Plot – the development of the central conflict through a series of related actions or events in a short story,
novel, play, or narrative poem. This sequence of actions consists of the following:
exposition – the introduction or opening to a story in which several key elements are revealed, such as
setting, character, and point of view.
conflict – a struggle between opposing forces (examples: individual vs. individual, individual vs. nature,
individual vs. society, individual vs. supernatural, individual vs. technology, individual vs. self).
rising action – the events leading up to the climax of a story; conflicts occur.
climax – often the point of highest interest in a story; the conflicts and complications reach a critical
point and the action shifts dramatically.
falling action – the conflicts are resolving and the action is settling.
resolution – the closing events; conflict is resolved and questions are answered.
denouement – any events which occur after the resolution of a story; also known
as the “obligatory scene,” or the “they lived happily ever after.” This scene is not as popular in modern
fiction.
Plot Mapping
climax
rising action
conflict
exposition
falling action
resolution
denouement
Point-of-View – the narrative perspective of a story:
first person – the narrator is a character in a story, referring to him- or herself as “I,” and presenting
only what he or she knows about the events.
second person – the narrator uses “you” and addresses the reader as part of the story; this is a rare
point of view (example: Choose Your Own Adventure books).
third person omniscient – the narrator is not a character in the story but views the story through the
eyes of more than one character.
third person limited – the narrator is not a character, but he or she presents the story from the
perspective of one of the characters. That character’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences are the focus
of attention.
Theme – the theme is the central idea or unifying concept of a story, or it is the general idea about life that is
revealed through a story. Sometimes the theme of a story is stated directly. Sometimes you must draw a
conclusion about the theme by considering all of the story’s elements.
Setting – the setting of a story is the time and place of the action. In a story, the setting is usually presented
through detailed descriptions. In some stories, the setting plays a very important role. It affects what happens
to the characters and what they will learn about life. Setting includes time as well as the location in a story. In
some stories, time period is important and is therefore reflected in the characters’ speech, dress, customs,
actions, and beliefs.
Character
A person or animal who takes part in the action of a literary work. The character who drives the action
and is at the center of the story is the protagonist. Often the protagonist changes in some important
way during the story. Minor characters are not the main focus but help the reader learn more about
the protagonist. The antagonist is a character who works against the protagonist and causes conflict.
Characters are described by their traits. They can be classified and described as:
static characters – these characters remain the same during the course of the story.
dynamic characters – these characters change during the course of and as a result of the story.
round characters – like real people; they are complex, revealing several sides to their personality.
flat characters – one-dimensional; uncomplicated characters who stay the same throughout the
story.
stock characters – these are characters that are stereotypical, such as sidekicks, and their traits are
predictably determined by their role.
Characterization – the way a writer presents and develops a character in a story.
direct characterization – the writer tells the reader directly what the character is like (“Sarah was a
social butterfly.”)
indirect characterization – the writer reveals a character through what he/she looks like, says, and
does, and lets the reader draw conclusions (inferences) about what the character is like (“Sarah
smiled as she entered the room, saying hello and greeting each person enthusiastically.”)
tone – the attitude the writer takes towards the audience or subject as conveyed by the language and rhythm of
the speaker of a literary work.
style or voice – a writer’s characteristic manner of using and structuring language.
diction – word choice; the specific language an author chooses.
syntax – the sentence structure.
mood – the mood, or atmosphere, of a story is the overall emotional feeling created by the details. Sometimes
you may be able to describe the atmosphere in a single word (sad, frightening, or mysterious, for example).
Authors create mood with their descriptions of the setting, characters, and events.
allusion – a reference to a well-known person, place, literary work or event in another work of literature or
speech.
dialogue – a conversation between two or more characters.
irony – when an author deliberately uses language to reveal something opposite or contradictory to what is
stated or expected.
Verbal irony occurs when a character says one thing but means the opposite. (“Oh, fantastic!” he muttered
when he saw the flat tire.)
Dramatic irony occurs when the audience is aware of something that the characters on stage are not. For
example, in Romeo and Juliet, the audience knows that Juliet is not dead as Romeo mourns at her grave.
Situational irony occurs when what happens in reality is the opposite of what is expected or appropriate.
imagery – includes any descriptions that appeal to the reader’s senses. It is often used to develop mood and
establish tone.
symbol – an object, action, or idea that stands for something other than itself. For example, a lion is an animal
that lives in Africa or Asia, but is also a symbol of courage and strength.
flashback – a scene inserted into a story showing the events that occurred in the past.
foreshadowing – when the author provides clues that hint at events that will take place later in a story.
hyperbole – a deliberate, often outrageous, exaggeration. It may be used for serious or comic effect.
understatement – the opposite of hyperbole. It is a kind of verbal irony that deliberatively represents something
as being less than it is.
metaphor – a comparison of two things that does not use “like” or “as.” An extended metaphor is one which is
developed by reoccurring throughout or giving structure to a story or poem.
simile – a comparison that uses comparative words, such as “like” or
“as.”
generalization – a conclusion you draw from similarities and patterns
among various examples.
inference – the conclusions a reader develops based upon the
information presented.