................................................................................
47
H y p o th e sis T hree ........................................................................................
50
SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS........................................................
54
The P r o b l e m .................................................................................................
54
H y p o t h e s e s ......................................................................................................
55
G e n e ra l D esign ............................................................................................
55
F i n d i n g s ..........................................................................................................
57
C o n c l u s i o n s .................................................................................................
59
APPENDICES
63
REFERENCES
66
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f th e c o p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND TABLES
FIGURE
page
1.
P r i s o n e r ’ s Dilemma game u se d i n t h e s t u d y ..................................................
2.
P la y in g c a rd s u sed f o r p la y in g t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game
i n th e s tu d y
3.
33
34
T a b le s u sed f o r s c o r in g Game #1 and Game # 2 ...........................................
34
1.
R e s u l ts o f a One-Way A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e Showing a Compari­
so n o f M ale and Fem ale Means f o r T o ta l S co res o f Game //I . .
42
2.
R e s u l ts o f a One-Way A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e Showing a Compari­
so n o f Fem ale T o ta l Game #1 S c o res from C o n d itio n A,
C o n d itio n C^, and C o n d itio n C g ................................................................
3.
R e s u l ts o f a One-Way A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e Showing a Compari­
so n o f Means o f Male T o ta l Game //I S co res from C o n d itio n
A, C o n d itio n C^, and C o n d itio n C £ .......................................................
4.
R e s u l ts o f a One-Way A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e Showing a Compari­
son o f Means o f T o ta l S c o res i n Game #1 Between M ales and
Fem ales i n C o n d itio n A ...................................................................................
5.
R e s u l ts o f a One-Way A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e Showing a Compari­
so n o f Means betw een Fem ale and Fem ale P a i r s i n Con­
d i t i o n B ...................................................................................................................
6.
R e s u l ts o f a One-Way A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e Showing a Compari­
so n o f Means betw een M ale and M ale P a i r s i n C o n d itio n C . .
TABLES
7.
R e s u l ts o f a One-Way A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e Showing a Compari­
so n o f Types o f M essages Communicated and Frequency o f
T r u s t C hoices ................................................................................................
44
4/
49
R e s u l ts o f t h e S c h e ffe M u ltip le Com parison Showing
D i f f e r e n c e s betw een Group Means A cco rd in g to Types
o f M essages S e n t ..........................................................................
50
9.
A Breakdown o f Mean S c o res A c co rd in g to Message and Sex . . . .
31
10.
R e s u l ts o f a Two-Way A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e Showing th e F
V alue and P r o b a b i l i t y L e v e l .....................................................................
52
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f th e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
PROBLEM STATEMENT
The p u rp o se s o f t h i s s tu d y a r e to i n v e s t i g a t e and m easure com­
p e t i t i v e n e s s betw een s e x e s , t o a n a ly z e t h e n o n - v e r b a l m essage comm unicated
and to e x p lo r e w h e th e r t r u s t i s i n c r e a s e d a s a r e s u l t o f th e ty p e o f m essage
s e n t.
F o r t h e p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y c o m p e titio n i s d e fin e d a s t h e d e s i r e
to r i v a l o r co n te n d w ith a n o th e r p e rs o n i n o r d e r to w in , to u s e s t r a t e g y .
T ru s t i s d e fin e d a s t h e a s s u r e d r e l i a n c e o r f a i t h on th e c h a r a c te r and
t r u t h o f a p e rs o n , to a c t w ith o u t f e a r o r m is g iv in g to w ard a p e rs o n , a
d e s i r e to c o o p e ra te .
R e se a rc h i n t h e p a s t h a s f a i l e d to d e a l s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith c o m p eti­
tiv e n e s s and t r u s t t h a t o c c u rs b etw een se x p a i r s random ly p la c e d i n to
c o n d itio n s c o n s is t in g o f m ales and fe m a le s , fem a le s and fe m a le s , and m ales
and m ales who have had t h e o p p o r tu n ity to ex change a w r i t t e n m essag e.
These th r e e e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s p r o v id e d t h i s r e s e a r c h e r th e o p p o r tu n ity
to exam ine c o m p e titiv e n e s s and t r u s t from t h i s p e r s p e c ti v e .
The f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was con d u cted to show th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een s e x and c o m p e titiv e n e s s .
t h a t t h e r e w i l l be a l o s e r .
C o m p e titio n n e c e s s i t a t e s
DeV ito (1976) sp e ak s o f c o m p e titio n i n t h e
fo llo w in g way:
C o m p e titio n in f l u e n c e s and ch an g es th e a t t i t u d e s o f th e
p a r t i c i p a n t s , g e n e r a l ly i n a n e g a ti v e d i r e c t i o n . W hile com­
p e ti n g , th e I n d iv i d u a ls o f te n d e v e lo p n e g a tiv e f e e l i n g s f o r
each o t h e r . In some ways t h i s n e g a tiv e f e e l i n g a llo w s f o r th e
m o b iliz a tio n o f e n e rg y and p e rh a p s h e lp s i n s ti m u l a ti n g t h a t
e x t r a e f f o r t n e c e s s a r y to w in th e game. I f you a r e to o p o s i t i v e
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
tow ard y o u r o p p o n e n t, you may r e l a x y o u r g u a rd and th e r e b y
g iv e him o r h e r an e dge. Sometimes t h i s n e g a ti v e f e e l i n g i s
lo n g l a s t i n g and som etim es i t i s o n ly tem p o rary (p p . 3 8 1 -3 8 2 ).
Oskamp (1965) i n h i s s tu d y o f in d u ce d h ig h c o o p e ra tio n found t h a t
women gave s i g n i f i c a n t l y few er c o o p e ra tiv e re s p o n s e s th a n men.
R ap o p o rt
and Chammah (1965) s tu d i e d t h e e f f e c t s o f se x c o m p o s itio n o f b e h a v io r i n
t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game.
They found t h a t i n t h e same s e x p a i r s th e
m ales w ere more c o o p e ra tiv e th a n th e fem a le s b u t i n m ixed se x p a i r s th e
m ales became l e s s c o o p e ra tiv e w h ile t h e women became more c o o p e r a tiv e .
The second p a r t o f t h i s e m p ir ic a l r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t i o n p ro v id e d
s u b je c t s w ith th e o p p o r tu n ity to exchange a w r i t t e n m essag e.
T h is
r e s e a r c h e r was i n t e r e s t e d i n exam in in g w h e th e r th e ty p e o f m essage
com m unicated made a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t
c h o ic e s t h a t th e p a i r s o f s u b je c t s c o n s e q u e n tly made.
M e llin g e r (1956)
found t h a t sim p ly i n c r e a s i n g th e amount o f com m unication b etw een s u b je c t s
d id n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n c r e a s e b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f one a n o th e r a lth o u g h
he s u g g e s ts t h a t an in c r e a s e i n com m unication may r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r
a c c u ra c y i n p e r c e iv in g th e o p in io n s o f o t h e r s , b u t o n ly when t r u s t and
agreem ent a r e h ig h i n i t i a l l y .
D eutsch (1960) found t h a t when com m unication
was p e r m itte d betw een s u b je c t s t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n th e number
o f c o o p e ra tiv e o r t r u s t c h o ic e s .
R e c ip ie n ts o f h i g h ly c r e d i t a b l e m essages
d is p la y e d more " t r u s t " th a n d id o t h e r s u b je c t s a c c o r d in g to Gahagan and
T e d e sch i (1 9 6 7 ).
Swensen (1973) c o n te n d s t h a t a lm o s t any k in d o f communi­
c a ti o n betw een s u b je c t s in c r e a s e s th e p r o b a b i l i t y o f c o o p e ra tio n b etw een
T r u s t in v o lv e s some k in d o f r i s k a c c o rd in g t o D eV ito (1976) and a s
a r e s u l t o f t h e t r u s t i n g b e h a v io r some l o s s may r e s u l t .
He c o n tin u e s by
s a y in g , " t r u s t in o t h e r s w i l l i n c r e a s e i f we f i r s t h av e t r u s t i n o u r -
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f t h e c o p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
s e lv e s (p . 4 0 9 ) ."
Need and S ig n if ic a n c e o f Study
C o m p e titio n in v o lv e s w in n in g and lo s i n g .
t h i s c o n c e p t t o th e Am erican p u b l ic d a il y .
The news m ed ia r e i n f o r c e s
As e a r l y a s 19 2 9 , M a ile r (1929)
i n h i s c l a s s i c s tu d y o f c o m p e titio n and c o o p e ra tio n c o n te n d e d t h a t th e
c o m p e titiv e s i t u a t i o n was one w hich s tim u la te d th e i n d i v i d u a l to s t r i v e
a g a in s t o t h e r i n d iv i d u a ls i n th e group f o r a g o a l o b j e c t o f w h ich he o r
s h e hoped to be th e s o le o r p r i n c i p a l p o s s e s s o r .
S u lliv a n (1953) c o n te n d s t h a t c h il d r e n a r e ex p o sed t o com prom ise and
c o m p e titio n a t an e a r l y a g e .
Swensen (1973) d i s c u s s e s c h i l d r e n i n
c o m p e titio n w ith o t h e r c h il d r e n and a t t h i s e a r l y age h e o r s h e v e ry
q u ic k ly l e a m s h i s o r h e r own a b i l i t y and w o rth r e l a t i v e t o t h e o t h e r
c h il d r e n .
R e se a rc h by Komarovsky (1965) s u p p o rts t h e c o n c e p t t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l l y ,
fe m a le s w ere e x p e c te d to ta k e th e s u b m issiv e r o l e i n a fe m a le -m a le
r e l a t i o n s h i p u s u a ll y b e g in n in g w ith t h e d a ti n g o r c o u r t s h ip y e a r s .
She
found t h a t c o ll e g e women w ere en co u rag ed to p a r t i c i p a t e i n s p o r t s and
engage i n s e r i o u s academ ic p u r s u i t s u n t i l t h e tim e came when th e s e
a c t i v i t i e s i n t e r f e r r e d w ith c o u r t s h ip .
Women a c c o r d in g to P a t to n and
P a t to n (1976) have b een c o n d itio n e d to d e f in e th e m s e lv e s i n term s o f ,
" f u t u r e m a r r ia g e , c h i l d r e n , and le s s - v a l u e d h o u se h o ld s k i l l s
(p . 1 1 ) ."
The a u th o r s c o n tin u e by s a y in g t h a t b e c au se o f r e c e n t c h a n g es i n th e
s o c i e t y r e g a r d in g th e woman's r o l e , h e r f e e l i n g s o f n e e d f o r p e r s o n a l
i d e n t i t y a r e em erging.
They d i s c u s s c o m p e titiv e n e s s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p to
o u r m a s c u lin e - o r ie n te d s o c ie t y i n t h a t f a i l u r e i n su c h c o m p e titio n p ro d u ce s
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f t h e c o p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
4
a n x ie ty and t h r e a t to o u r w o rth a s p e o p le .
A c c o rd in g to a r e p o r t i n Women Today (1975) more and more women to d ay
a r e p e r c e i v in g c o m p e titiv e a c h iev em en t a s a r o u te to s e l f - a f f i r m a t i o n and
s e lf -a c tu a liz a tio n .
Changing s o c i e t a l r o l e s f o r women c o n firm t h e
s i g n i f i c a n t v a lu e i n i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e p r e s e n t c o m p e titiv e n e s s o c c u rin g
betw een m ales and fem a le s who a r e o f th e u n i v e r s i t y age l e v e l .
The developm ent o f t r u s t i s v i t a l to e x p e rie n c in g i n t e r p e r s o n a l
com m unication and s tr e n g th e n in g r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
Sereno and Bodaken (1975)
co n te n d t h a t :
One e le m e n t t h a t m ust be p r e s e n t f o r t r u s t to e x i s t i s th e id e a
o f p r e d i c t a b i l i t y ; th e p e rs o n you t r u s t can b e c o u n te d on f o r
c e r t a i n p r e d i c t a b l e b e h a v io r s . You have a b s o lu t e ly no r e a s o n t o
s u s p e c t t h a t he w i l l harm o r b e tr a y you i n any way. T r u s t r e f e r s
to f e e l i n g s you have t h a t th e o t h e r p e rs o n w o n 't ta k e a d v a n ta g e
o f y o u , h a s y o u r c o n c ern s a t h e a r t , d o e s n 't h ave any u l t e r i o r
m o tiv e s , and can keep a s e c r e t (p . 1 9 2 ).
The im p o rta n c e o f t r u s t i n i n te r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h a s b een em phasized
by p h i lo s o p h e r s , p s y c h o lo g i s ts , co m m u n ico lo g ists, and human r e l a t i o n s
e x p e r t s f o r many y e a r s .
Among th o s e who h ave p la c e d t r u s t a s a b a s e s f o r
b u i ld i n g o r s a t i s f y i n g i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o r o f wholesome
developm ent o f t h e p e rs o n th ro u g h i n t e r a c t i o n w ith o t h e r s hav e been
M a ile r (1 9 2 9 ), May and Doob (1 9 3 7 ), Mead (1 9 3 7 ), D eu tsch (1 9 5 8 ), G i f f i n (1 9 6 7 ),
P e a rc e (1 9 7 4 ), G i f f i n and B am es (1976) and Brooks and Emmert (1 9 7 6 ).
P e o p le need o t h e r s to c o n firm and s u p p o rt t h e i r e x is t e n c e and view
of re a lity .
T h is t r u s t o f o t h e r s i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r to a s s u r e
f u l l and u n d i s t o r te d exchange o f in fo r m a tio n .
G i f f i n and B am es (1976)
r e i n f o r c e t h i s by t h e f o llo w in g s ta te m e n t:
In many s i t u a t i o n s a p e rs o n f in d s him o r h e r s e l f i n a mixed
m o tiv e s i t u a t i o n w hich pro m o tes b o th c o m p e titio n and c o o p e ra tio n
b etw een a s s o c i a t e s .
C o o p e ra tiv e exchange o f in fo r m a tio n may
b e n e f i t e v e ry o n e u n l e s s one o r more p e rs o n s d e c id e to w ith h o ld
o r to d i s t o r t some o f t h e i r in fo r m a tio n a s a means o f g a in in g a
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n of th e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
s t r a t e g i c a d v a n ta g e o v e r o t h e r s . In t h i s c a s e , t h e c o m p e titiv e
c h o ic e o f b e h a v io r may r e s u l t i n a s h o r t - te r m a d v a n ta g e b u t
w i l l p ro b a b ly r e s u l t i n s i m i l a r b e h a v io r from o t h e r s . T h is
c o m p e titiv e c la s h o f i n t e r e s t s may r e s u l t i n a s t a t i c c o n d itio n
i n w hich any a tte m p t to a l t e r th e r e l a t i o n s h i p may r e s u l t i n
a s i g n i f i c a n t d isa d v a n ta g e to th e c o o p e r a tiv e p a r t y (pp. 3 8 -3 9 ).
Complex t a s k s fa c e o r g a n i z a ti o n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s to d a y .
L ik e rt
(1 9 6 7 ), a b u s in e s s s c h o la r , c o n te n d s t h a t o n ly by i n c r e a s i n g t r u s t
and e s t a b l i s h i n g i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s can th e n e c e s s a r y
c o o p e ra tio n be a c h ie v e d .
L i k e r t f u r t h e r c o n te n d s t h a t , " c o m p e titio n
betw een i n d i v i d u a l s , g ro u p s, and n a ti o n s i s d e s ir e d o n ly so lo n g as
n eed ed c o o p e ra tio n i s n o t n e g le c te d and s u c h c o o p e ra tio n r e q u i r e s
in t e r p e r s o n a l t r u s t (p . 6 2 ) ."
R e s e a rc h e rs c i t e d p r e v i o u s ly , h ave c o n te n d e d t h a t com m unication
when p o s s ib l e does make a d i f f e r e n c e i n i n c r e a s i n g c o o p e ra tio n and
tru s t.
T h is s tu d y w i l l f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t e and a n a ly z e th e com m unication
m essage and i t s e f f e c t upon t h e in c r e a s e o f t r u s t c h o ic e s made betw een
s u b je c t s when p la y in g t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game.
T h e r e f o r e , th e f o llo w in g s p e c i f i c o b j e c t iv e s w ere c o n s id e re d in
t h i s s tu d y :
1.
Did se x have an e f f e c t on t h e c o m p e titiv e n e s s betw een s u b je c ts ?
2.
Ifhat e f f e c t d id t h e ty p e o f w r i t t e n m essage hav e on th e
3.
Did t h e ty p e o f com m unication d e c re a s e c o m p e titiv e n e s s and
I f s o , d id m ales and fem a le s com pete e q u a lly ?
s u b je c ts ?
in c r e a s e t r u s t betw een s u b je c t s ?
Overview o f t h e Study
The p u rp o se o f C h a p te r I was to i n tr o d u c e t h e s tu d y , t o s t a t e th e
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n of th e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
6
p ro b le m , to d e fin e th e te rm s , to c l a r i f y t h e need and s ig n i f ic a n c e o f th e
p ro b lem , and t o g iv e an ov e rv ie w o f th e s tu d y .
C ha p te r I I , Review o f t h e L i t e r a t u r e and T h e o r e t i c a l H y p o th e ses,
i d e n t i f i e s and o rg a n iz e s t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d d i r e c t l y to t h e s tu d i e s
o f c o m p e titiv e n e s s , t r u s t , and t h e e f f e c t o f com m unication upon c o m p e titiv e ­
n e s s and t r u s t .
The P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game, t h e in s tr u m e n t u sed i n t h i s
s tu d y , i s rev ie w e d .
The t h e o r e t i c a l h y p o th e s e s a r e s t a t e d a t th e
c o n c lu s io n o f each s e c t i o n o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t i s s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d .
C h a p te r I I I , D esign and M ethodology, p r e s e n t s th e e x p e rim e n ta l
d e s ig n employed i n th e s tu d y .
The p o p u la tio n and sam ple a r e d e fin e d and
t h e i n s tr u m e n ta tio n and game c o n d itio n s d i s c u s s e d .
The p ro c e d u re s a r e
e x p la in e d f o r t h e p r o c e s s in g and a n a ly z in g o f t h e d a ta .
C h ap ter IV c o n s is t s o f th e p r e s e n t a t i o n and a n a ly s i s o f th e r e s u l t s
o f th e d a ta d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e t e s t i n g o f t h e h y p o th e s e s .
A summary
o f th e r e s u l t s o f each h y p o th e s is f o llo w s .
C ha p te r V in c lu d e s a summary, w h ich re v ie w s t h e p ro b le m , h y p o th e s e s
and g e n e ra l d e s ig n , th e f in d i n g s , w hich sum m arizes t h e r e s u l t s o f th e
d a ta and t h e c o n c lu s io n s t h a t t h i s a u th o r h a s draw n from t h e r e s u l t s o f
th e s tu d y .
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n of th e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
OF
THEORETICAL HYPOTHESES
T h is c h a p te r review ed s e l e c t i v e s t u d i e s t h a t c o n tr i b u te d d i r e c t l y
to t h e r e s e a r c h con d u c te d .
p e titiv e n e s s ;
(2) t r u s t ;
The rev iew ed s t u d i e s c o n c e rn e d :
(1) com­
(3) e f f e c t s o f co m m unication; (4) P r i s o n e r 's
Dilemma game; (5) P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game— se x d i f f e r e n c e s ;
(6) P r i s o n e r 's
Dilemma game— c o m p e titiv e n e s s and t r u s t ; a n d , (7) P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma
game— e f f e c t s o f com m unication.
C o m p etitio n
T h is s e c t i o n o f C ha p te r I I rev ie w s th e l i t e r a t u r e on c o m p e titio n
t h a t r e l a t e s d i r e c t l y to th e p r e s e n t s tu d y .
W rite r s who h av e in c lu d e d
c o o p e ra tio n i n t h e i r s tu d y o f c o m p e titio n w i l l a ls o b e in c lu d e d s in c e t h e i r
s tu d y o f c o m p e titio n v e ry o f te n depends upon t h e i r f in d i n g s r e g a r d in g
c o o p e r a tio n .
The l i t e r a t u r e on c o n ç e t i ti o n a lo n e was s c a r c e s in c e s o c i a l
s c i e n t i s t s p r e f e r to s tu d y t r u s t and c o o p e ra tio n i n r e l a t i o n s h i p to
c o m p e titio n .
May and Doole (1937) d ev elo p ed a th e o ry t h a t d i s t in g u i s h e d b etw een
c o m p e titio n and c o o p e ra tio n i n th e fo llo w in g way:
C o m p e titio n o r c o - o p e r a tio n [ s i c ] i s d i r e c t e d to w ard t h e same
s o c i a l end by a t l e a s t two i n d iv i d u a ls .
In c o m p e titio n ,
m ore o v e r, t h e end so u g h t can be a c h ie v e d i n e q u a l am ounts by
some and n o t by a l l o f t h e in d iv i d u a ls th u s b e h a v in g , w hereas
i n c o -o p e r a tio n [ s i c ] i t can b e a c h ie v e d by a l l o r a lm o st a l l
o f th e in d iv i d u a ls co n cern ed (p . 6 ) .
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n of th e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
Mead (1937) i n h e r su rv e y o f c o m p e titio n and c o o p e ra tio n among
p r im it iv e p e o p le gave t h e fo llo w in g d e f i n i t i o n s :
C o m p e titio n : th e a c t o f s e e k in g o r e n d e a v o rin g to g a in w hat
a n o th e r i s e n d e av o rin g to g a in a t t h e same tim e .
C o -o p e ra tio n [s i c ] : th e a c t o f w orking t o g e t h e r to one end (p . 8 ) .
D eutsch (1966) r e p o r te d h i s f in d i n g s on com m unication and c o n f l i c t
a s b e in g :
The g r e a t e r th e c o m p e titiv e o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e p a r t i e s v i s - a - v i s ,
. . . , th e l e s s l i k e l y w i l l th e y be to u se su ch c h a n n e ls [o f
co n m u n ic a tio n ] a s do e x i s t .
Where b a r r i e r s to com m unication e x i s t , a s i t u a t i o n i n w hich
th e p a r t i e s a r e com pelled to comm unicate may b e more e f f e c t i v e
th a n one i n w hich t h e c h o ic e to t a l k o r n o t i s v o lu n ta r y (p . 4 0 ).
K e ltn e r (1973) d is c u s s e d two ty p e s o f c o m p e titio n and e x p la in e d th e
d i f f e r e n c e s a s b e in g t h a t i n some s i t u a t i o n s p l a y e r s can s h a re th e
r e w a rd s , e i t h e r e q u a lly o r i n some p r o p o r tio n to t h e i r r e l a t i v e a ch iev em en t
w h ile i n o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s o n ly one team o r one p la y e r g e ts th e rew ard o f
w in n in g .
He f u r t h e r d e fin e d th e s e ty p e s o f c o m p e titio n a s , " s tr u g g le s
s u rro u n d e d by r u l e s and p ro c e d u re s t h a t c o n tr o l th e b e h a v io r o f p a r ­
tic ip a n ts .
W hile i n b o th c a s e s t h e i n d iv i d u a ls a r e co m p etin g , th e y a r e
a ls o c o o p e r a tin g ; t h a t i s , th e y a r e j o i n t l y m a in ta in in g c e r t a i n e n fo rc e d
decorum i n th e co n d u ct o f t h e game.
P e n a litie s fo r in fr a c tio n s o f ru le s
o f t h e game a r e a p p lie d e q u a ll y to a l l p a r t i c i p a n t s (p . 2 2 2 ) ."
T hus, a
c o m p e tito r e i t h e r w ins o r l o s e s i n a game i n w hich t h e outcom e p e rm its
him o r h e r to p ic k up t h e c h a lle n g e a g a in and a g a in .
Three k in d s o f o r i e n t a t i o n h av e been d e s c r ib e d by Sereno and Bodaken
(1975)
i n com m unication r e s e a r c h : c o o p e r a tiv e , c o m p e titiv e , and i n d i v i ­
d u a lis tic .
For th e p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y o n ly t h e c o o p e ra tiv e and
c o m p e titiv e o r ie n t a t i o n s w i l l be d is c u s s e d .
The a u th o r s d e fin e d a
c o o p e ra tiv e o r i e n t a t i o n a s o n e , "w hich was f o s t e r e d by a s i t u a t i o n i n w hich
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f th e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
9
b o th p e rs o n s re c o g n iz e d t h a t e a ch h ad so m eth in g to g a in o r w in i f th e y
worked w ith , r a t h e r th a n a g a i n s t , one a n o th e r (p . 1 9 3 ) ."
A c o m p e titiv e o r i e n t a t i o n was d e fin e d a s o n e , " i n w hich each
i n d iv i d u a l e x p e rie n c e d e i t h e r c o m p le te v i c t o r y o r t o t a l l o s s .
U n less h e
p r e f e r r e d to l o s e l e s s th a n e v e r y t h in g , he had no re a s o n o r d e s i r e to
c o o p e ra te (p . 1 9 3 ) ."
R e se a rc h by t h e s e a u th o r s s u g g e s te d t h a t m u tu a l t r u s t was m ost
l i k e l y to o c c u r u n d e r c o o p e r a tiv e o r i e n t a t i o n an d l e a s t l i k e l y to o c c u r
g iv en c o m p e titiv e o r i e n t a t i o n s .
C o m p e titio n in v o lv e s w in n in g and l o s i n g .
Brooks and Emmert (1976)
d is c u s s e d c o m p e titio n a s fo llo w s :
In c o m p e titio n t h e r e i s a commitment to w in n in g th e p r iz e a t
th e e x p e n se o f th e o p p o n e n t, w h ereas i n c o n tr o v e rs y ea ch p a r t y
w i l l be h a p p ie r i f th e s o u rc e o f c o n tr o v e rs y ( th e d isa g re e m e n t,
m is u n d e rs ta n d in g , m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f f a c t s , e t c . ) can be
removed so t h a t th e y may c o o p e ra te r a t h e r th a n com pete. A lthough
t h e r e i s a s tr o n g m o tiv a tio n i n c o m p e titio n , i t s to p s s h o r t o f
d e s tr u c ti o n o f t h e p a r t y to t h e c o n f l i c t . W inning th e g o a l
i s enough. One does n o t n eed to d e s tr o y h i s o p p o n e n t. Many
games e x i s t to f u l f i l l t h e f u n c t i o n s o f c o n ç e t i ti o n an d , un­
d o u b te d ly , c o m p e titio n and c o n tr o v e rs y p la y im p o rta n t r o le s
i n th e grow th o f p e r s o n s , g ro u p s, o r s o c i e t i e s (p . 2 3 3 ).
A r e c e n t w r i t e r , D eV ito (1976) d is c u s s e d c o m p e titiv e n e s s e x te n s i v e l y
i n h i s t e x t . The I n t e r p e r s o n a l Com munication Book.
The t e x t r e s u l t e d from
h i s l i s t e n i n g to w hat a s tu d e n t knows and w hat a s tu d e n t does n o t know;
w hat a s tu d e n t w ants o u t o f c o ll e g e ; a n d , w hat a s tu d e n t n e e d s to f u n c tio n
e f f e c t i v e l y now and i n t h e f u t u r e .
o c c u rr e d .
H is f in d i n g s e x p la in e d when c o m p e titio n
For exam ple, t h e r e was c o m p e titio n when t h e r e were few rew ard s
to go around o r when t h e r e was o n ly one rew ard and a number o f d i f f e r e n t
p e o p le w anted i t .
T here was c o m p e titio n when p e o p le a tte m p te d to p ro v e
t h a t th e y w ere b e t t e r a t so m e th in g th a n t h e o t h e r p e rs o n .
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f th e c o p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .
10
DeV ito h a s a ls o e x p la in e d w hat r e s u l t s b e c a u s e o f c o m p e titio n :
C o m p e titio n i n f l u e n c e s and ch an g es t h e a t t i t u d e s o f th e
p a r t i c i p a n t s , g e n e r a l ly in a n e g a ti v e d i r e c t i o n . W hile
c o m peting, th e in d iv i d u a ls o f te n d e v e lo p n e g a tiv e f e e l i n g s
w hich a llo w s f o r t h e m o b iliz a tio n o f e n e rg y and p e rh a p s
h e lp s i n s ti m u l a ti n g t h a t e x t r a e f f o r t n e c e s s a r y to w in
t h e game. Sometimes t h i s n e g a ti v e f e e l i n g i s lo n g l a s t i n g
and som etim es i t i s o n ly tem p o rary (p . 3 8 1 -3 8 2 ).
DeV ito c o n tin u e s by s a y in g t h a t s o c ie t y h a s t a u g h t t h a t c o m p e titio n
was alw ays p o s i t i v e .
P a r e n ts and t e a c h e r s t a u g h t t h a t c o m p e titio n was
h e a lth y and t h a t i t i s what made t h i s c o u n tr y g r e a t .
" T h a t may b e .
c o m p e titio n .
DeVito s t a t e s ,
But we sh o u ld n o t i g n o re t h e n e g a ti v e c o n seq u en ces o f
C o m p e titio n r e s u l t s i n a trem en d o u s w a s te o f en e rg y and
tim e (p . 3 8 2 ) ."
C o m p e titio n n e c e s s i t a t e s t h a t t h e r e w i l l be a l o s e r and
s in c e no one w ants to l o s e , f e a r and a n x ie t y may r e s u l t f o r th e w o u ld -b e
c o m p e tito r .
The a c tu a l l o s e r may e x p e rie n c e p u n ish m en t o f some s o r t , n o t
g e t t i n g t h e rew ard o r l o s i n g so m eth in g im p o r ta n t su c h a s i n a jo b c u tb a c k .
D eVito c oncluded h i s s tu d y by g iv in g an i n t e r e s t i n g co m p ariso n w hich
f o llo w s :
D epending on o u r sy ste m o f v a lu e s and a t t i t u d e s , c o m p e titio n may
i n c r e a s e p o s it iv e n e s s f o r o u r s e lv e s and f o r t h e a c t u a l c o m p e titiv e
s i t u a t i o n . On th e o t h e r h an d , i t may d e c re a s e p o s it iv e n e s s f o r
o u r s e l v e s , o u r o p p o n e n t, and f o r t h e c o m p e titiv e s i t u a t i o n
g e n e r a l ly (p . 383).
T ru st
T h is s e c t i o n re v ie w s t h e l i t e r a t u r e on t r u s t and r e v e a l s t h a t th e
c o n c e p t o f t r u s t i s q u i te new to r e s e a r c h e r s .
B ecau se o f t h i s , some o f
th e l i t e r a t u r e review ed i n t h i s s e c t i o n w i l l i n c lu d e s tu d i e s t h a t u sed
th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game.
The f i n a l s e c t i o n o f C h a p te r I I w i l l in c lu d e
a rev ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y to t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma
game and t r u s t .
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n of th e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
11
D eu tsch (1958) d a im s to have b een t h e f i r s t t o i n v e s t i g a t e e x p e r i ­
m e n ta lly th e phenomenon o f t r u s t .
In s e a r c h in g th ro u g h in d e x e s o f p r e v io u s
te x tb o o k s i n s o c i a l psy c h o lo g y ( e . g . , t e x t s
by C a rtw rig h t and Z a n d e r,
Homans, D rech and C r u t c h f i e l d , L e v in , L in d s e y ,
n o t f in d th e word " t r u s t . "
H is c o n c ern was
way " a s to c a p tu r e some o f th e c o n n o ta tio n s
Newcomb) D eu tsch co u ld
t o d e f in e " t r u s t " i n su ch a
o f ev ery d ay u sa g e and a ls o
p e rm it e x p e rim e n ta l r e s e a r c h on c o n d itio n s a f f e c t i n g t r u s t (p . 2 6 6 ) ."
D eutsch (1958) chose a v a r i a t i o n o f t h e P r i s o n e r ’ s Dilemma game
f o r s u b je c t s who were a l l c o lle g e s tu d e n t s who knew w hat t h e s i t u a t i o n
was and u n d e rs to o d th e i m p l ic a ti o n s o f any co m b in a tio n o f c h o ic e s t h a t th e y
and th e o t h e r p e rs o n s m ight make.
The s tu d y co n c ern e d i t s e l f w ith th e
e f f e c t s o f p e rc e iv e d i n t e n t i o n s upon th e d evelopm ent o f t r u s t o r
s u s p ic i o n .
The r e s u l t s o f th e s tu d y (D e u tsc h , 1958) s u p p o rte d th e h y p o th e s is
A c o o p e ra tio n o r i e n t a t i o n w i l l p ro d u ce t r u s t i n g ( tr u s tw o rth y )
b e h a v io r even when t h e s i t u a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s do n o t e n c o u ra g e
i t — e . g . , when no com m unication i s p e rm itte d and when one
h a s to choose w ith o u t know ledge o f t h e o t h e r p e r s o n ’ s c h o ic e ,
On th e o t h e r h a n d , even when s i t u a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s a r e
e n c o u ra g in g , a c o m p e titiv e o r i e n t a t i o n w i l l r e s u l t i n s u s p ic io u s
a n d /o r u n tru s tw o r th y b e h a v io r r a t h e r th a n t r u s t and t r u s t w o r t h i ­
n e s s (p. 2 72).
R apoport (1964) d e fin e d t h e t r u s t v a r i a b l e a s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f
re sp o n d in g c o o p e r a tiv e ly a f t e r b o th p la y e r s had resp o n d ed c o m p e titiv e ly
when p la y in g th e P r i s o n e r ’ s Dilemma game.
Loomis (1959) and D eu tsch
(1958, 1960) have shown t h a t s u b je c t s m ust e x h i b i t m u tu a l t r u s t to
c o o p e ra te i n th e P r is o n e r ’ s Dilemma games and t h a t t h i s i s f a c i l i t a t e d by
com m unication (which w i l l b e d is c u s s e d l a t e r u n d e r t h e h e a d in g o f t h e
E f f e c t s o f Com m unication).
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f th e c o p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
12
Evans (1964) found t h a t i f a p ro m iso r f u l f i l l e d an u n e n fo r c a b le
p ro m ise more t r u s t was g e n e ra te d i n th e o t h e r p e rs o n th a n i f no p ro m ise
was made.
R o th w e ll and C o s tig a n (1975) d is c u s s e d t r u s t a s b e in g a v i t a l p a r t
to any h e a lt h y i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p .
r e la tio n s h ip w i l l d is s o lv e .
W ithout t r u s t th e y b e li e v e a
T r u s t i n d ic a te d a s h a re d c o n fid e n c e and
s e c u r i t y b etw een th e p e o p le in v o lv e d .
The a u th o r s f u r t h e r i n d ic a te d ,
" t h a t t r u s t opens t h e do o r f o r s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e , and a p p r o p r i a t e s e l f ­
d i s c l o s u r e i s an im p o r ta n t q u a l i t y in r e d u c in g i n te r p e r s o n a l b a r r i e r s
(p . 2 3 6 ) ."
T r u s t, a c c o r d in g to DeV ito (1976) i s a b e h a v io r t h a t i s le a r n e d .
Because of v a r io u s p r e v io u s e x p e rie n c e s p e o p le l e a m to t r u s t o r d i s t r u s t .
I f t r u s t i n g h a s been rew a rd e d , th e n t r u s t i s more a p t to ta k e p la c e on
f u tu r e o c c a s io n s .
th e t r u s t f a c t .
The a tm o sp h ere su rro u n d in g a s i t u a t i o n a ls o i n f l u e n c e s
T r u s tin g b e h a v io r w i l l le a d to a d e c re a s e i n a n x ie ty .
When t h e r e i s t r u s t i n a n o th e r i n d iv i d u a l t h e r e i s l i t t l e re a s o n to be
a n x io u s .
O penness i s i n c r e a s e d by a t r u s t i n g b e h a v io r which th e n p r o v id e s
f o r a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i n d iv i d u a ls w hich becomes s u p p o r tiv e .
D eV ito
c o n c lu d e s h i s s tu d y by s a y in g t h a t , " t r u s t i n o t h e r s w i l l in c r e a s e i f we
f i r s t h ave t r u s t i n o u r s e l v e s .
I f we do n o t c o n s id e r o u r s e lv e s w o rth y o f
t r u s t , we w ould be much l e s s l i k e l y to p u t o u r t r u s t i n o t h e r s (p . 4 0 9 ) ."
G i f f i n and P a tto n (1976) d e fin e d t r u s t i n g b e h a v io r i n th e com m unication
p r o c e s s a s , " r e l i a n c e upon com m unication b e h a v io r (sp e a k in g a n d /o r
l i s t e n i n g ) o f a p e rs o n w h ile you a r e a tte m p tin g to a c h ie v e a d e s ir e d b u t
u n c e r t a in o b j e c t iv e in a r is k y s i t u a t i o n (p . 2 1 7 ) ."
V a rio u s e le m e n ts i n t h e com m unication p r o c e s s i n f lu e n c e t r u s t .
G i f f i n and P a tto n (1976) g iv e exam ples such a s , t r u s t o f a p e rs o n i s
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f th e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
13
I n flu e n c e d by h i s o r h e r r e l i a b i l i t y a s p e rc e iv e d by o t h e r s o r th e d e g re e
o f t r u s t one h a s f o r a n o th e r p e rs o n a s w e ll a s t h e r e s u l t s o f th e
in te r a c tio n .
"The r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een th e s e v a r i a b l e s i s r e f l e x i v e , "
s t a t e s G i f f i n and P a tto n , " a s t r u s t i n c r e a s e s , c e r t a i n i n t e r a c t i o n p a t t e r n s
c hange; and i n t u r n , t h e i r ch ange te n d s to i n c r e a s e t h e d e g re e o f i n t e r ­
p e rs o n a l t r u s t (p. 2 1 8 ) ."
A nother v a r i a b le i n i n c r e a s i n g a p e r s o n 's t r u s t o f o t h e r s i s th e
b e h a v io r o f th o s e o t h e r s .
M i l l e r and S te in b e r g (1975) w r i te a b o u t t r u s t
b e in g grounded i n a b e h a v io r a l f o u n d a tio n and from t h i s c o n te x t s a y ,
"we t r u s t someone when we b e li e v e t h e r e i s a h ig h p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t he
w i l l p e rfo rm , t ru s tw o r th y b e h a v io r s (p . 2 5 2 ) ."
One ele m e n t t h a t m ust be p r e s e n t f o r t r u s t to e x i s t a c c o rd in g to
Sereno and Bodaken (1975) i s t h e id e a o f p r e d i c t a b i l i t y .
C e r ta in
p r e d i c ta b l e b e h a v io rs can be c o u n te d on by t h e p e rs o n one t r u s t s and when
t h i s p r e d i c ti o n doesn* t o c c u r, t h e p e rs o n who t r u s t s w i l l a p p a re n tly
s u f f e r o r l o s e o u t.
P o s i t i v e e x p e c t a ti o n s c o n tr i b u te to th e e s ta b lis h m e n t
o f m utual t r u s t when p r e s e n t i n b o th co m m u n icato rs.
S eren o and Bodaken
s t a t e , " i f a p e rs o n e x p e c ts o t h e r s to l i k e him o r h e r , th e n t h i s p e rs o n
i s l i k e l y to r e c i p r o c a t e t h i s l i k i n g and r e s p e c t and a c c e p ta n c e (p . 1 9 3 ) ."
In exam ining G i f f i n 's d e f i n i t i o n o f t r u s t (1969) a s " r e l i a n c e upon
t h e b e h a v io r o f a p e rs o n i n o r d e r to a c h ie v e a d e s ir e d o b j e c t iv e , th e
achievem ent o f w hich i s u n c e r t a in i n a r is k y s i t u a t i o n , " Brooks and Emmert
(1976)
s t a t e t h a t t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t f o u r b a s ic e le m e n ts i n t r u s t i n g
b e h a v io r .
They a re :
(1) There i s a r i s k in v o lv e d . You a r e in a s i t u a t i o n in which
th e b e h a v io r o f t h e o t h e r p e rs o n can h e lp you o r h u r t you i n
term s o f your n e e d s and g o a ls . One r u n s t h a t r i s k when he
t r u s t s a n o th e r . C o n v e rs e ly , i f t h e r e i s no r i s k in v o lv e d .
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f th e c o p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
t r u s t i s u n n e c e s s a ry . I f one o p e r a te s on t h e p r i n c i p l e o f
" p la y in g i t s a fe " and n e v e r ru n n in g a r i s k , th e n t h a t p e rs o n
n e v e r e x p e rie n c e s t r u s t .
(2) A t r u s t i n g p e rs o n r e a l i z e s
t h a t i t i s th e f u tu r e b e h a v io r o f th e o t h e r p e rs o n t h a t
d e te rm in e s w h eth er h e , th e t r u s t i n g p e rs o n , w i l l be harmed
o r h e lp e d ; (3) A t r u s t i n g p e rs o n re c o g n iz e s t h a t any l o s s
i n c u r r e d a s a r e s u l t o f m is p la c e d t r u s t w i l l o u tw eig h any
g a in t h a t can come a s th e r e s u l t o f a t r u s t f u l f i l l e d ;
(4) The t r u s t i n g p e rs o n i s c o n f id e n t t h a t t h e o t h e r p e rs o n
w i l l behave in such a way t h a t b e n e f i c i a l c o n seq u en ces
w i l l r e s u l t (pp. 18 4 -1 8 5 ).
E f f e c t s o f Com munication
T ru s t and c o o p e ra tio n w i l l be u sed in te r c h a n g e a b ly th ro u g h o u t
t h i s s tu d y .
T h is p a r t i c u l a r s e c t i o n o f t h e re v ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e w i l l
rev ie w t h e co n c ep t o f t r u s t i n r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e e f f e c t s o f com m unication
w hich d e v e lo p o r d e s tr o y t r u s t .
Loomis (1959) i n h i s s tu d y on th e u s e o f com m unication i n t h e
developm ent o f t r u s t s u g g e s ts t h a t n o t o n ly m ust i n d iv i d u a ls be aw are o f
t h e i r own r o l e i n t h e c o o p e ra tiv e r e l a t i o n s h i p , b u t m ust know th e
o t h e r p e r s o n 's r o le and be a s s u r e d t h a t t h e o t h e r p e r s o n 's th in k in g i s
s i m i l a r to h i s o r h e r own b e f o r e t h e r e w i l l be any b a s i s f o r c o o p e ra tio n .
I n d iv i d u a ls w i l l th e n have to depend f o r t h e s e a w a re n e sse s on com m unication
betw een him o r h e r s e l f and th e o t h e r p e rs o n .
R e s u lts o f Loom is' s tu d y in d ic a te d t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f e s t a b l i s h ­
in g p e rc e iv e d m utual t r u s t in c r e a s e d w ith t h e in c r e a s e i n com m unication
a b o u t t h e game r e l a t i o n s h i p .
A seco n d f in d i n g showed t h a t t h e p e rc e iv e d
t r u s t in c r e a s e d as com m unication in c r e a s e d from a m inim al k in d o f n o te
s t a t i n g o n ly th e w r i t e r 's e x p e c t a ti o n to t h e n o te t h a t c o n ta in e d t h e
com plete s ta te m e n t o f t h e game r e l a t i o n s h i p .
S c o d e l, M inas, R atoosh and L ip e tz (1959) found t h a t j o i n t
c o o p e ra tiv e re s p o n s e s r e s u l t e d b e c a u s e o f com m unication b u t n o te d t h a t j u s t
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n of th e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
15
c o m p e titiv e r e s p o n s e s s t i l l p red o m in ate d .
B e rio (1960) d is c u s s e d com m unication e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p to
th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e m essag e.
H is s tu d i e s showed t h a t p e o p le d e c id e d
to p e rfo rm t h o s e b e h a v io r s t h a t th e y e x p e c t to b e "w o rth t h e e f f o r t . "
The
a u th o r s t a t e s , "com m unication e f f e c t i v n e s s can be in c r e a s e d i n one o r
b o th o f two w ays:
i n c r e a s i n g rew ard o r re d u c in g e n e rg y (p . 9 8 ) ."
T h is r e s e a r c h o f B e rio im p lie s t h a t t h e g r e a t e r th e rew ard an
in d iv i d u a l p e r c e iv e s i n m aking a r e s p o n s e , th e more e n e rg y he o r sh e w i l l
expend to make th e re s p o n s e .
S c h e llin g (1960) d e v e lo p e d a th e o r y i n t a c i t com m unication i n
games.
T a c it com m unication i s d e fin e d a s com m unication w ith o u t w ords o r
speech.
He c o n te n d s t h a t i t i s p o s s ib l e f o r one s u b je c t to i n f lu e n c e
a n o th e r by h i s o r h e r a c ti o n s r a t h e r th a n words when open and d i r e c t
com m unication i s n o t a v a i l a b l e .
Gahagan and T e d e sch i (1967) a p p ly t h i s
th e o r y to th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game and e x p la in t h a t one p l a y e r can
a tte m p t to i n f l u e n c e t h e o t h e r 's s t r a t e g y c h o ic e s by h i s o r h e r own c h o ic e .
I f t h e o t h e r s u b je c t c a n n o t i n t e r p r e t th e s e re s p o n s e s c l e a r l y , no communi­
c a ti o n i s p o s s ib l e and th e r e b y no p re p la n n e d i n f lu e n c e i s l i k e l y to
Loomis (1959) o b ta in e d s i m i l a r f in d in g s m aking i t c l e a r t h a t
e x p l i c i t com m unication f a v o re d c o o p e ra tio n when th e s u b je c t s w ere
o p e r a t in g u n d e r i n s t r u c t i o n s to m axim ize t h e amount o f im a g in a ry money
won r e g a r d le s s o f t h e o t h e r 's l o s s e s o r w in n in g s.
H is s tu d y a ls o found t h a t many o f t h e s u b je c t s p la c e d i n a
c o m p e titiv e c o n d itio n chose n o t to comm unicate and i f th e y d id th e y t r i e d
to m is le a d t h e i r o p p o n e n ts .
The s tu d y o f Gahagan and T e d e sch i (1967) w hich i n v e s t ig a t e d t h e
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n of th e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
16
s t r a t e g y and th e c r e d i b i l i t y o f p ro m ises i n d ic a te d t h a t t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f
p ro m ises a f f e c te d t h e b e h a v io r o f s u b je c t s on t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e fin e d
" t r u s t " v a r i a b l e so t h a t when " t r u s t i n g " b e h a v io r d im in is h e d so d id
c r e d i b i l i t y d im in is h .
T erhune (1968) co n c lu d e d t h a t , " th e p r e v e n tio n o f com m unication
i n h i b i t s t h e developm ent o f c o o p e ra tio n and m in im izes m o tiv a tio n
d iffe re n c e s ,
m e n no com m unication i s p o s s i b l e , d e fe n s iv e n e s s and
c o m p e titiv e n e s s i s h e ig h te n e d i n a l l m o tiv e g ro u p s (pp. 1 8 - 1 9 ),"
The s tu d y o f T erhune s u g g e s te d t h a t com m unication a llo w e d f o r th e
s u b je c t s to e x p re s s g r e a t e r freed o m i n e x p re s s in g t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s , c o o rd i­
n a ti n g t h e i r f u tu r e a c ti o n s and u s in g t h e i r m essages f o r d e c e p tio n .
He
found t h a t th e s u b je c t s i n h i s s tu d y u sed t h e com m unication m essage m ain ly
to red u c e a m b ig u ity o f i n t e n t i o n s and e x p e c t a ti o n s .
I t sh o u ld be n o te d t h a t com m unication d oes n o t n e c e s s a r i l y in c r e a s e
t r u s t o r c o o p e ra tiv e n e s s .
Com munication p ro v id e s th e o p p o r tu n ity f o r
c o o p e ra tio n a c c o rd in g to T erhune (1968) b u t t h a t o p p o r tu n ity may b e used
by t h e p e rs o n r e c e i v in g th e co m m u n icatio n , m isu n d e rs to o d o r i n t e r p r e t e d
i n c o r r e c t l y o r used t o d e c e iv e t h e o t h e r p e rs o n .
The s t u d i j ï s .o f P i l i s u k and S k o ln ic k (1968) showed t h a t when
i n t e n t i o n s were com m unicated w ith i n t e g r i t y , i n c r e a s e s i n c o o p e ra tiv e
b e h a v io r fo llo w e d ; b u t when one p e rs o n was d e c e p tiv e , t h e r e was a d e c re a s e
i n t r u s t and
c o o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io r .
n e c essa ry i f
t r u s t b etw een p e rs o n s i s to be
P e a rc e
H onesty and a c c u ra c y seem to be
in c re a se d .
(1974) d is c u s s e d th e c o g n it i v e s t a t e o f t r u s t a s one i n w hich
a p e rs o n who t r u s t e d a n o th e r e x p e c ts him o r
h e r to av o id
th o s e b e h a v io
w hich r e s u l t e d i n th e t r u s t i n g p e r s o n 's r e c e i v in g an u n a c c e p ta b ly n e g a tiv e
outcom e.
The t r u s t e d p e rs o n a c c o r d in g to P e a rc e , "m ust know th e n a tu r e
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n of th e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
o f t h e c o n tin g e n c y betw een h im s e lf and t h e o t h e r i f h e i s to behave
a p p r o p r i a t e ly (p . 2 4 2 ) ."
The a u th o r f u r t h e r d is c u s s e d t r u s t i n g b e h a v io r s a s b e in g th o s e
w hich i n c r e a s e d th e v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f one p e rs o n to th e o t h e r .
A b e h a v io r
c i t e d was o f i n t e r p r e t i n g ambiguous m essages a s i f th e y w ere tr u s t w o r th y .
H is exam ple fo llo w s :
C o n sid e r a p e rs o n who i s s u r p r i s e d a t w hat a n o th e r s a id i n a
s p e c i f i c c o n te x t. I f he t r u s t s th e o t h e r , he m ig h t re sp o n d
by t h in k i n g , " I c e r t a i n l y don’ t u n d e rs ta n d why he s a id t h a t
b u t I w i l l assume t h a t he had a good r e a s o n " (p p . 3 4 2 -3 4 3 ).
T h is ty p e o f t r u s t i n g b e h a v io r i n d ic a te d t h a t com m unication in c r e a s e d
t h e p e r s o n ’ s v u l n e r a b i l i t y to t h e o t h e r p e rs o n in v o lv e d .
R e se a rc h by P a tto n and G i f f i n (1974) s u p p o rte d t h e c o n c lu s io n s t h a t
t r u s t i s e s s e n t i a l i n o r d e r to have a r e c i p r o c a l form o f com m unication
ta k i n g p l a c e .
They i l l u s t r a t e t h i s by s t a t i n g :
T r u s t b o th in f l u e n c e s and i s in f lu e n c e d by v a r i o u s e le m e n ts i n
th e com m unication p r o c e s s . For exam p le, o u r t r u s t o f a
p e rs o n i s in flu e n c e d by h i s / h e r r e l i a b i l i t y a s we p e r c e iv e i t .
On t h e o t h e r hand, th e d e g re e o f t r u s t we hav e f o r t h i s p e rs o n
in f l u e n c e s th e com m unication b e h a v io r o f b o th o f u s a s w e ll a s
th e r e s u l t s o f o u r i n t e r a c t i o n . The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een
th e s e v a r i a b l e s i s r e f l e x i v e — a s t r u s t i n c r e a s e s , c e r t a i n i n t e r ­
a c ti o n p a t t e r n s change; and i n t u r n , t h e i r change te n d s to
i n c r e a s e th e d e g re e o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l t r u s t (p . 4 4 4 ).
A b a s is f o r t r u s t i s e s t a b l i s h e d th ro u g h com m unication a s d e s c r ib e d
by D o o l i t t l e (1976) and p e o p le c o n tin u e to t e s t t h e l e v e l and l i m i t s o f
th a t tr u s tin g o f o th e rs .
He f u r t h e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t i f , "we m i s t r u s t th e
m o tiv e s o f o t h e r s o r i f t h e l e v e l o f o u r t r u s t does n o t p e rm it u s to go
a lo n g w ith t h e demands and w ish e s o f o t h e r s , c o n f l i c t s w i l l o c c u r (p . 1 5 ) ."
P r i s o n e r ’ s Dilemma Game
The P r i s o n e r ’ s Dilemma game was t h e in s tr u m e n t u se d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f th e c o p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
18
s tu d y .
T h is s e c t i o n o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e e x p la in s and d e f in e s th e
P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game i n r e l a t i o n s h i p to i t s u se f o r t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y .
D eutsch (1958) d e v is e d a m ethod f o r s tu d y in g t r u s t and what he
c o n s id e re d i t s o p p o s ite , s u s p ic i o n , by o b s e rv in g t h e way i n d iv i d u a ls
p la y e d m a tr ix games.
I f an i n d iv i d u a l e x p e c ts a n o th e r to be t r u s t w o r th y ,
he o r she engages i n " b e h a v io r w hich he p e r c e iv e s to have g r e a t e r n e g a ti v e
m o ti v a ti o n a l co n seq u en ces i f t h e e x p e c t a ti o n i s n o t c o n firm ed th a n
p o s i t i v e m o ti v a ti o n a l co n seq u en ces i f i t i s c o n firm e d ."
" S u s p ic io u s
p e r s o n s ," D eutsch goes on to s a y , " e x p e c t t h e o t h e r to be u n tru s tw o r th y
and s e l e c t b e h a v io r in w hich l e s s i s l o s t i f t h e o t h e r beh av es a s e x p e c te d
th a n i f he does n o t (p . 2 6 7 ) ."
The P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game, by a p a r t i c u l a r m a tr ix o f v a lu e s
m eets th e r e q u ire m e n ts o f t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s .
I t i s n e c e s s a r y to d i f f e r e n t i a t e betw een t h e c o g n itiv e s t a t e o f
t r u s t and t r u s t i n g b e h a v io r s .
P e a rc e (1974) c o n te n d s t h a t t h e c o g n it i v e
s t a t e o f t r u s t i n d i c a t e s t h a t a p e rs o n who t r u s t s a n o th e r e x p e c ts t h a t
p e rs o n t o a v o id b e h a v io r s w hich w i l l r e s u l t i n th e t r u s t i n g p e r s o n 's
r e c e i v in g an u n a c c e p ta b le n e g a ti v e outcom e.
T r u s tin g b e h a v io r s a r e d e fin e d by P e a rc e (1974) a s th o s e w hich
in c r e a s e t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f th e p e rs o n to t h e o t h e r .
Some exam ples
g iv e n a r e :
1.
I n t e r p r e t i n g am biguous m essag es a s i f th e y a r e t r u s tw o r th y .
2.
D e l ib e r a te l y c o n s tr u c ti n g s i t u a t i o n s i n w hich th e o th e r p e rs o n
m ust choose betw een b e h a v io r w hich c o n fe r s s a t i s f a c t o r y o u t­
comes o r w hich c o n fe r s e x tre m e ly p o s i t i v e outcom es on h i m / h e r s e lf
b u t n e g a tiv e outcom es on t h e t r u s t i n g p e rs o n .
3.
Com munication w hich i n c r e a s e s a p e r s o n 's v u l n e r a b i l i t y to o t h e r s .
R e p r o d u c e d w ith p e r m is s io n o f th e c o p y rig h t o w n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ite d w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .
19
The P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game p r o v id e s f o r th e s e ty p e s o f s i t u a t i o n s
and a ls o r e l a t e s to t h e s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t o c c u r i n s o c ie t y i n w hich
p e rs o n s m ust choose w hat th e y w i l l d i s c l o s e a b o u t th e m s e lv e s .
For
exam ple, a p e rs o n may choose to d i s c l o s e some s i g n i f i c a n t th in g s a b o u t
him o r h e r s e l f and th e n f in d t h a t t h i s o t h e r p e rs o n u s e s t h i s a s an
o p p o r tu n ity to e x p l o i t o r r i d i c u l e , o r h e o r sh e may r e c i p r o c a t e th e
d i s c l o s u r e by making p o s s i b l e t h e b u i ld i n g o f a c a r in g and h e lp in g
re la tio n s h ip .
A p e rs o n h a s d e m o n stra te d t r u s t when h e o r sh e r e f u s e s to
e x p l o i t th e one p e rfo rm in g t h e t r u s t i n g b e h a v io r .
The P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma i s an exam ple o f a n o n -ze ro -su m game
a t t r i b u t e d to A. W. T ucker and h a s r e c e iv e d c o n s id e r a b le a t t e n t i o n by game
th e o rists .
The m ost p o p u la r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n g iv en by Luce and R a if f a (1957)
o f t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma i s :
Two s u s p e c ts a r e ta k e n i n t o c u sto d y and s e p a r a te d . The d i s t r i c t
a tt o r n e y i s c e r t a i n t h a t th e y a r e g u i l t y o f a s p e c i f i c crim e
b u t he does n o t have a d e q u a te e v id e n c e to c o n v ic t them a t a
t r i a l . He p o i n ts o u t to e ach p r is o n e r t h a t e a ch h a s two
a l t e r n a t i v e s : to c o n fe s s to t h e c rim e th e p o l ic e a r e s u re th e y
have done, o r n o t to c o n fe s s .
I f th e y b o th do n o t c o n fe s s ,
th e n th e d i s t r i c t a t t o r n e y s t a t e s he w i l l book them on some v e ry
m inor trum ped-up c h a rg e su ch a s p e t t y la r c e n y and i l l e g a l
p o s s e s s io n o f a weapon, and th e y w i l l b o th r e c e i v e m inor p u n ish ­
m ent; i f th e y b o th c o n fe s s th e y w i l l be p r o s e c u te d , b u t h e w i l l
recommend l e s s th a n t h e m ost s e v e r e s e n te n c e ; b u t i f one c o n fe s s e s
and t h e o t h e r does n o t , th e n t h e c o n fe s s o r w i l l r e c e i v e l e n i e n t
tre a tm e n t f o r t u r n i n g s t a t e ' s e v id e n c e w hereas th e l a t t e r w i l l
g e t " th e book" s la p p e d a t him (p . 9 5 ).
A mixed m otive game a s d e fin e d by G a llo and M cC lintock (1965) i s
one i n w hich i n d iv i d u a ls m ust ch o o se b etw een re s p o n s e s w hich a r e a s s u re d
to s e rv e d i f f e r e n t m o tiv e s .
The mixed m o tiv e game i s one i n which th e g o a ls
o f t h e p la y e r s a re p a r t i a l l y c o in c id e n t and p a r t i a l l y i n c o n f l i c t .
L o sses
to b o th r e s u l t when p l a y e r s a tte m p t to m axim ize t h e i r own s c o re s w ith o u t
re g a r d f o r t h e g a in s c o r e s i n o t h e r s .
The P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game i s
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
20
t h i s ty p e o f mixed m o tiv e game t h a t f u l f i l l s t h e p r e c e d in g r e q u ir e m e n ts .
In su c h a game, c o o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io r i s rew ard ed and c o m p e titiv e b e h a v io r
i s p u n ish e d ,
G a llo and M cC lintock (1965) i n t h e i r s tu d y o f c o o p e ra tiv e and
c o m p e titiv e b e h a v io r in m ixed -m o tiv e games, co n c lu d e d t h a t ;
— The p e rc e n ta g e o f c o o p e ra tiv e re s p o n s e s t h a t a r e o b ta in e d
in th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game te n d s t o be w e ll below 50
p e rc e n t and t h i s p e rc e n ta g e te n d s to d e c re a s e o v e r a
s e rie s of t r i a l s .
— P e o p le who d i f f e r on p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s b e lie v e d
a s s o c i a te d w ith t h e i r g e n e ra l i n t e r p e r s o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n
te n d to resp o n d d i f f e r e n t l y to t h e game.
— The s u b j e c t s 's r a t e o f c o o p e ra tiv e r e s p o n s e s i s a p p a r e n tly
n o t in flu e n c e d by n o n c o n tin g e n t c o o p e r a tiv e o r c o m p e titiv e
s t r a t e g i e s p la y e d a g a in s t him .
— And o p p o r tu n i ti e s f o r com m unication may, b u t ^do n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y , a m e lio r a te th e c o n f l i c t p r e s e n t i n th e
game (pp. 1 5 -1 6 ).
P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma Game— Sex D if f e r e n c e s
A rev ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e on s e x d i f f e r e n c e s i n g e n e ra l would be
e x h a u s tin g .
The l i t e r a t u r e in t h i s s e c t i o n w i l l be c o n c ern e d w ith a
l im it e d sam ple o f s tu d i e s w hich g iv e b ack g ro u n d to t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s tu d y .
These s tu d i e s w i l l fo cu s on s o c i a l r a t h e r th a n b i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g
c o m p e titio n and c o o p e ra tio n .
Oskamp (1965) i n a s tu d y o f h ig h ly in d u ce d c o o p e r a tio n , found t h a t
women gave s i g n i f i c a n t l y few er c o o p e r a tiv e re s p o n s e s th a n men w h ile
B ix e n s te in and W ilson (1963) found t h a t t h e r e was v a r i a t i o n in c o o p e ra tio n
o f t h e women s u b je c t s a c c o rd in g to e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d it i o n s .
Both s tu d i e s
u sed t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game.
The a u th o r s i n t e r p r e t e d t h e i r f in d i n g s to be t h a t p o s s ib l y women
te n d e d to be i n i t i a l l y more t r u s t i n g and t r u s tw o r th y b u t l e s s w i l l i n g to
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
21
f o r g iv e v i o l a t i o n o f t h e i r t r u s t .
A nother i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was t h a t m ale
s u b je c t s w ere more w i l l i n g t o ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f a n o t h e r 's u n c o n d itio n a l
c o o p e ra tio n and were more w i l l i n g to f o r g iv e su ch a v i o l a t i o n o f t r u s t
by a n o th e r man.
The s e x o f th e s u b je c t i n r e l a t i o n to c o o p e ra tio n and c o m p e titiv e n e s s
i s im p o rta n t a s shown by R ap o p o rt and Chammah (1 9 6 5 ).
T h e ir s u b je c t s w ere
r e c r u i t e d to p la y t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game f o r $1.35 p e r h o u r.
Sev en ty
m ale p a i r s , s e v e n ty fem ale p a i r s , and s e v e n ty m a le -fe m a le p a i r s p la y e d
th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma t h r e e hun d red tim e s in s u c c e s s io n .
R e s u lts o f t h e s tu d y showed t h a t men c o o p e ra te d more th a n women
when p la y in g t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game many tim e s i n s u c c e s s io n w ith
p a r t n e r s o f t h e i r own se x .
S in c e th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s em erged l a t e r i n th e
game R apoport and Chammah a t t r i b u t e d th e s e to th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n
e f f e c t s produced by t h e m o tiv a tio n s i n th e game.
There was l i t t l e o r
no d i s c e r n a b l e d i f f e r e n c e betw een m ales' and fem a le s' c o o p e ra tiv e c h o ic e s
when th e y p la y e d w ith p a r t n e r s o f t h e o p p o s ite s e x .
A f i n a l f a c t o r t h a t pro v ed m ost i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h i s s tu d y was t h e
" le v e lin g ” e f f e c t.
C o r r e l a ti o n i n d ic e s showed t h a t t h e r e was a te n d e n c y
f o r p a ir e d p l a y e r s to become l i k e each o t h e r .
The e f f e c t s o f th e i n t e r ­
a c ti o n d u r in g t h e c o u rs e o f p la y seemed to push p la y e r s i n th e d i r e c t i o n
o f more c o o p e ra tio n o r i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f l e s s c o o p e ra tio n .
W iley (1968) co n c lu d e d a f t e r a s u rv e y o f th e l i t e r a t u r e on se x
d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o m p e titio n and c o o p e ra tio n t h a t :
(1) Women a r e i n i t i a l l y more c o o p e r a tiv e , b u t (2) a r e more
p ro n e to r e t a l i a t i o n .
(3) Women a r e more s e n s i t i v e to
d i f f e r e n c e s of power and s t a t u s ( th e y r e a c t d e f e n s i v e l y , t h a t
when i n t e r a c t i n g w ith same and o p p o s ite s e x p a r t n e r s ) ; and
(5) women te n d to ta k e l e s s r i s k y c h o ic e w hich i s a ls o l e s s
c o o p e ra tiv e i n a s t r a i g h t P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game (p . 2 8 ).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
22
A b a r g a in in g game s i m i l a r to t h e P r i s o n e r ’ s Dilemma game was used
by W iley.
She fo c u s e d h e r r e s e a r c h on se x d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n t e r a c t i v e
s t r a t e g i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c o o p e ra tiv e b e a h v io r .
The s i t u a t i o n a l
p a ra m e te rs i n c lu d e d :
The e x te n t to w hich t h e o t h e r i s d ep e n d en t on t h e in d iv i d u a l
f o r h i s outcom es i n t h e s i t u a t i o n ; th e o t h e r ’s p a t t e r n o f
c o o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io r ; t h e d e g re e to w hich com m unication
betw een t h e p a r t i e s can ta k e p l a c e ; and t h e s e x c o m p o sitio n
o f th e dyad (p . 1 ) .
R e s u lts from h e r s tu d y t h a t r e l a t e d i r e c t l y to t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y
con c lu d e d t h a t s e x o f th e p a r t n e r d id n o t r e s u l t i n d i f f e r e n t i a l main
e f f e c t s and t h a t com m unication was found to in c r e a s e c o o p e ra tio n
r e g a r d le s s o f th e m easure u sed o r th e s i t u a t i o n a l c o n d itio n s .
The
p e r c e p tio n o f t h e p a r t n e r ’ s c o o p e ra tio n and t r u s t w o r th i n e s s was a ls o
a f f e c te d by com m unication.
G regovich (1968) ra n a s i m i l a r s tu d y to R apoport and Chammah’s .
H is d a ta show ed, " s u b je c ts o f m a le -fe m a le p a i r s c h o o sin g c o o p e ra tio n
more th a n b o th m ale-m ale and fe m a le -fe m a le p a i r s on each o f th e s i x
t r a i l - b l o c k s , and v e ry l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e was shown betw een m ale -fe m a le
groups on any o f t h e s i x t r a i l - b l o c k s
(p. 4 5 ) ."
A s te a d y r i s e in
c o o p e ra tiv e c h o ic e s o c c u rr e d i n a l l t h r e e g ro u p s.
V inacke (1969) i n h i s re v ie w o f t h e r e s e a r c h on th e P r i s o n e r ’s
Dilemma game r e g a r d in g s e x d i f f e r e n c e s r e p o r te d men a s b e in g more
c o o p e ra tiv e and women a s b e in g more c o m p e titiv e b u t h i s s tu d i e s s u g g e st
t h a t men w ere more e x p l o i t i v e and women more acco m o d atin g .
He e x p la in s
t h a t t h i s d is c r e p a n c y may hav e r e s u l t e d b e c a u s e women who w ere more
c o m p e titiv e i n th e games w ere a c t u a l l y n o t co m p e tin g , b u t c o o p e ra tin g
w ith t h e e x p e rim e n te r who p u t them i n a c o m p e titiv e s i t u a t i o n — to c o o p e ra te
th e y have to com pete.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
23
E x p e rim e n ta l r e s e a r c h by H a rw e ll and S c h m itt (1975) s u g g e ste d t h a t
i n g e n e ra l fem a le s a r e somewhat l e s s c o o p e r a tiv e th a n m ales and more
l i k e l y to a v o id s i t u a t i o n s t h a t e n t a i l e d r i s k .
The a u th o r s u sed a game
s i m i l a r to t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game i n t h a t t h e s u b je c t s had to p ush
b u tto n s i n m aking e i t h e r a c o m p e titiv e o r a c o o p e r a tiv e c h o ic e .
o f th e 12 p a i r s w hich showed n o n - c o o p e r a tio n w ere fe m a le .
Ten
U sing a
x^ ? < . 0 5 t e s t , th e a u th o r s found a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e .
P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma Game— C o m p e titiv e n e ss and T ru s t
T h is s e c t i o n rev ie w s o n ly th o s e s t u d i e s w hich r e l a t e d i r e c t l y to
th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game i n r e l a t i o n s h i p to c o m p e titiv e n e s s and t r u s t .
Ryan and L ak ie (1965) i n t h e i r s tu d y o f m o tiv a tio n had s u b je c t s
p e rfo rm i n b o th c o m p e titiv e and c o o p e r a tiv e s i t u a t i o n s .
They found t h a t
" s u b je c ts who were h ig h in need f o r a c h ie v e m e n t and low i n m a n ife s t
a n x ie ty perfo rm ed b e s t in th e c o m p e titiv e s i t u a t i o n w h ile th o s e who w ere
low i n need f o r achievem ent and h ig h i n m a n if e s t a n x ie ty p erfo rm ed b e s t
i n t h e c o o p e ra tiv e s i t u a t i o n (p . 3 4 4 ) ."
K om orita (1965), u s in g t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game, c o n d u cted two
r e l a t e d e x p e rim e n ts to t e s t th e h y p o th e s is t h a t i n d iv i d u a ls would
r e c i p r o c a t e c o o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io r by a s im u la te d p a r t n e r .
A ll s u b je c t s
w ere sc h e d u le d i n p a i r s o f t h e same se x f o r b o th e x p e rim e n ts .
The s tu d y
a tte m p te d to show t h a t a p e rs o n fa c e d w ith a c o o p e r a tiv e p a r t n e r w ould
show c o o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io r i n r e t u r n .
R e s u lts from t h e f i r s t e x p e rim e n t
r e v e a le d t h a t n e i t h e r m ales o r fem a le s w ere v e ry l i k e l y to r e c i p r o c a t e
c o o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io r .
M ales resp o n d ed c o m p e titiv e ly u n d e r a l l c o n d itio n s
and ig n o re d t h e re s p o n s e s o f t h e o t h e r p l a y e r .
The second e x p e rim e n t showed t h a t m ales w ere m ore c o o p e ra tiv e th a n
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
fem a le s and t h a t th e m o d ifie d i n s t r u c t i o n s , a s p r e d i c te d , in c r e a s e d th e
te n d e n c y to c o o p e ra te — th e i n i t i a l s e t o r o r i e n t a t i o n o f s u b je c t s p la y e d
a m ajor r o l e i n in d u c in g c o o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io r in t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma
game.
I t i s h ig h ly p o s s ib l e f o r s u b je c t s t o p e r c e iv e th e s i t u a t i o n a s
a game and t h a t th e p u rp o se i s to b e a t t h e o t h e r p l a y e r u n le s s s u b je c t s
have b een t o ld s p e c i f i c a l l y t h a t i t i s n o t .
The i n i t i a l c h o ic e may
a c c o u n t f o r th e s tr o n g c o m p e titiv e ten d e n c y shown by s u b je c t s i n t h i s
s tu d y .
Some q u e s tio n s may be r a i s e d a s to th e v a lu e o f th e P r i s o n e r 's
Dilemma w ith o u t th e u se o f some ty p e o f a rew ard sy ste m .
W rightsm an (1966)
c o n d u c te d a s tu d y , u s in g th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game, in w hich s u b je c t s
i n one game c o n d itio n w ere t o l d t h a t th e y c o u ld keep w h a te v er money
th e y won.
S u b je c ts i n t h e money c o n d itio n c o u ld r e c e i v e a s much a s $1 2 .0 0
f o r 30 m in u te s ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
The p u rp o se o f t h e s tu d y was t o d e te rm in e
w h e th e r th e e x p e c ta tio n o f w in n in g r e a l money v e rs u s p la y in g f o r
im a g in ary money i n f l u e n c e s t h e fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t i n g and tr u s tw o r th y
b e h a v io r s in a two p e rs o n n o n -ze ro -su m game.
R e s u lts o f t h i s e x p e rim e n t seemed to c o n firm E v an s'
(1964)
c o n c lu s io n t h a t th e s i z e o f rew ard h a s l i t t l e e f f e c t on th e s u b j e c t 's
game b e h a v io r .
W rightsm an found t h a t th e fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t i n g b e h a v io r
was n o t g r e a t l y in flu e n c e d by p la y in g f o r r e a l v e rs u s im a g in ary money.
Jo n e s and G erard (1967) b e lie v e d t h a t , " r e s o l u t i o n o f th e p r i s o n e r 's
dilemma i s c o n d itio n e d by ea ch s u b j e c t 's t r u s t i n th e o t h e r (p . 5 6 6 ) ."
These same s u b je c t s may become more c o o p e ra tiv e o v e r a s e r i e s o f t r i a l s .
However, i t seems more l i k e l y t h a t a s s u b je c t s p la y more t r i a l s th e y w i l l
be in f lu e n c e d by t h e i r im p re s s io n s o f th e o t h e r s u b je c t .
A q u e s tio n o f te n a sk ed o f r e s e a r c h e r s u s in g t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
25
game i s "why th e c o n s i s t e n t low p r o p o r tio n o f c o o p e ra tiv e ( t r u s t )
c h o ic e s i n s t u d i e s u s in g t h i s p a r t i c u l a r game?"
One r e a s o n g iv en hy
K om orita (1965) i s t h a t i n o u r c u l t u r e m ost tw o -p erso n games a r e
s t r i c t l y c o m p e titiv e and a s a r e s u l t s u b je c t s i n t e r p r e t th e game a s one
i n w hich th e y a r e to " b e a t" t h e o t h e r p e rs o n .
A nother r e a s o n i s t h a t th e
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e game f o r c e s p l a y e r s to com pete once th e y h ave d e fe c te d
from c o o p e ra tiv e c h o ic e s .
W ilson and B ix e n s tin e (1962) su g g e ste d t h a t , "when a p l a y e r g iv e s
i n to th e te m p ta tio n o f m axim izin g i n d iv i d u a l g a in , a ’b in d ' d e v e lo p s .
Once b o th p l a y e r s a r e j o i n t l y co m p etin g , any a tte m p t by one o f th e p l a y e r s
to r e t u r n to a c o o p e ra tiv e c h o ic e r e s u l t s i n a s t i l l lo w er p a y o ff f o r
t h a t p e rs o n w h ile th e p a y o ff f o r t h e o t h e r i n d iv i d u a l i s in c r e a s e d
(p. 135 i n K om orita, S h ep ash , and B ro n e r.
Pow er, th e u se o f power, and
c o o p e ra tiv e c h o ic e i n a tw o -p e rso n g am e)."
R apoport (1962) c o n d u c te d a p p ro x im a te ly 200 e x p e rim e n ta l s e s s io n s
u s in g t h e P r i s o n e r ’ s Dilemma game.
S u b je c ts w ere U n iv e r s ity o f M ichigan
s tu d e n t s who w ere p u t i n t o p a i r s and u sed i n one e x p e rim e n ta l s e s s io n
w hich c o n s is t e d o f 300-700 c o n s e c u tiv e p la y s o f one o r s e v e r a l games w ith
no com m unication a llo w e d betw een s u b j e c t s .
V a rio u s e x p e rim e n ts w ere ru n
and d a ta c o n s is t e d o f n e a r l y 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 r e s p o n s e s .
S ta b le s t a t i s t i c a l
r e s u l t s were o b ta in e d b e c a u s e o f t h e g r e a t number o f r e s p o n s e s and
R apoport c i t e d th e s e i n q u e s tio n form u s in g t h e s t r a t e g i e s o f
c o o p e ra tio n and d e f e c t io n .
He u s e s t h e l e t t e r s C f o r a c o o p e ra tiv e
re s p o n s e and D f o r a d e f e c t io n o r s t r a t e g y r e s p o n s e .
Those q e u s tio n s and
a nsw ers t h a t p e r t a in e d to t h i s stu d y fo llo w ;
Q^.
What i s t h e t y p i c a l f i r s t r e s p o n s e i n a P r i s o n e r ’ s Dilemma
game? (N ote t h a t p u r e ly s t r a t e g i c c o n s id e r a t i o n s d i c t a t e
th e re s p o n s e DD. C o l le c t iv e i n t e r e s t c o n s id e r a t i o n s d i c t a t e
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
th e re s p o n s e CC, b u t no p o s s i b i l i t y f o r c o o r d in a tin g th e
l a t t e r re s p o n s e e x i s t s . )
A^.
The f i r s t re s p o n s e i s p r a c t i c a l l y random , a s e v id e n c e d by
th e n e a r ly e q u a l p r o p o r tio n s o f CC, CD, DC, and DD re s p o n s e s .
These p r o p o rtio n s do n o t v a ry s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t h e seven
games we have u se d .
Q2 .
I'Jhat happens t h e r e a f t e r i n t h e s h o r t run?
A2 .
The im m ediate t r e n d w hich s e t s i n i s a d e c re a s e o f C
( th e p e rc e n t o f c o o p e ra tiv e r e s p o n s e s ) shown by th e
d e c re a s e o f a r u n n in g a v e ra g e o f C o v e r t e n c o n s e c u tiv e
p l a y s . The e x te n t o f t h i s d e c re a s e i s su ch t h a t t h e
a v e ra g e C re s p o n s e o v e r t h e f i r s t 50 p la y s i s red u c e d
from ab o u t 50% to a b o u t 40%.
Q3 .
What happens i n th e lo n g run?
A3 .
A f te r a bout 50 p l a y s , th e fre q u e n c y o f C re s p o n s e s
av e ra g e d o v e r t h e e n t i r e p o p u la tio n o f p l a y e r s s t e a d i l y
ris e s .
T his e f f e c t was n o t o b s e rv e d by e a r l i e r i n v e s t i ­
g a to r s who c o n fin e d th e m s e lv e s t o a b o u t 30-50 p la y s o f
P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma. The a s y m p to tic v a lu e o f C f o r th e
p o p u la tio n i s a b o u t 65%.
Q4 .
I s t h i s a s y m p to tic v a lu e a ls o m o d al, i . e . , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
o f m ost o f th e p la y e r p a i r s i n t h e p o p u la tio n ?
A4 .
No. The modal f re q u e n c ie s a r e a t t h e e x tre m e s . Most
p a i r s e i t h e r lo c k i n on CC, i . e . , a c h ie v e a t a c i t
c o ll u s io n to c o o p e ra te , o r , on t h e c o n tr a r y , lo c k in
on DD, g iv in g up t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c h ie v in g th e b i g g e s t
jo in g p a y - o f f . The 65% i s o n ly t h e a v e ra g e o f a s tr o n g l y
b i-m o d a l d i s t r i b u t i o n .
Q5 .
Are th e re s p o n s e s o f t h e two members o f a p a i r t y p i c a l l y
in te r d e p e n d e n t?
A5 .
D e f in i t e l y y e s . Note t h a t t h e r e a r e two p o s s ib l e an sw ers
to t h i s q u e s tio n ; 1) The r e s p o n s e s o f one p l a y e r te n d
t o e l i c i t l i k e re s p o n s e s on th e p a r t o f t h e o t h e r ; 2 )
The r e s p o n s e s a lo n e a r e i n te r d e p e n d e n t. The two p o s s ib l e
answ ers can be r a t i o n a l i z e d i n p l a u s i b l e te rm s. The f i r s t
can be r a t i o n a l i z e d on th e g round o f m u tu a lly s ti m u l a ti n g
a t t i t u d e s — c o o p e ra tio n b r e e d s c o o p e ra tio n and v ic e v e r s a ;
th e second on th e gro u n d s o f a b se n c e o f e x p l i c i t
com m unication (pp. 1 3 -1 4 ).
Terhune (1968) was i n t e r e s t e d i n s tu d y in g t h e way " P e r s o n a l p r e d i s ­
p o s it io n " a f f e c t s th e developm ent o f c o n f l i c t and c o o p e ra tio n b etw een
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
27
s u b je c t s p la y in g t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game.
F o r h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n he
s e l e c t e d s u b je c t s w ith t h r e e p a t t e r n s o f m o tiv a tio n :
need f o r a f f i l i a t i o n ;
(1) S u b je c ts h ig h on
(2) S u b je c ts h ig h on n eed f o r pow er; a n d , (3) S u b je c ts
h ig h on need f o r a c h ie v e m e n t.
He th e n h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t th o s e s u b je c t s
h ig h on n eed f o r a f f i l i a t i o n would be m o stly c o o p e r a tiv e , th o s e s u b je c t s
h ig h on need f o r power would be m o stly c o m p e titiv e and th o s e s u b je c t s h ig h
on need f o r a c hievem ent would v a ry betw een c o o p e ra tio n and c o m p e titio n ,
dep en d in g on t h e s i t u a t i o n .
The s u b je c t s p la y e d t h r e e s e r i e s o f t h i r t y games e a ch a f t e r w hich
Terhune q u e s tio n e d th e s u b je c t s r e g a r d in g w hat th e y th o u g h t th e y w ere t r y i n g
to ac co m p lish d u rin g th e game.
Terhune co n clu d ed from game r e s u l t s and t h e
q u e s tio n s t h a t :
F i r s t , t h r e e m o tiv a tio n a l o r i e n t a t i o n s d id in f l u e n c e c o n f l i c t
and c o o p e ra tio n i n th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma, a lth o u g h t h e e f f e c t s
may n o t be th e same i n o t h e r c o n te x ts . Second, t h a t h ig h ly
t h r e a te n i n g s i t u a t i o n s m in im ize th e e f f e c t s o f i d i o s y n c r a t i c
m o tiv e s , p e rh a p s a ro u s in g a common d e fe n s iv e m o tiv e . T h ird ,
i n i t i a l e x p e rie n c e s in i n t e r a c t i o n had a s tr o n g e f f e c t on
s u b s e q u e n t c o o p e ra tio n and c o n f l i c t . And f o u r t h , com m unication
was a f a c i l i t a t o r o f c o o p e ra tio n , i f t h e a c to r s w ere p r e ­
d is p o s e d in t h a t d i r e c t i o n (p . 2 2 ) .
The s t u d i e s i n t h i s s e c t i o n have d e a l t s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith r e s e a r c h
u s in g t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game i n r e l a t i o n s h i p to c o m p e titiv e n e s s and
tru s t.
These s tu d i e s have shown t h a t s u b j e c t s , b o th m ale and fe m a le , show
a s tr o n g ten d e n c y to compete when p la y in g t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game.
T h e r e f o r e , t h e s e s tu d i e s s u p p o rt th e f i r s t t h e o r e t i c a l h y p o th e s is :
H y p o th e s is One:
C o m p e titiv e n e ss betw een m ales and fem a le s a c r o s s a l l t h r e e
e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s w i l l n o t be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t
when s u b je c t s p la y t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma Game— E f f e c t s o f Com munication
A rev ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a le d t h a t s tu d i e s a r e lim it e d i n
r e g a r d to t h e e f f e c t s o f com m unication when p la y in g t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma
game.
T h is s e c t i o n in c lu d e s th o s e s t u d i e s t h a t r e l a t e d i r e c t l y to th e
p r e s e n t a u t h o r 's s e a r c h .
Radlow and W eidner (1966) p e r m itte d s u b je c t s when p la y in g th e
P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game, to exch an g e l im it e d com m unication i n th e form o f
c o n tin g e n t commitments w hich announced t h e i r game s t r a t e g i e s p r i o r to
b e g in n in g t h e game t r i a l s .
Ifhen co m paring th e n o n-com m unication c o n d itio n
to th e c o n d itio n where com m unication was p e r m i tt e d , t h e r e was s u b s t a n t i a l l y
more c o o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io r i n t h e c o n d itio n w here com m unication was p e r m itte d .
B ecker and M cC lintock (1967) i n re v ie w in g t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e g a r d in g th e
e f f e c t s o f com m unication upon t h e dev elo p m en t o f t r u s t o r c o o p e ra tio n when
p la y in g th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game w ro te ;
. . . com m unication betw een s u b je c t s p r i o r to p la y in g th e
P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game i n c r e a s e s t h e l e v e l o f m u tu a l t r u s t ,
and a s a consequence l e a d s to c o o p e r a tiv e b e h a v io r r e f l e c t i n g
e i t h e r o r b o th t h e m o tiv e s to m axim ize own g a in o r j o i n t g a in
th ro u g h such b e h a v io r (p p . 2 7 6 -2 7 7 ).
W rightsm an, e t a l . , (1972) f o llo w in g t h e i r e x te n s iv e s tu d y o f th e
e f f e c t s o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f com m unication co n c lu d e d t h a t o p p o r tu n i ti e s f o r
com m unication f a c i l i t a t e t h e d ev elo p m en t o f c o o p e ra tio n o r t r u s t in th e
P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game b u t t h a t .
Any f a v o r a b le e f f e c t s o f com m unication may be overcom e i f
( 1 ) t h e o t h e r 's b e h a v io r e n c o u ra g e s e x p l o i t a t i o n , o r ( 2 ) th e
p re v io u s i n t e r a c t i o n s betw een p l a y e r s hav e been such a s to i n s t i l l
a s p i r i t o f d i s t r u s t (p . 2 0 8 ).
P i l i s u k and S k o ln ic k (1968) h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t a renew ed s t r a t e g y o f
sm a ll c o n c i l i a t o r y moves p rec e d e d by h o n e s t p r i o r announcem ents w i l l in d u ce
r e c i p r o c a t i o n from an a d v e r s a r y .
They used a v e r s i o n o f th e P r i s o n e r 's
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Dilemma game t h a t p e rm itte d g r a d a tio n s in c o o p e r a tiv e r e s p o n s e and c a s t
th e s u b je c t s i n s im u la te d s e t t i n g s o f an arm s r a c e .
R e s u lts o f th e t a s k
in d ic a te d t h a t :
( 1 ) b o th m atch in g s t r a t e g i e s and c o n c i l i a t o r y s t r a t e g i e s ,
w ith o r w ith o u t p r i o r h o n e s t e x p re s s io n o f i n t e n t i o n s ,
in c r e a s e c o o p e ra tio n , ( 2 ) th e com m unication o p p o r tu n i ty te n d s
t o be used d e c e p tiv e ly in
th e n a t u r a l c o n d it i o n , re d u c in g
c o o p e r a tio n , and (3) t h a t
th e c o m b in a tio n o f c o n c i l i a t o r y
s t r a t e g y w ith h o n e st p r i o r announcem ent o f moves p r e s e n t s ,
by a sm a ll m arg in , th e m ost e f f e c t i v e s t r a t e g y , among th o s e
t r i e d , f o r in d u c in g r e c i p r o c a l c o o p e ra tio n ( p . 1 2 1 ) .
Swensen (1973) i n v e s t ig a t e d v a r i o u s s t u d i e s t h a t t r i e d to d is c o v e r
s t r a t e g i e s t h a t s tim u la te d t r u s t and c o o p e ra tio n and found t h a t a lm o st any
k in d o f com m unication betw een o p p o n e n ts in c r e a s e d th e p r o b a b i l i t y o f
c o o p e ra tio n betw een them b u t th e n
th e com m unication depended on
w ent on to p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f
i t s c o n te n t .
He gave a s an exam ple t h a t
fee d b a c k in t h e form o f k e e p in g a c u m u la tiv e s c o re o f t h e two p l a y e r s
would te n d to i n c r e a s e t h e c o m p e titio n b etw een them .
He a ls o found t h a t p l a y e r s w ere m ore l i k e l y to resp o n d w ith t r u s t
th a n to i n i t i a t e re s p o n s e s t h a t would le a d to t r u s t .
P ro c e d u re s t h a t
e x p re s s e d an i n t e n t i o n to c o o p e ra te in c r e a s e d t h e l i k e l ih o o d o f c o o p e ra tio n
o c c u rr in g betw een p la y e r s and s h i f t s i n s t r a t e g y had t h e g r e a t e s t e f f e c t on
th e o p p o n e n t's b e h a v io r.
For exam ple, " th e o p p o n en t i s m ore c o m p e titiv e
a t th e b e g in n in g and th e n s h i f t s to a c o o p e r a tiv e s t r a t e g y , th a n i f th e
p la y e r s t a r t s th e game w ith a c o o p e ra tiv e s t r a t e g y ( p . 3 6 4 ) ."
T h is s e c t i o n review ed s tu d i e s b a sed on t h e s u p p o s itio n t h a t t r u s t ,
betw een s u b j e c t s , w i l l in c r e a s e when an o p p o r tu n ity f o r com m unication h as
o c c u rr e d .
T hese s t u d i e s , u s in g th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game, showed t h a t in
th e m a jo r ity o f r e s e a r c h exam ined, an i n c r e a s e o f t r u s t o r c o o p e r a tiv e
c h o ic e s o c c u rr e d .
The second and t h i r d t h e o r e t i c a l h y p o th e s e s a r e s u p p o rte d
by t h e s e s t u d i e s .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
H y p o th e s is Two;
The t y p e o f m essage t h a t i s com m unicated b etw een s u b je c t s w i l l
i n f l u e n c e th e b u i ld i n g o f t r u s t b etw een t h e s e s u b je c t s .
H y p o th e s is T h re e:
T h ere w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t betw een
C o n d itio n A, C o n d itio n B, and C o n d itio n C and t h e m essage
v a ria b le .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER I I I
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
T h is c h a p te r p r o v id e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e s e a r c h d e s ig n and
m ethodology employed in c o n d u c tin g t h i s s tu d y .
a r e d is c u s s e d ;
The fo llo w in g a r e a s
(1) p o p u la tio n and sam p le; (2) game c o n d it i o n s ; (3)
i n s tr u m e n ta tio n ; (4) p ro c e d u re s and i n s t r u c t i o n f o r c o l l e c t i o n o f d a ta ;
(5) h y p o th e s e s t e s t e d ; a n d , ( 6 ) s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s .
Population and Sample
S tu d e n ts a tt e n d in g W estern M ich ig an U n i v e r s i ty c o m p rised th e
p o p u la tio n f o r t h i s s tu d y .
The a p p ro x im a te ly 20 ,0 0 0 s tu d e n ts who a tt e n d
W estern M ichigan U n iv e r s ity a r e l a r g e l y from t h e s o u th w e ste rn and s o u th ­
e a s t e r n s e c t i o n s o f t h e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n .
The U n i v e r s i ty , b e c au se o f
i c s s i z e and c o m p le x ity , ra n k s f o u r t h i n M ich ig an .
P r io r to W inter term 1976, th e r e s e a r c h e r c o n ta c te d i n s t r u c t o r s in
th e D epartm ent o f Com munication A r ts and S c ie n c e s who w ere sc h ed u le d
to te a c h s e c t i o n s o f I n te r p e r s o n a l Com m unication, W in te r term 1976
(A ppendix A ).
They w ere a sked i f t h e r e s e a r c h e r c o u ld a d m in is te r th e
P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game to t h e i r c l a s s e s t h e second week o f th e term ,
J a n u a ry 1 2 -1 6 , 1976.
A ll of th e i n s t r u c t o r s re sp o n d e d p o s i t i v e l y and
a rra n g e m e n ts w ere made t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r would a d m in is te r t h e in s tru m e n t
to t h e i r e n t i r e c l a s s p o p u la tio n d u r in g t h e r e g u l a r l y sc h e d u le d c l a s s tim e .
The e x p e rim e n ta l s e s s i o n would ta k e f o r t y to f i f t y m in u te s .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
32
The I n te r p e r s o n a l Com munication c o u rse i s t h e b a s i c c o u rs e i n th e
D epartm ent o f Communication A r ts and S c ie n c e s and s tu d e n t s s e l e c t th e
c o u rs e f o r a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s :
( 1 ) r e q u ir e d f o r a m ajo r o r m inor c o u rse
o f s tu d y i n t h e D e partm ent; (2) r e q u ir e d by o t h e r d e p a rtm e n ts on campus;
a n d , (3) e l e c t e d by s tu d e n t s .
D uring t h e c la s s s e s s i o n p r i o r to th e day o f th e a d m in i s t e r i n g
o f th e P r i s o n e r ’ s Dilemma game, s u b je c t s were t o l d o n ly t h a t an i n s t r u c t o r
i n t h e D epartm ent o f Com munication A rts and S c ie n c e s would be i n c h a rg e
o f th e n e x t c l a s s p e rio d and t h a t t h i s i n s t r u c t o r was w o rk in g on h e r
d i s s e r t a t i o n and d e s ir e d to hav e t h e s tu d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t e i n a r e s e a r c h
p r o je c t.
Game C o n d itio n s
The P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game was a d m in is te re d to t h r e e c o n d itio n s
w i t h in e a ch o f t h e e le v e n c l a s s s e c t i o n s .
u se d f o r t h e s tu d y .
fem ale s u b j e c t s .
A t o t a l o f 228 s u b je c t s w ere
C o n d itio n A was used w ith 38 m ale s u b je c t s and 38
C o n d itio n B was u sed w ith 38 p a i r s o f fem a le s u b je c t s
and C o n d itio n C was u sed w ith 38 p a i r s o f m ale s u b j e c t s .
S u b je c ts in e ach c l a s s w ere random ly p la c e d i n one o f t h e t h r e e
c o n d itio n s and th e n w ere random ly p a ir e d o p p o s ite e a ch o t h e r .
I n s tr u m e n ta tio n
The in s tr u m e n t used f o r t h i s s tu d y was th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma
game, a n o n -ze ro -su m m ixed-m o tiv e game, a t t r i b u t e d to A. W. T ucker C1957).
The game p ro v id e s f o r a w e ll c o n tr o l le d i n t e r a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n p lu s
p r o v id e s t h e s u b je c t s w ith t h e f a c t t h a t c h o ic e s o r d e c is i o n s t h a t h ave to
be made by t h e s u b je c t s i n th e game a r e v e ry s i m i l a r to d e c is i o n s t h a t a r e
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
made i n r e a l - l i f e b a r g a in in g and c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n s (G a llo and M cC lin to ck ,
1965).
F ig u re 1 shows t h e game used i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y .
shown i n F ig u re 1 r e p r e s e n t p o i n ts g a in e d o r l o s t .
The c e l l e n t r i e s
The m a tr ix i n F ig u re
1 i n d i c a t e s t h a t i f P la y e r A,B ch o o ses A and P la y e r s 1 ,2 ch o o ses 1 , b o th
p l a y e r s l o s e 5 p o i n ts .
I f P la y e r A,B ch o o ses B w h ile P la y e r 1 ,2 c h o o ses 1,
P la y e r 1 ,2 g a in s 10 p o i n ts and P la y e r A,B l o s e s 10 p o i n t s .
I f P la y e r A,B
c h o o ses A w h ile P la y e r 1 ,2 ch o o ses 2 , P la y e r 1 ,2 l o s e s 10 p o i n ts and
P la y e r A,B g a in s 10 p o i n t s .
I f P la y e r A,B ch o o ses B w h ile P la y e r 1 ,2
c h o o ses 2 , b o th p la y e r s g a in 5 p o i n ts .
The Game
The f o llo w in g s q u a re s l i s t th e s c o re s e ach p l a y e r w i l l r e c e i v e :
P la y e r
1
1 ,2
2
P la y e r 1 ,2 = - 5
P la y e r 1 ,2 = -1 0
P la y e r A,B = - 5
P la y e r A,B = +10
P la y e r 1 ,2 = +10
P la y e r 1 ,2 = + 5
P la y e r A,B = -1 0
P la y e r A,B = + 5
P la y e r A,B
F ig u re 1.
P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game u sed i n th e s tu d y .
F ig u re 2 shows t h e p la y in g c a rd s used f o r p la y in g t h e game i n t h e
s tu d y .
P la y e r A,B r e c e iv e d one A c a rd and one B c a rd w h ile P la y e r 1 ,2
r e c e iv e d one 1 c a rd and one 2 c a rd .
P la y e r s h e ld t h e i r p la y in g c a rd s o u t
o f s i g h t o f t h e i r p a r t n e r w h ile making t h e d e c is io n r e g a r d in g t h e i r i n d iv i d u a l
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
c e l l c h o ic e (a c o m p e titiv e o r t r u s t c h o i c e ) .
When r e a d y , p la y e r s lo o k ed
up a t t h e i r p a r t n e r and f li p p e d t h e i r c a rd c h o ic e s s im u lta n e o u s ly .
Each
p la y e r c o u ld ta k e a s much tim e a s n eeded i n m aking h i s o r h e r c o m p e titiv e
o r t r u s t c e l l c h o ic e .
P la y e r 1 ,2
P la y e r A,B
F ig u re 2.
P la y in g c a rd s used f o r p la y in g th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game
i n th e s tu d y .
F ig u re 3 shows th e t a b l e s u se d f o r s c o r in g Game #1 and Game #2.
Game #1 and Game //2 c o n s is te d o f n in e t r i a l s e a c h .
P la y e r s re c o rd e d b o th
t h e i r own s c o re and t h e i r p a r t n e r 's s c o re f o llo w in g each t r i a l .
S c o res
w ere t o t a l e d a t th e c o n c lu s io n o f ea ch game.
GAME #2
GAME #1
(1 , 2 )
.
.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8 .
9.
1
2
TOTAL
F ig u re 3 .
(A,B)
(1 , 2 )
(A,B)
.
2 .
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8 .
9.
1
TOTAL
T a b le s u sed f o r s c o r in g Game #1 and Game #2.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
P ro c e d u re s and I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r C o l le c t io n o f D ata
The r e s e a r c h e r and c la ssro o m i n s t r u c t o r a r r i v e d a p p ro x im a te ly te n
m in u te s ahead o f th e sc h ed u le d c l a s s tim e .
and s a t i n s e a t s o f t h e i r own c h o ic e .
S u b je c ts e n te r e d t h e c la s s ro o m
The c la s s ro o m i n s t r u c t o r i n t r o ­
duced t h e r e s e a r c h e r to th e c l a s s by name and s a id t h a t sh e would e x p la in
th e p ro c e d u re s t h a t would fo llo w .
The r e s e a r c h e r ran d o m ly p la c e d s u b je c t s
in to
C o n d itio n A, C o n d itio n
B, and C o n d itio n C.
w hat
c o n d itio n th e y w ere i n
th e y were random ly p a ir e d
Once
t h e s u b je c t s k
to g e th e r.
s u b je c t s w ere asked i f th e y knew one a n o th e r and i f th e y d id th e y w ere a sk ed
t o change p a r t n e r s .
T here was no v e r b a l com m unication a llo w e d betw een
s u b je c t s from t h i s p o in t on th ro u g h t h e e n t i r e e x p e rim e n ta tio n p r o c e s s .
Armed d e sk s were used by th e s u b je c t s and s u b je c t s s a t d i r e c t l y
a c r o s s from each o t h e r .
The game m a t e r i a ls (A ppendix B) w ere th e n p a s se d o u t to th e
s u b je c t s w ith t h e fo llo w in g v e r b a l i n s t r u c t i o n s :
The o b j e c t o f t h e game i s f o r ea ch p e rs o n t o m axim ize
o n e 's p o s i t i v e s c o r e . Read th e r u l e s f o r t h e game s i l e n t l y
and th o ro u g h ly . Take your tim e . When you h av e u n d e rs to o d
and f in i s h e d re a d in g th e game p ro c e d u re s lo o k up a t y our
p a r t n e r and nod your head a f f i r m a t i v e l y . P la y n in e t r i a l s
f o r Game #1, r e c o r d in g b o th y our s c o re and y o u r p a r t n e r 's
s c o r e . T o ta l b o th s c o re s and w a it f o r f u r t h e r i n s t r u c t i o n s .
Do n o t t a l k to anyone d u rin g any tim e o f t h e e x p e rim e n t.
The r u l e s f o r th e game were a s f o llo w s :
1.
Each w i l l g e t two c a r d s . One s e t o f two c a r d s w i l l
have an " 1 " and " 2 " on them ; th e second s e t w i l l h ave
an "A" and "B" on them.
2.
W ith in each t r i a l , th e p l a y e r s w i l l s im u lta n e o u s ly h o ld
up one o f h i s / h e r c a r d s . T h at i s , one p l a y e r w i l l h o ld
up e i t h e r " 1 " o r " 2 " and t h e o th e r p l a y e r w i l l h o ld up
e i t h e r "A" o r "B".
3.
Each p la y e r s h o u ld in d e p e n d e n tly d e te rm in e w hich s t r a t e g y
w i l l b e s t m axim ize o n e 's p o s i t i v e s c o r e . P la y e r s s h o u ld
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Pa
n o t i n d i c a t e w hich c a rd i s g o in g to b e h e ld up u n t i l
th e t r i a l b e g in s .
4.
I f P la y e r 1 ,2 h o ld s up "1 " and P la y e r A,B h o ld s up "A",
t h e n r e c o r d th e s c o re s l i s t e d i n box lA . I n t h i s i n s t a n c e ,
b o th p l a y e r s l o s e 5 p o i n ts .
I f P la y e r 1 ,2 h o ld s up "2 " and P la y e r A,B h o ld s up "A",
t h e n r e c o r d th e s c o re s l i s t e d i n box 2A. I n t h i s i n s t a n c e .
P la y e r 1 ,2 l o s e s 10 p o i n ts and P la y e r A,B g a in s 10 p o i n ts .
I f P la y e r 1 ,2 h o ld s up "1 " and P la y e r A,B h o ld s up "B ",
th e n r e c o r d t h e s c o re s l i s t e d i n box IB . I n t h i s i n s t a n c e .
P la y e r 1 ,2 g a in s 10 p o i n ts and P la y e r A,B l o s e s 10 p o i n ts .
I f P la y e r 1 ,2 h o ld s up "2" and P la y e r A,B h o ld s up "B ",
th e n r e c o r d th e s c o re s l i s t e d i n box 2B. I n t h i s i n s t a n c e ,
b o th p l a y e r s would g a in 5 p o i n ts .
5.
A f te r each t r i a l , r e c o r d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s c o re s i n th e
t a b l e s . T here w i l l be 9 t r i a l s w ith in each game. You
w i l l p la y 2 games.
6. Please do not talk to your partner at any time during the
7.
A f te r you f i n i s h each game, w a it f o r f u r t h e r i n s t r u c t i o n s .
S u b je c ts th e n p ro ced ed to p la y Game #1 a c c o r d in g to t h e r u l e s and
i n s t r u c t i o n s g iv e n .
w h ite 3 x 5
When a l l s u b je c t s had f in i s h e d p la y in g Game #1, a
c a rd was p a sse d o u t to t h e s u b je c t s w ith t h e fo llo w in g
in stru c tio n s :
You may w r i te your p a r t n e r a o n e -s e n te n c e m essage b e fo r e
p la y in g Game #2. W rite th e m essage and when b o th you and
y our p a r t n e r have f in i s h e d , exchange t h e c a rd s s im u lta n e o u s ly .
Read t h e m essage you r e c e iv e d from y our p a r t n e r and go on to
p la y Game #2. P la y t h e n in e t r i a l s r e c o r d in g b o th s c o re s
f o llo w in g each t r i a l and a t t h e c o n c lu s io n o f t r i a l n in e t o t a l
b o th s c o r e s .
When s u b je c t s c om pleted Game #2, th e m a t e r i a l s w ere c o ll e c te d by
p a i r s w i t h in C o n d itio n A, C o n d itio n B, and C o n d itio n C.
S u b je c ts w ere th e n
th an k e d f o r p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e e x p e rim e n t and t o ld t h a t t h e i r i n s t r u c t o r
would d i s c u s s th e e x p e rim e n t w ith them f o llo w in g th e c o m p le tio n o f g a th e r in g
t h e d a ta f o r t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
O p e r a tio n a l H y p o th eses
The p rim a ry p u rp o se s o f t h i s s tu d y w ere to i n v e s t i g a t e :
(1) th e
e f f e c t o f se x in r e l a t i o n s h i p to c o m p e titiv e n e s s b etw een m ales and fe m a le s ;
a n d , ( 2 ) w hat e f f e c t s t h e n o n v e rb a l w r i t t e n m essage h a s upon d e c re a s in g
c o m p e titiv e n e s s and i n c r e a s i n g t r u s t betw een s u b j e c t s .
The t h e o r e t i c a l
h y p o th e s e s w i l l be s t a t e d in o p e r a t io n a l term s i n t h i s s e c t i o n .
H y p o th e sis One:
Competitiveness between males and females across all three experi­
mental conditions will not be significantly different when subjects play
the Prisoner's Dilemma game.
The o p e r a t io n a l h y p o th e s e s f o r t h e o r e t i c a l H y p o th e s is
One a r e :
1.
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in c o m p e titiv e n e s s w i l l be
found betw een m ales and fem a le s when th e means f o r
t h e i r t o t a l pame s c o re s i n Game #1 o f th e P r i s o n e r 's
Dilemma game have been a n a ly z e d th ro u g h th e a p p l i c a t i o n
o f th e a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e s t a t i s t i c .
2.
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c o m p e titiv e n e s s w i l l be
found among t h e fem a le s when th e means f o r t h e i r
r e s p e c ti v e t o t a l game s c o re s i n C o n d itio n A, C o n d itio n
and C o n d itio n B2 o f th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game
have been a n a ly z e d th ro u g h th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e a n a ly s i s
o f v a ria n c e s t a t i s t i c .
3.
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in c o m p e titiv e n e s s w i l l be
found among t h e m ales when th e means f o r t h e i r r e s p e c ti v e
t o t a l game s c o re s i n C o n d itio n A, C o n d itio n C^, and Cond iti o n ^ o f th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game h ave b een a n a ly z e d
th ro u g h th e a p p li c a ti o n o f th e a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e
s ta tis tic .
4.
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c o m p e titiv e n e s s w i l l be
found betw een m ales and fem a le s when th e means f o r t h e i r
t o t a l game s c o re s i n Game #1 o f th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma
game have been a n a ly z e d th ro u g h th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e
a n a ly s i s o f v a ria n c e s t a t i s t i c .
5.
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c o m p e titiv e n e s s w i l l be
found betw een fem a le s and fem a le s when th e means f o r
t h e i r t o t a l game s c o re s i n Game #1 o f th e P r i s o n e r 's
Dilemma game have b een a n a ly z e d th ro u g h th e a p p li c a ti o n
o f th e a n a ly s i s o f v a ria n c e s t a t i s t i c .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
6
.
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c o m p e titiv e n e s s w i l l be
found betw een m ales and m ales when t h e m eans f o r t h e i r
t o t a l game s c o re s i n Game //I o f t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma
game have been a n a ly z e d th ro u g h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
a n a ly s i s o f v a ria n c e s t a t i s t i c .
H y p o th e s is Two;
The ty p e o f m essage t h a t i s com m unicated b etw een s u b je c t s w i l l
i n f l u e n c e th e b u i ld i n g o f t r u s t betw een t h e s e s u b j e c t s .
The o p e r a t io n a l h y p o th e s is f o r t h e o r e t i c a l H y p o th e sis Two i s ;
S i g n if ic a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e mean t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #1
and Game #2 w i l l r e s u l t from th e ty p e o f m essage com m unicated.
The means
o f t h e t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #2 w i l l i n d i c a t e a d e c re a s e when "no t r u s t
m essages" have been com m unicated, an i n c r e a s e when a " 1 - t r u s t m essage"
h a s been com m unicated and a h ig h i n c r e a s e when " 2 - t r u s t m essag es" h ave b een
com m unicated.
The a n a ly s i s o f v a ria n c e s t a t i s t i c w i l l b e u sed t o t e s t o p e r a t io n a l
H y p o th e s is "Bvo.
Supplem entary a n a ly s i s o f t h e d a ta f o r o p e r a t io n a l
H y p o th e s is Two w i l l be com pleted th ro u g h t h e S c h e ff è m ethod t e s t i n g
p ro c e d u re .
H y p o th e s is T h re e ;
T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t b etw een C o n d itio n A,
C o n d itio n B, and C o n d itio n C and th e m essage v a r i a b l e .
The o p e r a t io n a l h y p o th e s is f o r t h e o r e t i c a l H y p o th e s is T hree i s ;
The F v a lu e a s o b ta in e d by t h e a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e w i l l f a i l to
i n d i c a t e s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s b etw een C o n d itio n A, C o n d itio n B,
and C o n d itio n C and th e m essage v a r i a b l e .
S t a t i s t i c a l P ro c e d u re s
The f o llo w in g s te p s w ere fo llo w e d i n c a r r y in g o u t t h e s t a t i s t i c a l
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
procedures;
(1) coding system and, (2) data analysis.
Coding System
A coding system was devised by the researcher regarding the inter­
pretation of the data prior to computer processing.
The coding system is
included in the study under Appendix C.
C o n d itio n A c o n s is t e d o f p a ir e d s u b je c t s numbered 1 -3 8 , C o n d itio n
B c o n s is t e d o f p a ir e d s u b je c t s numbered 3 9 -7 6 , and C o n d itio n C c o n s is t e d
o f p a ir e d s u b je c t s num bered 77-1 1 4 .
Columns 1-12 w ere coded a s fo llo w s ;
Column
1
= se x o f P la y e r 1 ,2
1 = fem ale
Column
Column
Column
2-4 = t o t a l Game #1 s c o re o f P la y e r 1 ,2
5
= ty p e o f m essage P la y e r 1 ,2 s e n t
6
= s e x o f P la y e r A,B
1 = fem ale
Column 7-9 = t o t a l Game #1 s c o re o f P la y e r A,B
Column 10
= ty p e o f m essage P la y e r A,B s e n t
Column 11
= Game #1 fre q u e n c y t r u s t c h o ic e s (0 -9 p o s s ib l e ) f o r
p a i r s o f s u b j e c t s . A t r u s t c h o ic e was d e fin e d a s b o th
s u b je c t s r e c e i v in g 5 p o i n ts — th e B-2 c h o ic e .
Column 12
= Game #2 fre q u e n c y t r u s t c h o ic e s (0 -9 p o s s ib l e ) f o r
p a i r s o f s u b je c t s . A t r u s t c h o ic e was d e fin e d a s
b o th s u b je c t s r e c e i v in g 5 p o i n t s — th e B-2 c h o ic e .
The ty p e s o f m essages w ere d e fin e d and e x p la in e d a s fo llo w s :
0
1
2
= m is c e lla n e o u s
= c o m p e titiv e
= tru s t
Exam ples o f m essages a n a ly z e d by th e r e s e a r c h e r a s m is c e lla n e o u s
fo llo w :
" B e t te r lu c k n e x t tim e ( s m i le ) ."
" I d o n 't t h in k F rid a y w i l l e v e r com e."
"\-Jhat do you t h in k a b o u t th e snow to d ay ? "
" I hope you have a good day t o d a y ."
" I wonder what t h e p u rp o se o f t h i s game i s . "
Exam ples o f m essages a n a ly z e d by th e r e s e a r c h e r a s c o m p e titiv e
f o llo w :
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
"A re you re a d y to l o s e ? "
" I s u r e showed you how t h i s game i s p la y e d d id n ’ t I ? "
" I am g o in g to win t h i s tim e ."
" P la y c o n s e c u tiv e ly A, B, A, B ."
"You a r e g oing to have to h u s t l e to c a tc h me i n th e second game
b e c a u s e I am g o in g to p la y s a f e . "
"The w i l l to win i s much s tr o n g e r th a n th e w i l l to c o o p e r a te ."
Exam ples o f m essages a n a ly z e d by th e r e s e a r c h e r a s t r u s t f o llo w :
" L e t 's b o th u s e t h e p o s i t i v e c a r d s , 2 and B ,"
"Always p la y number 2 ."
"Use c a rd 2 and I ' l l b r e a k th e t i e . "
"Why d o n 't you t r y a B a l o t and I ' l l do a 2 and we can g e t
more p o i n ts t h a t w a y ."
"H old up (2) as much a s p o s s i b l e ,"
" P le a s e alw ays u se a B and I w i l l u s e a 2 ."
D ata A n a ly s is
The s t a t i s t i c s used f o r t h i s s tu d y w ere t h e a n a ly s i s o f v a ria n c e
and t h e S c h e ffè m ethod t e s t i n g p ro c e d u r e .
The one-w ay a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e
was used to t e s t th e o p e r a t io n a l h y p o th e s e s one th ro u g h s i x .
The one-way
a n a ly s i s o f v a ria n c e was a ls o u se d to t e s t th e o p e r a t io n a l h y p o th e s is two
p lu s a su p p le m e n ta ry a n a ly s i s o f th e d a ta was made w ith t h e S c h e ffè
m ethod t e s t i n g p ro c e d u re .
A two-way a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e was used to t e s t
o p e r a t io n a l h y p o th e s is t h r e e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
T h is c h a p te r w i l l r e p o r t and d i s c u s s th e r e s u l t s o f th e d a ta
a n a ly s is .
The c h a p te r i s d iv id e d i n t o t h r e e s e c t i o n s .
The t h r e e s e c t i o n s
d e a l w ith th e t e s t o f th e o p e r a t io n a l h y p o th e s e s f o r th e t h r e e
t h e o r e t i c a l h y p o th e s e s .
The r e s u l t s o f s u p p le m e n ta ry a n a ly s i s o f d a ta w i l l
be r e p o r te d in th e second s e c t i o n , h y p o th e s is two.
A summary w i l l
co n c lu d e each s e c t i o n .
H y p o th e sis One
C o m p e titiv e n e ss betw een m ales and fem a le s a c ro s s a l l t h r e e e x p e r i ­
m en ta l c o n d itio n s w i l l n o t be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t when s u b je c t s
p la y t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game.
O p e r a tio n a l H y p o th e sis One
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c o m p e titiv e n e s s w i l l b e found betw een
m ales and fem ales when th e means f o r t h e i r t o t a l game s c o re s in Game "1
o f t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game have b e e n a n a ly z e d th ro u g h t h e a p p li c a ti o n
o f t h e a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e s t a t i s t i c .
A one-way a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e was u sed to t e s t t h i s h y p o th e s is .
T h is one-way a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e com pared th e means o f 114 m ale t o t a l
s c o re s w ith 114 fem ale t o t a l s c o r e s i n Game #1 o f th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma
game.
T ab le 1 c o n ta in s th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s .
41
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
R e s u lts o f a One-Way A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e
Showing a Com parison o f Male and Fem ale
Means f o r T o ta l S co res o f Game #1
S iz e
Sex
Mean
S ta n d ard
D e v ia tio n
- 1 .6 6 7
- 1 .5 7 9
24.13702
22.47236
D egrees o f
Freedom
1
F
V alue
.0003
P r o b a b ility
.9774
226
Male
Fem ale
114
114
The r e s u l t s o f
o f freed o m , produced
t h i s a n a ly s i s
an
o f v a r i a n c e , h a v in g 1 and 226 d e g re e s
Value o f .0003 and a p r o b a b i l i t y o f ,9 7 7 4 .
The
p r e - d e te r m in e d p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l o f ,0 5 was e x c ee d e d ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e s u l t s
d id n o t show any a p p a re n t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een m ale and fem ale
mean s c o r e s .
Operational Hypothesis Two
No s i g n i f i c a n t
th e
d i f f e r e n c e in
c o m p e titiv e n e s s w i l l be found among
fem a le s when th e means f o r t h e i r r e s p e c ti v e t o t a l game s c o re s in
C o n d itio n A, C o n d itio n
and C o n d itio n B^ o f t h e P r i s o n e r ’ s Dilemma
Dilemma game have been a n a ly z e d th ro u g h th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e a n a ly s i s
o f v a r ia n c e s t a t i s t i c .
A one-way analysis of variance was used to test this hypothesis.
T h is one-w ay a n a ly s i s o f v a ria n c e compared th e means o f 33 fem ale t o t a l
s c o re s from C o n d itio n A w ith 38 fem ale t o t a l s c o re s from C o n d itio n B^
w ith 38 fem ale t o t a l s c o re s from C o n d itio n B2 i n Game #1 o f th e P r i s o n e r 's
Dilemma game.
T a b le 2 c o n ta in s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Table 2
R e s u lts o f a One-Way A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e Showing a
Com parison o f Means o f Fem ale T o ta l Game #1 S c o res
from C o n d itio n A, C o n d itio n
and C o n d itio n B2
C o n d itio n
S ta n d ard
D e v ia tio n
S iz e
D egrees o f
Freedom
2
F
Value
P ro b a b ility
1.9 2 4
.1509
111
Fem ale-C ond. A
Fem ale-C ond. B^
Fem ale-C ond. B2
38
38
38
-4 .3 4 2
4.2 1 1
-4 .6 0 5
21.25047
23.06062
22.52271
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a ly s i s o f v a r i a n c e , h a v in g a 2 and 111 d e g re e s
o f freedom , produced an % Value o f 1 .9 2 4 and a p r o b a b i l i t y o f .1 5 0 9 .
p r e - d e te r m in e d p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l o f .0 5 was e x c ee d e d .
f a i l e d to show any s i g n i f i c a n t
The
T h e r e f o r e , th e r e s u l t s
d i f f e r e n c e s among th e fem ale mean
th e groups who u sed C o n d itio n A, C o n d itio n B^, o r C o n d itio n
s c o re s o f
Bg.
O p e r a tio n a l H y p o th e sis T hree
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c o m p e titiv e n e s s w i l l be found among
m ales when t h e means f o r t h e i r
r e s p e c ti v e t o t a l game s c o re s i n C o n d itio n
A, C o n d itio n C^, and C o n d itio n
C2 o f th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game
have
b e e n a n a ly z e d th ro u g h th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e a n a ly s i s o f v a ria n c e
s ta tis tic .
A one-w ay a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e was u se d to t e s t t h i s h y p o th e s is .
T h is one-w ay a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e compared t h e means o f 38 m ale t o t a l
s c o r e s from C o n d itio n A w ith 38 m ale t o t a l s c o r e s from C o n d itio n C^
w ith 38 m ale t o t a l s c o r e s from C o n d itio n C2 i n Game #1 o f th e P r i s o n e r 's
Dilemma game.
T ab le 3 c o n ta in s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
T able 3
R e su lts o f a One-Way A n a ly sis o f V ariance Showing a
Comparison o f Means o f Male T o ta l Game #1 Scores
from C ondition A, C on dition C^^, and C on dition Cg
C o n d itio n
S iz e
Mean
S ta n d a rd
D e v ia tio n
D eg rees o f
Freedom
2
F
V alue
P ro b a b ility
1 .6 2 6
.2013
111
M ale-Cond. A
M ale-Cond. C^
M ale-Cond. Cg
38
38
38
.6579 17 .2 0 9 8 0
-7 .3 6 8 23.98594
1 .71 1 2 4 .33650
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a ly s i s o f v a r i a n c e , h a v in g a 2 and 111 d e g re e s
o f freedom , p roduced an F V alue o f 1 .6 2 6 and a p r o b a b i l i t y o f .2 0 1 3 .
p r e - d e te r m in e d p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l o f .0 5 was e x c ee d e d .
The
T h e r e f o r e , th e
r e s u l t s f a i l e d to show any s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e m ale mean
s c o r e s o f t h e groups who used C o n d itio n A, C o n d itio n C^, o r C o n d itio n C2 .
O p e r a tio n a l H y p o th e sis Four
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c o m p e titiv e n e s s w i l l b e found betw een
m ales and fem a le s when t h e means f o r t h e i r t o t a l game s c o re s i n Game #1
o f t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game hav e b e e n a n a ly z e d th ro u g h t h e a p p li c a ti o n
o f t h e a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e s t a t i s t i c .
A one-w ay a n a ly s i s o f v a r i a n c e was used to t e s t t h i s h y p o th e s is .
T h is one-way a n a ly s i s o f v a r i a n c e c o n ç a re d t h e means b etw een t h e 38 p a ir e d
m ale and fem ale t o t a l s c o re s o f Game #1 o f t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game
i n C o n d itio n A.
T a b le 4 c o n ta in s th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
R e su lts o f a One-Way A n a ly sis o f Variance Showing a
Comparison o f Means o f T o ta l Scores in Game #1
between Males and Females in C on dition A
Sex
S ta n d ard
D e v ia tio n
S iz e
D egrees o f
Freedom
1
F
P r o b a b ility
1 .2 7 0
.2633
74
Male
38
38
.6579
- 4 .3 4 2
17.20980
21.25147
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a ly s i s o f v a r i a n c e , h a v in g a 1 and 74 d e g re e s
o f freedom , produced an F V alue o f 1 .2 7 0 and a p r o b a b i l i t y o f .2 6 3 3 .
The
p r e - d e te r m in e d p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l o f .0 5 was ex c ee d e d ; t h e r e f o r e , th e
r e s u l t s d id n o t show any s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een m ale and fem a le
mean s c o re s i n C o n d itio n A.
O p e r a tio n a l H y p o th e sis F iv e
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c o m p e titiv e n e s s w i l l be fo u n d betw een
fem a le s and fem a le s when th e means f o r t h e i r t o t a l game s c o r e s i n Game #1 o f
t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game have b een a n a ly z e d th ro u g h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
o f th e a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e s t a t i s t i c .
A one-w ay a n a ly s i s o f v a ria n c e was used to t e s t t h i s h y p o th e s is .
T h is one-w ay a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e compared th e means betw een t h e 38 p a ir e d
fem a le and fem ale t o t a l s c o re s o f Game #1 o f th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma
game i n C o n d itio n B.
T a b le 5 c o n ta in s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s .
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e h a v in g a 1 and 74 d e g re e s
o f freedom , p roduced an F V alue o f 2 .8 4 2 and a p r o b a b i l i t y o f .0 9 6 0 .
The
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
R e s u lts o f a One-Way A n a ly sis o f V ariance Showing a
Comparison o f Means between Female and Female
P a ir s in C ondition B
Sex
S iz e
Mean
S ta n d ard
D e v ia tio n
Female
38
33
4 .2 1 1
- 4 .6 0 5
23.06062
22.52271
D egrees o f
Freedom
1
F
Value
P r o b a b il it y
2.8 4 2
.0960
94
p r e - d e te r m in e d p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l o f .0 5 was e x c ee d e d ; t h e r e f o r e , th e r e s u l t s
d id n o t show any s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een fem ale and fem ale mean
s c o re s i n C o n d itio n B.
O p e r a tio n a l H y p o th e sis S ix
No s i g n i f i c a n t
m ales
d iffe re n c e in
and m ales when t h e means f o r
c o m p e titiv e n e s s w i l l be found betw een
t h e i r t o t a l game s c o re s i n Game #1 o f
th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game hav e been a n a ly z e d th ro u g h th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
th e a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e s t a t i s t i c .
A one-w ay a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e was used to t e s t t h i s h y p o th e s is .
T h is one-way a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e compared t h e means betw een th e 38 p a ir e d
m ale and m ale t o t a l s c o re s o f Game #1 o f th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game i n
C o n d itio n C.
T a b le
6
c o n ta in s th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a ly s i s .
The r e s u l t s o f
t h i s a n a ly s i s
o f freedom , p roduced
an F V alue o f
o f v a r ia n c e h a v in g a 1 and 74 d e g re e s
2 .187 and a p r o b a b i l i t y o f .1 4 2 5 .
p r e - d e te r m in e d p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l o f .0 5 was ex c ee d e d ; t h e r e f o r e , th e
r e s u l t s d id n o t show any s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een m ale and m ale mean
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without p
The
R e su lts o f a One-Way A n a ly s is o f V ariance
Showing a Comparison o f Means between
Male and Male P a ir s in C on dition C
Sex
S ta n d a rd
D e v ia tio n
S iz e
D eg rees o f
Freedom
1
I
P r o b a b ility
2 .187
. 1425
V alue
74
38
38
M ale
Male
- 7 .3 6 8
1.7 1 1
28.98594
24.33650
s c o r e s i n C o n d itio n C.
H y p o th e s is One Summary
The s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s p r e s e n te d i n a l l s i x o p e r a t io n a l h y p o th e s e s
f a i l e d to r e j e c t th e h y p o th e s is t h a t a v e ra g e s u b je c t c o m p e titiv e n e s s s c o re s
a c c o rd in g to s e x i n Game #1 a c ro s s t h e t h r e e e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s would
n o t be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t .
The r e s u l t s f u r t h e r i n d ic a te d t h a t m ales
and fe m a le s show c o m p e titiv e n e s s w ith t h e same se x a s w e ll a s w ith th e
o p p o s ite s e x , t h e r e f o r e , s u g g e s tin g t h a t s e x i s n o t a v a r i a b l e when
s u b je c t s a r e p la c e d i n a game s i t u a t i o n .
H y p o th e s is Two
The ty p e o f m essage t h a t i s com m unicated b etw een s u b je c t s w i l l
in f l u e n c e th e b u i ld i n g o f t r u s t betw een t h e s e s u b j e c t s .
H y p o th e sis two i s s u p p o rte d i f t h e f o llo w in g o p e r a t io n a l h y p o th e s is
i s a c c e p te d .
O p e r a tio n a l H y p o th e sis Two
S i g n if ic a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een t h e mean t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #1
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without p
and Game #2 w i l l r e s u l t from t h e ty p e o f m essage com m unicated.
The means
o f t h e t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #2 w i l l i n d ic a te a d e c re a s e when "no t r u s t
m e s s a g e s ' have been com m unicated, an in c r e a s e when a " 1 - t r u s t m essag e" h as
b e e n com m unicated and a h ig h i n c r e a s e when " 2 - t r u s t m essag es" h ave b een
com m unicated.
A n a ly s is o f t h e d a ta b a s ic to t h e second h y p o th e s is was t e s t e d
th ro u g h t h e u se o f t h e one-w ay a n a ly s i s o f v a r i a n c e .
T h is one-w ay a n a ly s i s
compared th e means o f p a ir e d s u b je c t s a c c o rd in g to ty p e s o f m essages
exchanged betw een s u b je c t s and t h e i r fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #1
a s compared to t h e i r fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #2.
The ty p e s o f m essages c i t e d i n T ab le 7 were d e fin e d i n th e f o llo w in g
No t r u s t m essage—n e i t h e r o f th e p a ir e d s u b je c t s s e n t a t r u s t
m essage to t h e i r p a r t n e r .
1 - t r u s t m essage— one o f th e p a ir e d s u b je c t s s e n t a t r u s t
m essage t o t h e i r p a r t n e r .
2 - t r u s t m essage—b o th p a ir e d s u b je c t s s e n t a t r u s t m essage to
e a ch o t h e r .
The fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s c i t e d in T ab le 7 i n d i c a t e t h e i n c r e a s e
o r d e c re a s e o f t r u s t c h o ic e means i n Game #2 when compared to t h e fre q u e n c y
o f t r u s t c h o ic e means i n Game #1.
A t r u s t c h o ic e was d e fin e d i n C h a p te r I I I
as b o th s u b je c t s r e c e i v in g 5 p o i n t s — th e B-2 c h o ic e .
T here w ere 9 t r i a l s
i n ea ch game, t h e r e f o r e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f 0 -9 t r u s t c h o ic e s i n e a ch
The s i z e o f t h e sam ple i n t h e t a b l e i s c i t e d by p a i r s o f s u b j e c t s .
T ab le
7 c o n ta in s th e r e s u l t s
o f t h i s a n a ly s i s .
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e , h a v in g a 2 and 111 d e g re e s
of
freedom , produced an F V alue o f 40 .4 6 and a p r o b a b i l i t y o f
p r o b a b ility
l e v e l o f .0001 d id n o t exceed th e e s ta b l is h e d
.0 0 0 1 .
The
.0 5 l e v e l o f
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
R e s u lts o f a One-Way A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e Showing
a C om parison o f Types o f M essages Communicated
and F requency o f T ru s t C hoices
M essage
S iz e By
P a irs
F requency
S ta n d ard
D e v ia tio n
No T ru s t
1 - T ru s t
2 -T ru s t
41
49
24
- .9268
2.184
5.0 0 0
1.539322
3.295663
2.519489
D egrees o f
Freedom
2
F
Value
P ro b a b ility
4 0 .4 6
.0 0 0 1
111
s ig n if ic a n c e .
The h ig h F V alue o f 4 0 .4 6 s u p p o rte d t h e o p e r a t io n a l h y p o th e s is
w hich s t a t e d t h a t a change i n t r u s t c h o ic e s would o c c u r i n Game #2 b e c au se
a com m unication m essage had been exchanged betw een s u b je c t s .
R e s u lts c i t e d i n th e fre q u e n c y column i n T ab le 7 show t h a t when no
t r u s t m essages w ere s e n t betw een s u b j e c t s , t r u s t c h o ic e s d e c re a s e d i n
Game #2.
I'Jhen one t r u s t m essage was s e n t betw een p a ir e d s u b j e c t s , th e mean
o f Game #2 i n c r e a s e d by 2 .18 4 more t r u s t c h o ic e s when compared to Game #1.
The m ost s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s o c c u rre d when b o th s u b je c t s s e n t t r u s t m essag es.
Game #2 showed an i n c r e a s e i n t h e mean s c o re by 5 .0 0 0 more t r u s t c h o ic e s
h a v in g o c c u rre d when compared to Game //I.
F u r th e r a n a ly s i s o f th e d a ta f o r o p e r a t io n a l h y p o th e s is two was
co m p leted th ro u g h th e u se o f t h e S c h e ffâ method t e s t i n g p ro c e d u re which
i s d e fin e d a s a m u lt ip l e com p ariso n s t a t i s t i c .
The S-Method i n d i c a t e s
f o r th e p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y w h e th e r th e mean o f Group 1 d i f f e r s
s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th e mean o f Group 2 , o r t h e mean o f Group 1 d i f f e r s
s i g n i f i c a n t l y from t h e mean o f Group 3 , o r t h e mean o f Group 2 d i f f e r s
s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th e mean o f Group 3.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
50
In T a b le
8
, Group 1 i s d e fin e d a s t h e no t r u s t m essage g ro u p .
Group 2 i s t h e 1 - t r u s t m essage group and Group 3 i s th e 2 - t r u s t m essage
T a b le
8
c o n ta in s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s .
T a b le
8
R e s u lts o f th e S c h e ffè M u ltip le C om parison
Showing D if fe r e n c e s betw een Group Means
A ccording to Types o f M essages S en t
Group
S iz e by P a i r s
Means
D if f e r e n c e s Between Means
1
41
- 0 .9 2 7
Group 1 -
2 = 3.111**
2
49
2 .1 8 4
Group 1 -
3 = 5.927**
3
24
5 .0 0 0
Group 2 -
3 = 2 .816**
* * S i g n if ic a n t a t 1 p e r c e n t.
The r e s u l t s o f th e S c h e ffè t e s t show t h a t t h e r e w ere s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e s among a l l t h r e e g ro u p s.
These added f in d i n g s f u r t h e r
s u p p o rt t h e h y p o th e s is t h a t t h e ty p e o f m essage s e n t i n f l u e n c e s t h e fre q u e n c y
o f t r u s t c h o ic e s betw een s u b je c t s when p la y in g Game #2 o f t h e P r i s o n e r ’ s
Dilemma game.
H y p o th e s is Two Summary
The s t a t i s t i c a l e v id e n c e p r e s e n te d i n t h e o p e r a t i o n a l h y p o th e s is
s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p p o rte d t h e h y p o th e s is t h a t t h e fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s
i n Game #1 p lu s t h e com m unication m essage w ould r e s u l t i n a change i n
fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #2 from Game #1.
H y p o th e s is T hree
T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s among C o n d itio n A,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
51
C o n d itio n B, and C o n d itio n C and th e m essage v a r i a b l e .
H y p o th e s is t h r e e i s su p p o rte d i f th e fo llo w in g o p e r a t io n a l
h y p o th e s is i s a c c e p te d .
O p e r a tio n a l H y p o th e sis T hree
The 2 V alue a s o b ta in e d by t h e a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e w i l l i n d i c a t e
no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s betw een C o n d itio n A, C o n d itio n B,
and C o n d itio n C and th e m essage v a r i a b l e .
To t e s t t h i s h y p o th e s is , a two-way a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e was u s e d .
T h is two-way a n a ly s i s o f v a ria n c e was used to d e te rm in e i f t h e ch an g e
i n t r u s t c h o ic e s was due to f a c t o r one— th e ty p e o f com m unication
m essage s e n t , f a c t o r two— th e se x o f th e p a ir e d s u b j e c t s , o r , an i n t e r ­
a c ti o n e f f e c t by b o th ty p e o f m essage and se x .
T a b le 9 and T a b le 10 c o n ta in s th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s .
T ab le 9
A Breakdown o f Mean S co res A cco rd in g
to Message and Sex
MF (C o n d itio n A)
S iz e by P a i r s
FF(C o n d itio n B)
M M (Condition C)
13
16
12
- .4 2
- .6 2
- 1 .5 6
No T r u s t
Mean
S iz e by P a i r s
S iz e by P a i r s
Mean
17
15
17
1 .3 5
2 .1 3
3 .0 6
9
10
5
4 .5 6
4 .6 0
6 .6 0
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
R e s u lts o f a Two-Way A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e Showing
th e F V alue and P r o b a b i l i t y L ev el
C e lls
2 V alue
P ro b a b ility
Row E f f e c t (M essage)
4 1 .5 2
.0 0 0 1
.6 0
.5484
1 .6 1
.1765
Column E f f e c t (Sex)
I n t e r a c t i o n E f f e c t (M essage and Sex)
A s i g n i f i c a n t row e f f e c t b etw een t h e ty p e o f m essage s e n t and th e
change in t h e fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game //2 was o b ta in e d .
The
a n a ly s i s produced an F Value o f 4 1 .5 2 and a p r o b a b i l i t y o f .0 0 0 1 .
The
p re - d e te r m in e d p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l o f .05 was n o t e x c ee d e d .
R e s u lts o f t h e column e f f e c t b etw een th e se x o f th e p a ir e d s u b je c t s
and t h e change i n t h e fre q u e n c y o f " r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #2 i n d ic a te d no
s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t b e c a u s e o f t h e s e x o f t h e s u b je c t .
p roduced an % Value o f .6 0 and a p r o b a b i l i t y o f .5 4 8 4 .
The a n a ly s i s
The p re -d e te r m in e d
p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l o f .0 5 was e x c ee d e d .
The i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t b etw een s e x o f th e p a ir e d s u b je c t s and th e
change i n th e fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #2 b e c a u s e o f t h e ty p e o f
m essage s e n t was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .
The a n a ly s i s o f v a r ia n c e p ro d u ced an
F Value o f 1 .6 1 and a p r o b a b i l i t y o f .1 7 6 5 .
The p r e - d e te r m in e d l e v e l o f
.0 5 was e x c ee d e d .
H y p o th e sis T hree Summary
The s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s p r e s e n te d f a i l e d to show t h a t t h e r e
w ould be a s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t b etw een C o n d itio n A, C o n d itio n
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
53
B and C o n n d itio n C and th e m essage v a r i a b l e .
The r e s u l t s f u r t h e r i n d ic a te d
t h a t th e ty p e o f com m unication m essage s e n t b etw een p a ir e d s u b je c t s i n a l l
t h r e e m essage ty p e groups h ig h ly i n flu e n c e d t h e i r fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t
c h o ic e s in Game #2.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
SUÎIMARY, FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
The Problem
The p u rp o se s o f t h i s s tu d y w ere;
(1) to i n v e s t i g a t e and m easure
c o m p e titiv e n e s s betw een s e x e s ; ( 2 ) to a n a ly z e t h e n o n v e rb a l m essage
com m unicated; and, (3) to e x p lo r e w h e th e r t r u s t was i n c r e a s e d a s a r e s u l t
o f t h e ty p e o f m essage s e n t.
A rev ie w o f th e r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e on c o m p e titiv e n e s s and t r u s t
produced a g e n e ra l agreem ent by m ost i f r i t e r s t h a t a c o m p e titiv e s i t u a t i o n
n e c e s s i t a t e s w inning o r lo s i n g .
C o m p e titio n in f l u e n c e s and ch an g es th e
a t t i t u d e s o f p a r t i c i p a n t s tow ard each o t h e r , g e n e r a l ly i n a n e g a tiv e
d ire c tio n .
P a r t i c i p a n t s a r e l e s s l i k e l y to com m unicate w ith each o t h e r w h ile
in th e c o m p e titiv e s i t u a t i o n .
S tu d ie s o f t r u s t r e v e a le d t h a t v a rio u s
e le m e n ts i n th e com m unication p r o c e s s in f l u e n c e t r u s t .
T r u s t i n o th e r s
o c c u rs when in d iv i d u a ls b e li e v e t h a t t h e o th e r p e rs o n w i l l p e rfo rm t r u s t ­
w orthy b e h a v io r s .
T ru s t in v o lv e s r i s k .
W ithout t h i s r i s k , i n d iv i d u a ls
may n e v e r e x p e rie n c e t r u s t .
V a rio u s s tu d i e s s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d to c o m p e titiv e n e s s betw een
m ales and fem a le s i n d ic a te d t h a t , i n g e n e r a l , m ales and fem a le s te n d to
show e q u a l c o m p e titiv e n e s s when th e y p la y e d w ith p a r t n e r s o f th e
o p p o s ite se x .
M ales and fem a le s ten d e d to a c t d i f f e r e n t l y when p la y in g
w ith a p a r t n e r o f t h e same se x .
The l i t e r a t u r e c o n ta in e d e v id e n c e t h a t t h e p e r c e p t io n o f t h e s u b 54
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
55
j e c t ' s c o m p e titiv e n e s s o r t r u s t w o r th i n e s s was a f f e c te d by th e com m unication
m essage.
S tu d ie s w ere somewhat lim it e d i n t h i s f i e l d u n t i l t h e l a t e
s ix tie s .
R e s e a rc h e rs a g re e d t h a t o p p o r tu n i ti e s f o r com m unication f a c i l i t a t e
th e developm ent o f t r u s t b u t t h a t t h e s e f a v o r a b le e f f e c t s o f com m unication
may be overcom e i f t h e o t h e r 's b e h a v io r e n c o u ra g e s e x p l o i t a t i o n o r d i s t r u s t .
An i n c r e a s e i n com m unication may r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r a c c u ra c y i n p e r c e i v in g
t h e a c t i o n s o r o p in io n s o f o t h e r s .
H y p o th eses
The h y p o th e s e s i n v e s t ig a t e d by t h i s s tu d y w ere:
1.
C o m p e titiv e n e ss betw een m ales and fem a le s a c r o s s a l l
t h r e e e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s w i l l n o t b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y
d i f f e r e n t when s u b je c t s p la y t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma
2.
The ty p e o f m essage t h a t i s comm unicated betw een s u b je c t s
T fill in f l u e n c e th e b u i ld i n g o f t r u s t betw een th e s e
s u b je c t s .
3.
T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t betw een
C o n d itio n A, C o n d itio n B, and C o n d itio n C and th e
m essage v a r i a b l e .
G e n e ra l D esign
I n s t r u c t o r s i n th e D epartm ent o f Com munication A rts and S c ie n c e s
a t W e ste rn M ichigan U n iv e r s ity w ere a sk ed i f t h i s r e s e a r c h e r c o u l'i
a d m in is te r t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game to t h e i r I n te r p e r s o n a l Com munication
c la s s e s .
The i n s t r u c t o r s resp o n d e d p o s i t i v e l y and a rra n g e m e n ts w ere
made t h a t t h i s r e s e a r c h e r would a d m in is te r t h e in s tru m e n t d u r in g
r e g u l a r c l a s s tim e .
Two hundred and t w e n ty - e ig h t s tu d e n t s a tt e n d in g W estern M ichigan
U n i v e r s i ty , W inter terra 1976, p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e e x p e rim e n t.
s tu d e n t s w ere random ly s e le c te d i n t o t h r e e game c o n d it i o n s .
These
C o n d itio n A
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
56
was u sed w ith 38 m ales and 38 fe m a le s .
C o n d itio n R wa,s u se d w ith 38 fem a le s
and 38 fem a le s and C o n d itio n C was u se d w ith 38 m ales and 38 m ale s.
S u b je c ts
w ere th e n random ly p a ir e d o p p o s ite ea ch o t h e r .
The P r is o n e r s * s Dilemma game, a n o n -ze ro -su m m ix ed -m o tiv e game, was
th e in s tr u m e n t used in t h i s s tu d y .
S u b je c ts w ere i n s t r u c t e d to re a d game d i r e c t i o n s s i l e n t l y and when
r e a d y , to nod to t h e i r p a r t n e r .
o f n in e t r i a l s .
They th e n p la y e d Game #1 w hich c o n s is te d
S c o res w ere th e n t o t a l e d a llo w in g f o r s u b je c t s to se e who
had won, l o s t , o r t i e d .
B e fo re p la y in g Game # 2 , s u b je c t s w ere t o l d t h a t th e y
c o u ld send a o n e -s e n te n c e n o n v e rb a l w r i t t e n m essage to t h e i r p a r t n e r .
T hese m essages were exchanged s im u lta n e o u s ly .
F o llo w in g th e re a d in g o f
th e m essage, s u b je c t s were i n s t r u c t e d to p la y Game #2.
t o t a l e d t h e i r s c o re s when f in i s h e d w ith Game //2.
A gain s u b je c t s
S u b je c ts w ere n o t
a llo w e d to v e r b a l iz e a lo u d w ith t h e i r p a r t n e r d u r in g t h e e n t i r e e x p e r i -
The u se o f t h i s e x p e rim e n ta l d e s ig n o f t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game
p ro v id e d f o r th e r e s e a r c h e r th r e e s e t s o f d a ta ;
( 1 ) th e t o t a l s c o re s o f
Game #1; (2) th e fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #2 a s compared w ith
Game #1; a n d , (3) th e i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t betw een C o n d itio n A, C o n d itio n B,
and C o n d itio n C and th e m essage v a r i a b l e .
A p p ro p ria te s t a t i s t i c a l te c h n iq u e s w ere u se d to a n a ly z e th e d a ta .
H y p o th e sis one r e q u ir e d t h a t t h e t o t a l s c o r e s i n Game #1 b e e v a lu a te d in
th e fo llo w in g ways :
1.
One h undred f o u r te e n m ale mean s c o re s b e compared w ith
one h undred f o u r te e n fem ale mean s c o r e s ,
2.
T h i r t y - e i g h t fem a le mean s c o r e s from C o n d itio n A, be
compared w ith 38 fem ale mean s c o re s from C o n d itio n B^, be
compared w ith 38 fem ale mean s c o re s from C o n d itio n 8 2 »
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
3.
T h i r t y - e i g h t m ale mean s c o re s from C o n d itio n A be compared
w ith 38 m ale mean s c o re s from C o n d itio n C^ b e compared w ith
38 m ale mean s c o re s from C o n d itio n C2 «
4.
T h i r t y - e i g h t m ale mean s c o re s be com pared w ith 38 fem ale
mean s c o re s i n C o n d itio n A.
5.
T h i r t y - e i g h t fem ale mean s c o re s b e com pared w ith 38
fem ale mean s c o re s i n C o n d itio n B.
6.
T h i r t y - e i g h t m ale mean s c o r e s be com pared w ith 38 m ale
mean s c o re s i n C o n d itio n C.
O p e r a tio n a l h y p o th e s is two r e q u i r e d a n e v a lu a t io n o f t h e fre q u e n c y
o f t r u s t c h o ic e s o c c u rr in g i n th e n in e t r i a l s o f Game #2 and t h e a n a ly z in g
o f t h e m essage comm unicated to th e fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #1.
The means o f p a ir e d s u b je c t s w ere com pared a c c o r d in g to th e ty p e o f
m essage s e n t .
S upplem entary a n a ly s i s o f t h e d a t a was c o m p leted to exam ine
w h e th e r t h e means o f th e m essage g ro u p s d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y .
The t h i r d o p e r a t io n a l h y p o th e s is exam ined w h e th e r t h e e f f e c t o f th e
ty p e o f m essage com m unicated, th e s e x o f t h e p a ir e d s u b je c t s and th e
i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t by b o th ty p e o f m essage and se x d e te rm in e d th e change
i n th e fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #2.
A gain t h e s e fre q u e n c y c h o ic e s
w ere compared to th e fre q u e n c y c h o ic e s i n Game #1.
F in d in g s
The d a ta a n a ly s i s t e s t i n g r e s u l t s o f t h e t h r e e h y p o th e s e s w ere
p r e s e n te d i n C ha p te r IV.
A su m m a riz a tio n o f t h e f in d i n g s f o llo w s .
H y p o th e s is One
A t e s t i n g o f h y p o th e s is one i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e w ere no s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e s betw een m ale and fem ale mean s c o r e s i n Game #1 a c r o s s a l l
t h r e e game c o n d it i o n s .
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c o m p e titiv e n e s s
was shown when a l l th e m ale mean s c o r e s w ere com pared w ith a l l th e fem ale
mean s c o r e s .
A com parison o f t h e mean s c o r e s o f t h e fem a le t o t a l Game #1
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
58
s c o r e s o f C o n d itio n A, when compared w ith th e fem ale mean s c o r e s o f C o n d itio n
when compared w ith th e fem ale mean s c o re s o f C o n d itio n B2 , showed no
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o m p e titiv e n e s s among t h e fem a le mean s c o r e s .
When th e m ale mean s c o re s were compared i n t h e same way, a g a in no
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c o n ç e t i ti v e n e s s was found among t h e i r mean
R e s u lts o f t e s t i n g t h e mean s c o re s o f C o n d itio n A, C o n d itio n B, and
C o n d itio n C in d ic a te d t h a t a l l th r e e p ro d u ced no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
i n mean s c o r e s .
T h is e v id e n c e in d ic a te d t h a t t h e s e x o f t h e s u b je c t made
no a p p a re n t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c o m p e titiv e n e s s when p la y in g Game #1
o f t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game.
H y p o th e sis Two
The r e s u l t s from t e s t i n g t h e seco n d h y p o th e s is i n d ic a te d t h a t th e
fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s changed i n Game #2 when com pared w ith Game #1
b e c au se o f th e ty p e o f com m unication m essage exchanged b etw een s u b j e c t s .
T h is m essage was exchanged j u s t p r i o r to t h e p la y in g o f Game #2.
T h is
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #2 when compared
w ith Game #1 s u g g e ste d t h a t th e c o n te n t o r ty p e o f t h e n o n v e rb a l m essage
com m unicated p la y e d an im p o rta n t r o l e i n t h e way s u b je c t s c h o se to p la y
Game #2 o f t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game.
These r e s u l t s showed t h a t when
"no t r u s t " ty p e o f m essages were eix h a n g e d betw een s u b j e c t s t h e i r t r u s t
c h o ic e s d e c re a s e d i n Game #2 when compared to Game //I.
When a " 1 - t r u s t "
ty p e o f m essage was s e n t betw een p a ir e d s u b je c t s a mean i n c r e a s e o f two
t r u s t c h o ic e s o c c u rre d i n Game #2 when compared to Game #1.
The m ost
s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s o c c u rre d when b o th s u b je c t s s e n t t r u s t m essa g e s.
The
fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s in c r e a s e d th e mean s c o re by f i v e more t r u s t
c h o ic e s i n Game #2 when compared w ith Game #1.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
59
S u pplem entary A n a ly s is o f H y p o th e s is Two
A f u r t h e r stu d y o f t h e m essage ty p e g ro u p s was c o m p leted f o r t h e p u rp o se
o f e x a m ining w h e th e r t h e r e w ere any s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e
means o f g roups 1, 2 , arid 3.
R e s u lts i n d ic a te d :
(1) t h a t t h e mean o f
Group 1 d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th e mean o f Group 2; (2) t h a t th e mean
o f Group 1 d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from t h e mean o f Group 3; a n d , (3) t h a t
t h e mean o f Group 2 d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th e mean o f Group 3.
These added f in d i n g s r e i n f o r c e t h e h y p o th e s is t h a t t h e c o n te n t o r ty p e
o f m essage s e n t s i g n i f i c a n t l y in f l u e n c e s th e fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s
b etw een s u b je c t s when p la y in g Game #2 o f th e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game.
H y p o th e s is Three
The f in d in g s w hich r e s u l t e d from t e s t i n g h y p o th e s is t h r e e in d ic a te d
t h a t t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t betw een C o n d itio n A,
C o n d itio n B, and C o n d itio n C and th e m essage v a r i a b l e .
in d ic a te d :
These r e s u l t s
(1) t h a t t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t i n th e fre q u e n c y o f
t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #2 when compared w ith Game #1 b e c a u s e o f th e c o n te n t
o r ty p e o f n o n v e rb a l m essage com m unicated betw een p a ir e d s u b j e c t s ; (2)
t h a t t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t b etw een th e s e x o f t h e p a ir e d
s u b je c t s and t h e change i n t h e fre q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #2
when compared w ith Game #1; a n d , (3) t h a t t h e r e was a ls o no s i g n i f i c a n t
i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t betw een t h e s e x o f t h e p a ir e d s u b je c t s and t h e change i n
f re q u e n c y o f t r u s t c h o ic e s i n Game #2 when compared w ith Game #1 b e c au se
o f t h e c o n te n t o r ty p e o f n o n v e rb a l m essage com m unicated.
C o n c lu sio n s
The e m p ir ic a l d a ta from t h i s s tu d y p ro d u ce d t h r e e i n i t i a l
c o n c lu s io n s :
(1) t h a t th e se x o f s tu d e n t s a tt e n d in g W estern M ichigan
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
60
U n iv e r s ity makes no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r d e s i r e to com pete w ith
e a ch o t h e r ; (2) t h a t t h e c o n te n t o r ty p e o f m essage comm unicated betw een
s tu d e n t s in c r e a s e d o r d e c re a s e d t r u s t b etw een t h e s e same s tu d e n ts ; an d ,
(3) t h a t t h e se x o f t h e s tu d e n t s e n d in g th e m essage had no s i g n i f i c a n t
e f f e c t upon t h e in c r e a s e o r d e c re a s e i n t r u s t betw een t h e s e same
s tu d e n t s .
T h is s tu d y s u g g e s ts t h a t m ale and fem a le s tu d e n t s a r e b a s i c a l l y
c o m p e titiv e and t h a t th e se x o f t h e s tu d e n t do es n o t change t h i s d e s ir e
to com pete.
S tu d ie s by W iley (1 9 6 8 ), V inacke (1 9 6 9 ), and H a rw ell and S c h m itt
(1975) s u p p o rt th e s e f in d i n g s .
R e s u lts o f t h i s s tu d y c o n firm r e p o r t s t h a t
women to d ay a re n o t t h r e a te n e d by a m a s c u lin e - o r ie n te d c o m p e titiv e
s o c ie t y .
Fem ale s tu d e n t s d id n o t ta k e th e su b m is s iv e r o l e when p la y in g
a g a in s t t h e m ales b u t seemed to p e r c e iv e th e m se lv e s a s c a p a b le o f b e in g
a s c o m p e titiv e a s
t h e i r m ale c o u n te r p a r t s .
A p o s s ib l e r e a s o n f o r t h e h ig h ly c o m p e titiv e r e s u l t s i n Game #1
may a ls o be due to t h e f a c t t h a t s tu d e n t s c o u ld n o t comm unicate w ith each
o t h e r b e fo r e and th ro u g h o u t t h e game.
Terhune (1968) co n c lu d e d t h a t when
th e o p p o r tu n ity f o r com m unication d oes n o t o c c u r, c o m p e titiv e n e s s i s h e ig h t ­
ened.
A nother re a s o n may hav e b een t h a t an i n i t i a l r e a c t i o n to any game
s i t u a t i o n i s t h a t someone m ust w in o r l o s e a lth o u g h i f s tu d e n t s had
re a d th e game i n s t r u c t i o n s th o ro u g h ly t h i s was c l e a r l y n o t s t a t e d .
The second s e c t i o n o f t h e s tu d y i n v e s t i g a t e d th e e f f e c t com m unication
w ould have upon th e in c r e a s e o r d e c re a s e o f t r u s t among s tu d e n t s .
The a u th o r
a g re e s w ith Sereno and Bodaken (1975) when th e y s t a t e t h a t " t r u s t i s an i n t e r ­
p e r s o n a l com m unication f a c t o r c o n s i s t i n g o f f e e l in g s t h a t th e o t h e r p e rs o n
w i l l n o t ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f you and h a s y o u r c o n c e rn s a t h e a r t ; c r u c i a l to
th e developm ent o f m e a n in g fu l i n ti m a t e com m unication (p . 1 9 2 ) ."
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
T h is r e s e a r c h e r c o n c lu d e s , on t h e b a s i s o f t h e d a ta a n a l y s i s , t h a t
when com m unication to o k p la c e betw een s t u d e n t s , t h i s com m unication
i n c r e a s e d o r d e c re a s e d th e t r u s t v a r i a b l e among t h e s e s tu d e n t s .
Of
g r e a t e r im p o rta n c e to t h i s s tu d y w ere th e f in d i n g s r e g a r d in g th e ty p e
o f m essage b e in g comm unicated.
These f in d i n g s i n d ic a te d t h a t j u s t th e
o p p o r tu n ity to comm unicate w ith a n o th e r s tu d e n t d id n o t mean t h a t t r u s t
would in c r e a s e o r even o c c u r; t h e r e f o r e , t h e c o n te n t o f t h e m essage
com m unicated became th e im p o rta n t v a r i a b l e i n t h i s s tu d y .
The r e s u l t s o f t h e d a ta showed t h a t when s tu d e n t s d id n o t in c lu d e
t r u s t i n t h e i r com m unication m essag e, t h e i r t r u s t o f e ach o t h e r d e c re a s e d
w h ile i f one o f th e s tu d e n ts com m unicated a t r u s t m essag e, t h e i r t r u s t o f
each o th e r showed an i n c r e a s e .
When b o th s tu d e n t s com m unicated a t r u s t
m essage, t r u s t in c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y .
These f in d i n g s s u p p o rt th e
a u t h o r 's c o n c lu s io n s t h a t th e o p p o r tu n ity f o r com m unication among s tu d e n ts
i s n e c e s s a r y i f t r u s t i s to be i n c r e a s e d among th e s e same s tu d e n t s .
The
c o n te n t o f t h a t com m unication th e n d e te rm in e s th e i n c r e a s e o r d e c re a s e o f
t r u s t betw een th e s e same s tu d e n t s .
Loomis (1 9 5 9 ), B e rio ( 1 9 6 0 ), Terhune
(1 9 6 8 ), and D o o l i t t l e (1976) found s i m i l a r r e s u l t s i n t h e i r s tu d i e s o f
th e e f f e c t o f com m unication i n i n c r e a s i n g o r d e c r e a s in g t r u s t betw een
p e rs o n s .
F u r th e r s u p p o rt f o r t h e t h i r d h y p o th e s is was i n d ic a te d by th e r e s u l t s
o f d a ta i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e e f f e c t se x may h av e h ad on t h e i n c r e a s e o r
d e c re a s e o f t r u s t betw een s tu d e n t s .
T h is r e s e a r c h e r c o u ld n o t f in d o th e r
r e l a t e d s tu d i e s com paring t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s e x and t h e e f f e c t th e
com m unication m essage had upon i n c r e a s i n g o r d e c re a s in g t r u s t .
Thus th e
f i n a l c o n c lu s io n s were drawn s u p p o rtin g t h e t h i r d h y p o th e s is .
The se x o f
th e s tu d e n t se n d in g o r r e c e i v in g t h e com m unication m essage d id n o t e f f e c t
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
th e in c r e a s e o r d e c re a s e o f t r u s t b u t t h e c o n te n t o f th e m essage
com m unicated s i g n i f i c a n t l y e f f e c t e d t h e in c r e a s e o r d e c re a s e o f t r u s t .
T h is s tu d y seems to c o n firm t h e a u th o r ’ s b e l i e f t h a t c o m p e titio n
i s a b a s ic b e h a v io r i n s tu d e n t s on W estern M ichigan U n i v e r s i t y 's
campus.
T o d a y 's s tu d e n t , m ale and fe m a le , r e a l i z e s t h a t jo b s a r e s c a r c e ,
e d u c a tio n i s e x p e n siv e and t h e r e f o r e one m ust com pete to p ro v e s e l f i d e n t i t y and s e lf - w o r th .
Y e t, when th e s e same s tu d e n t s hav e an o p p o r tu n ity
to comm unicate t h e i r f e e l i n g s , i d e a s , and i n t e n t i o n s th e y w i l l be more
e n a b le d to make d e c is io n s and to l i v e l i v e s b a sed on m u tu al t r u s t .
I t is
t h i s m u tu a l t r u s t w hich w i l l p ro v id e t h e a tm o sp h ere n e c e s s a r y f o r s tu d e n t s
to f a c e t h e complex t a s k s o f t h e human e n t e r p r i s e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX A
D a te :
To:
From:
R e g a rd in g :
December 1 9 , 1976
I n s t r u c t o r s o f I n te r p e r s o n a l Com munications 170
S h i r l e y A. Van Hoeven
P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game
I have r e c e iv e d t h e "go ah ead " s ig n from my d o c to r a l com m ittee to ru n
t h e d a ta , J a n u a ry 1 2 -1 6 , 1976. Thanks to you t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n i s now
p o s s ib l e . We t a l k e d i n O c to b e r a b o u t my u s in g y o u r I n te r p e r s o n a l Communi­
c a ti o n 170 c la s s e s to p la y t h e P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game. I hope t h a t you
a r e s t i l l w ith me on t h i s v e r b a l ag re e m en t.
The P r i s o n e r 's Dilemma game sh o u ld ta k e a b o u t 40 to 50 m in u te s to
a d m i n i s t e r to y o u r c l a s s .
I w i l l a d m in is te r t h e game.
I need t h e f o llo w in g i n fo r m a tio n from ea ch o f you t h e f i r s t week o f
W in te r term :
1.
S iz e o f c l a s s _____________________________ .
2.
Number o f m ales and fem a le s
3.
C la s s m e e tin g tim e __________
4.
C lassroom number
When I r e c e i v e t h i s in f o r m a tio n , I w i l l l e t you know when I w i l l
a d m i n i s t e r t h e game.
Thanks so much f o r y o u r s u p p o rt.
S h i r l e y A. Van Hoeven
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX B
OBJECT;
The o b j e c t o f t h e game i s f o r e ach p e rs o n to m axim ize o n e 's
p o s itiv e s c o re .
1.
Each w i l l g e t two c a r d s . One s e t o f two c a rd s w i l l h ave a "1" and
"2" on them ; th e s e co n d s e t w i l l have an "A" and "B” on them ,
2.
W ith each t r i a l ,
h e r c a r d s . T hat
th e o t h e r p l a y e r
3.
Each p l a y e r sh o u ld in d e p e n d e n tly d e te rm in e w hich s t r a t e g y w i l l b e s t
m axim ize o n e 's p o s i t i v e s c o r e . P la y e r s s h o u ld n o t i n d i c a t e w hich
c a rd i s goin g to be h e ld up u n t i l t h e t r i a l b e g in s ,
4.
I f P la y e r
1 ,2 h o ld s up "1 " and
P la y e r A,B h o ld s
up "A ", th e n re c o
th e s c o re s l i s t e d i n box lA , In t h i s i n s t a n c e , b o th p la y e r s l o s e
5 p o i n ts .
t h e p l a y e r s w i l l s im u lta n e o u s ly h o ld up one o f h i s /
i s , one p l a y e r w i l l h o ld up e i t h e r "1 " o r "2" and
w i l l h o ld up e i t h e r "A" o r "B” .
I f P la y e r 1 ,2 h o ld s up "2 " and P la y e r A,B h o ld s up "A", th e n re c o rd
th e s c o re s l i s t e d i n box 2A. I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , P la y e r 1 ,2 l o s e s
10 p o i n ts
and P la y e r A,B g a in s
10 p o i n t s .
I f P la y e r
1 ,2 h o ld s up "1 " and
P la y e r A,B h o ld s
up "B ", th e n re c o r d
th e s c o r e s l i s t e d i n box IB . In t h i s i n s t a n c e . P la y e r 1 ,2 g a in s
10 p o i n ts
and P l a y e r A,B l o s e s
10 p o i n ts .
I f P la y e r
1 ,2 h o ld s up "2 " and
P la y e r A,B h o ld s
up "B ", th e n re c o rd
th e s c o re s l i s t e d i n box 2B. In t h i s i n s t a n c e , b o th p l a y e r s would
g a in 5 p o i n ts .
5.
A f t e r e ach t r i a l , r e c o r d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s c o re s i n t h e t a b l e s .
w i l l be 9 t r i a l s w i t h in e ach game. You w i l l p la y 2 games,
6.
P le a s e do n o t t a l k to y o u r p a r t n e r a t any tim e d u r in g t h e game,
7.
A f t e r you f i n i s h e a c h game, w a it f o r f u r t h e r i n s t r u c t i o n s .
There
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
THE GAME
The f o llo w in g s q u a re s l i s t th e s c o re s e a ch p l a y e r w i l l r e c e i v e :
PLAYER 1 .2
2
1
P la y e r 1 ,2 = - 5
P la y e r 1 ,2 = -1 0
P la y e r A,B = - 5
P la y e r A,B = +10
PLAYER A.B
P la y e r 1 ,2 = +10
P la y e r 1 ,2 = + 5
P la y e r A,B = -1 0
P la y e r A,B = + 5
GAME #2
( 1 ,2 )
(A,B)
GAME #1
( 1 ,2 )
(A,B)
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
4.
5.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
TOTAL
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
B e c k e r, G. M ., & M cC lintock, C. G. V alu e; b e h a v io r d e c is i o n th e o r y . In
P. R. F a rn sw o rth , e t a l . (E d s .) Annual Review o f P s y c h o lo g y , 1 8 ,
P a lo A lto , C a .: A nnual R eview s, 1967, 239-286.
B e r io , D. K. The p r o c e s s o f com m unication.
W in sto n , 1960.
New Y ork;
H o lt, R in e h a rt and
B ix e n s tin e , V. E. & W ilso n , K. V. E f f e c t s o f l e v e l o f c o o p e r a tiv e c h o ic e
by th e p l a y e r i n a p r i s o n e r ’ s dilem ma gamei P a r t I I . J o u r n a l o f
Abnormal and S o c ia l P s y c h o lo g y , 1963,
1 3 9 -147.
B rooks, W. D. & Emmert, P. I n te r p e r s o n a l com m u n icatio n .
W illia m C. Brown C o., 1976, 184-186.
Dubuque, Iow a;
D ance, F. E. X. & L a rso n , C. E. The f u n c tio n s o f human c o m m u n icatio n.
New Y ork: H o lt, R in e h a rt and W in sto n , 1976.
D e u ts c h , M. A. Theory o f c o o p e ra tio n and c o m p e titio n .
1949, 2 , 129-152.
Human R e l a t i o n s ,
D e u ts c h , M. B a rg a in in g , t h r e a t and com m unication; some e x p e rim e n ta l
s tu d ie s .
In K a th le e n A rc h ib a ld ( E d .) , S t r a t e g i c i n t e r a c t i o n and
c o n f l i c t . B e rk e le y ; U n iv e r s ity o f C a l i f o r n i a I n s t i t u t e o f
I n t e r n a t i o n a l S tu d ie s , 1966, 40.
D e u ts c h , M. C o o p e ra tio n and t r u s t ; some t h e o r e t i c a l n o t e s .
In M. R.
J o n e s ( E d .) , N ebraska symposium on m o tiv a tio n . L in c o ln , N e b .;
U n i v e r s i ty o f N ebraska P r e s s , 1962, 275-320.
D e u ts c h , M. The e f f e c t o f m o tiv a tio n a l o r i e n t a t i o n upon t r u s t and
s u s p ic i o n . Human R e l a ti o n s . 1960, 1 3 , 1 23-139,
D eV ito, J . A. The i n t e r p e r s o n a l com m unication b o o k .
Row, 1976.
New Y ork;
D o o l i t t l e , R. J . O r i e n t a ti o n s to com m unication and c o n f l i c t .
S. R. A ., I n c . , C hicag o , 1976.
H a rp e r
Modcom,
E vans, G. E f f e c t o f u n i l a t e r a l p ro m ise and v a lu e o f rew a rd s upon
c o o p e ra tio n and t r u s t . J o u rn a l o f Abnormal and S o c ia l P s y c h o lo g y ,
1964, 6±y 587-590.
G ahagan, J . P. & T e d e s c h i, J . T. S tra te g y and t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f p ro m is e s
i n t h e p r i s o n e r ’ s dilemma game. J o u rn a l o f C o n f l ic t R e s o l u ti o n ,
1 967, 12, 224-234.
66
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
G a llo , P. S. & M cC lin to ck , C. G. C o o p e ra tiv e and c o m p e titiv e b e h a v io r
i n m ixed m o tiv e games. J o u r n a l o f C o n f lic t R e s o lu tio n , 1965, 2» 6 8 -7 8 .
G re g o v ic h , R. P. Sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p r i s o n e r 's dilem ma game.
A rb o r, M ic h .: U n iv e r s ity M ic r o film s . D i s s e r t a t i o n , 1968.
G if f i n , K. & B a m e s , R. E. T r u s tin g me, t r u s t i n g y o u .
C h a r le s E. M e r r i l l , 1976.
J o n e s , E. E. & G e ra rd , H. B.
W iley and S ons, 1967.
Ann
Columbus, O hio;
F o u n d a tio n s o f s o c i a l p sy c h o lo g y .
K e l tn e r , J . W. E lem ents o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l com m unication.
W adsworth P u b ., 1973.
New Y ork:
B elm ont, C a l i f . :
K o m o rita, S. S. C o o p e ra tiv e c h o ic e i n a p r i s o n e r 's dilemma game.
o f P e r s o n a l i t y and S o c ia l P sy c h o lo g y , 1965, 2 , 741-745.
J o u rn a l
L ave, L. B. F a c to r s a f f e c t i n g c o o p e ra tio n i n th e p r i s o n e r 's dilem m a,
C a rn e g ie I n s t i t u t e o f T ech n o lo g y . P i t t s b u r g 1 3 , Penn. G rad u ate
S chool o f I n d u s t r i a l A d m in is tr a tio n , 1963.
L e a th e r s , D. G. The p r o c e s s e f f e c t s o f t r u s t - d e s t r o y i n g b e h a v io r i n th e
s m a ll gro u p . Speech M onographs, 1970, 37.» 180-187.
L i k e r t , R.
The human o r g a n i z a t i o n .
New Y ork:
M cGraw-Hill Book C o ., 1967.
Loom is, J . L. Com m unication, t h e developm ent o f t r u s t and c o o p e ra tiv e
b e h a v io r . Human R e l a ti o n s , 1959, l ^ , 305-315,
L uce, R. D. & R a i f f a , H,
and Sons, 1957.
Games and d e c i s i o n s .
New Y ork:
John W iley
M arw ell, G. & Schm idt, D. R. C o o p e ra tio n and e x p e rim e n ta l a n a l y s i s .
New Y ork: Academic P r e s s , 1975.
May, M. A. & D oole, L. W. C o o p e ra tio n and c o m p e titio n .
R e se a rc h C o u n c il B u l l e t i n , 1 25, 1937.
S o c ia l S c ie n c e
Mead, M. C o o p e ra tio n and c o m p e titio n among p r im it iv e p e o p le s .
B eacon P r e s s , 1937.
P a t to n , B. R. & G i f f i n , K.
& Row, 1974.
I n te r p e r s o n a l co m m unication.
P e a rc e , W. B. T r u s t i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l com m unication.
A ugust 1974,
236-244,
B o sto n :
New Y ork;
H a rp e r
Speech M onographs,
P i l i s u k , M. & S k o ln ic k , P. I n d u c in g t r u s t : a t e s t o f th e osgood p r o p o s a l.
J o u r n a l o f P e r s o n a l it y and S o c ia l P sy c h o lo g y . 1968, 2» 121-133.
Radlow, R. & W eidner, M. F. U n enforced commitments i n " c o o p e ra tiv e " and
" n o n c o o p e ra tiv e " n o n c o n s ta n t-s u m games. J o u rn a l o f C o n f l ic t R e s o l u ti o n ,
1966, 1 0 , 497-505.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
R a p o p o rt, A. & Chammah, A. M. Sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n f a c t o r s c o n tr i b u ti n g to
th e l e v e l o f c o o p e ra tio n i n th e p r i s o n e r 's dilemma game. J o u r n a l o f
P e r s o n a l it y and S o c ia l P s y c h o lo g y , 1965, 2 , 831-838.
R a p o p o rt, A. Form al games a s p ro b in g t o o l s f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g b e h a v io r
m o tiv a te d by t r u s t and s u s p ic i o n . M ental H e a lth R e se a rc h I n s t i t u t e ,
U n iv e r s ity o f M ic h ig a n , December 1962. R ep o rted i n Women Today,
March 17, 1975, _5, n o . 6 , 3 5 -3 6 .
R o th w e ll, J . D. & C o s tig a n , J . I .
I n te r p e r s o n a l co m m u n icatio n .
Ohio: C h a rle s E. M e r r i l l , 1975.
Ryan,
E. D. & L a k ie , W. L. C o m p e titiv e and none
r e l a t i o n to a c h ie v e m e n t, m o tiv e and m anife
P e r s o n a l it y and S o c ia l P sy c h o lo g y , 1965,
Columbus,
v ^ citiv e p e rfo rm a n c e i n
a n x ie ty . J o u rn a l o f
(42- 345.
S c a d e l, A ., M inar, J . S . , R a to o sh , P. & L i p e tz , M. Some d e s c r i p t i v e
a s p e c ts o f tw o -p e rs o n n o n -z e ro -su m games. J o u rn a l o f C o n f lic t
R e s o l u ti o n , 1959, _3, 1 1 4 -119,
S c h e llin g , T. C. The s t r a t e g y o f c o n f l i c t .
P r e s s , 1960.
Cam bridge;
H arv ard U n i v e r s ity
S e ren o , K. K. & Bodaken, E. M. T r a n s - p e r u n d e rs ta n d in g human co m m u n icatio n .
B osto n : H o u g h to n -M ifflin , 1975.
S u l li v a n , H. S.
1953.
The i n t e r p e r s o n a l th e o r y o f p s y c h i a t r y .
Swensen, C. H. I n tr o d u c ti o n to i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s .
S c o t t , Foresm an, 1973.
New Y ork;
N o rto n ,
G lenview , 1 1 1 .:
Terhune, K. W. M o tiv e s , s i t u a t i o n , and i n te r p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t w ith in th e
p r i s o n e r 's dilem m a. J o u r n a l o f P e r s o n a l it y and S o c ia l P sy c h o lo g y ,
Monograph Supplem ent, 1968, 8 , 1 -2 4 .
V inacky, W. E. V a r ia b le s i n e x p e rim e n ta l games;
P s y c h o lo g ic a l B u l l e t i n , 1969, 7 1 , 293-317.
tow ard a f i e l d th e o r y .
W ile y , M, G. M. Sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o o p e ra tio n and c o m p e titio n ,
M ic h ., U n i v e r s ity M ic r o film s . D i s s e r t a t i o n , 1968.
Ann A rb o r,
W ilso n , K. V. & B i x e n s tin e , V. E, Forms o f s o c i a l c o n tr o l i n tw o -p e rs o n ,
tw o -c h o ic e games. B e h a v io ra l S c ie n c e , 1962, 1^, 92-102.
W rightsm an, L. S. P e r s o n a l it y and a t t i t u d i n a l c o r r e l a t e s o f t r u s t i n g and
t r u s tw o r th y b e h a v io r s i n a tw o -p erso n game. J o u rn a l o f P e r s o n a l it y
and S o c ia l P s y c h o lo g y . 1966,
3 28-332,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.