PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
DIETARY MANIPULATION
PRE-COMPETITION
 Carbohydrate (CHO) Loading is a dietary strategy aimed at increasing the body’s
glycogen stores prior to an event to improve performance time
 This involves a 10-day programme
o High intensity exercise for 7 days before an event to deplete muscle
glycogen stores
o In the first 3 days a diet high in fat and protein is consumed to fully deprive
the muscles of CHO, whilst on a reduced or tapered training load (this
increases the activity of glycogen-synthase, which helps break down
glycogen)
o High CHO and fluid diet 3-4 days prior to the event along with low fat and
protein consumption on a low training load (this loads muscles with
glycogen)
o More glycogen is able to be stored due to the increase in Glycogensynthase
Summary of Carbohydrate Loading
POSITIVE EFFECTS
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
Increases muscle glycogen
levels prior to competition.
Quality of training may suffer
with low glycogen levels.
Athlete may gain weight due to
water retention.
USERS
LEGAL
STATUS
Long-distance
Legal
Aerobic
athletes
COMPETITION DAY
 CHO-rich meal 2-4 hours before an event tops up liver glycogen stores
 High volumes of food and fibre-type foods should not be consumed in the days
leading up to the event (which can cause digestive problems)
 CHO should be avoided one hour before the event (which can cause a decrease in
muscle glycogen stores) as this may cause rebound hypoglycaemia, which may
actually decrease muscle glycogen stores and bring on earlier onset of muscle
fatigue
 Consuming a chocolate bar 5 minutes before an event can actually provide an
energy fuel during the activity
Summary of Pre-Event Meals
POSITIVE EFFECTS
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
Muscle glycogen levels and If meal is eaten 15-45 mins
liver glycogen stores are
before exercise it can cause
high. Glucose can be eaten early exhaustion.
just before exercise.
1
USERS
Games
players and
Aerobic
athletes
LEGAL
STATUS
Legal
DURING EXERCISE
 Performers should consume frequent but small amounts of food or drink high in
CHO during activity of 45 or more minutes (this replenishes vital glycogen stires
and delay’s fatigue)
 There is less need to consume CHO during exercise if the duration is less than 45
minutes
 Examples of CHO food consumed during exercise include bananas, glucose
tablets, gels and sports jelly beans, or the preferred CHO drink
FLUID INTAKE DURING EXERCISE
 The state of Hydration (water content) changes from at rest to different exercise
conditions
 If you feel thirsty then you are too late for hydration
 Water intake during prolonged exercise reduces the risk of dehydration and
optimises performance
 Dehydration will increase the temperature and with have a detrimental effect on
performance (possibly leading to heat exhaustion)
 Hydrating the body before an event will help to prevent dehydration etc
Summary of Food/Fluid Intake During Exercise
POSITIVE EFFECTS
Consuming small amounts
of carbs maintains blood
glucose level.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
Feeling uncomfortable when
exercising. Gastro problems
may occur.
USERS
Athletes
performing
longer that 45
mins
LEGAL
STATUS
Legal
TYPES OF SPORTS DRINKS
 Hypotonic drinks have lower levels of glucose than blood (about 4% glucose).
They are vital during prolonged exercise. Drinking 4-8g of CHO per 100ml solution
every 10-15 minutes reduces the risk of dehydration and provides a partial energy
supplement
 Isotonic drinks promote fluid hydration and replenishment of glucose during
endurance events of more than one hour. They have equal levels of glucose as the
blood (5-7% glucose)
 Hypertonic drinks are suitable as a recovery drink post-activity as they have
higher levels of glucose (19%). These increase dehydration, so should not be
consumed during the activity, as water is needed to help dilute CHO as it is
converted into glycogen/glucose
POST COMPETITION
 The body can break down and convert CHO to glycogen/glucose better within the
first 2 hours of recovery (which speeds up recovery)
 Adding protein to CHO consumed in the first hours post-exercise may stimulate
glycogen recovery rates in performers involved in several consecutive bouts of
high-intensity activity over a period of days
 There is a 45 minute window of opportunity for optimal refuelling after activity (e.g.
a meal or drink high in CHO and protein)
 CHO stores used up in short duration exercise can be replenished in a few hours
(recovery will depend on the intensity and duration of exercise)
 If stores are depleted after long duration activity, then recovery will take longer
(sometimes days)
2
Summary of Post-Event Meals
POSITIVE EFFECTS
Liver glycogen stores are
replaced within hours.
Muscle glycogen
replacement is much
quicker during the first 2
hours after exercise.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
None
USERS
Athletes using
carbs for
energy.
LEGAL
STATUS
Legal
OTHER AIDS TO PERFORMANCE
CREATINE SUPPLEMENTS
 Creatine is made up of amino acids (building blocks of protein) and can be found
in some animal foods and in liver/kidneys
 Creatine is stored in muscles as creatine phosphate (PC) which is used to
resynthesise ATP
 Creatine supplements can be taken as part of a performers diet to increase the
performer’s PC levels and help improve the ATP/PC system’s efficiency
 Creatine is readily available in shops and is legal, despite showing that it can
increase performance
 It is suggested that unless high volume intensity training is undertaken alongside
creatine supplements then there may be an increase in body mass/non-lean mass
which is not desirable for any activity
Summary of Creatine
POSITIVE EFFECTS
Can maximise PC stores in
the muscles.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
Can put strain on the organs
like the liver. Can increase
dehydration.
USERS
High Intensity
athletes.
LEGAL
STATUS
Legal
HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE (HGH)
 HGH is produced naturally in the pituitary gland and helps the body to grow and
develop
 HGH can also be synthetically produced and used by athletes as a substitute or to
compliment the use of anabolic steroids as it:
o Stimulates bone, cartilage and muscle growth
o Increases blood glucose levels
o Increases lipases for the breakdown of FFA’s
o Decreases overall body fat
o Stimulates protein synthesis in skeletal muscle to enhance healing after
musculo-skeletal injuries
 HGH is produced more in youth and adolescence but still in adulthood to a lesser
degree to assist in some metabolic processes
 HGH secretion can be increased by following a healthy lifestyle with plenty of
exercise and having lots of sleep
 HGH abuse can lead to:
o Joint pain
o Arthritis
3
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Abnormal heart/liver growth
Muscle weakness
Increased blood fats
Glucose intolerance
Diabetes
Impotence
Hypertension
It is also against the law
Summary of Hormones
POSITIVE EFFECTS
Increase muscle mass and
strength and may aid in
recovery of high-intensity
training. HGH increases
the amount of glucose in
the blood and increase the
capability of the body to
heal.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
Similar to Anabolic Steroids,
plus:
Bones thicken and deform.
Internal organs to increase
dangerously in size. Diabetes
and high blood pressure.
USERS
High
intensity/short
duration
athletes.
LEGAL
STATUS
Illegal
GENE DOPING
 Gene doping is too complex to discuss in real detail at this level
 There is a Human Gene Map for Performance and Health-Related Fitness
Phenotypes which is updated every year. This lists the genes which, in different
combinations, could hypothetically produce a so-called “genetically engineered
super athlete” for different sporting disciplines like aerobic endurance or anaerobic
power
 A company called Genetic Technologies (a biotech company based in Australia)
claims to be able to identify whether a child has the genetic make-up to excel in
either sprint and power sports or endurance sports
 Detailed knowledge of a sports person’s ‘genetic expression’ would be extremely
useful for predicting their trainability and therefore the specificity of training regimes
 The main problem with gene doping is that athlete’s will have no control over the
gene and therefore will not be able to shut down the gene production
 Although gene doping is banned, if genes are introduced into the tissue, e.g. into
the muscle and not via a drug, it would be virtually undetectable by any current
doping control technology
 Even with DNA testing it would not be clear if the athlete inherited it or used gene
doping
 Below is a table of examples of genes and how performers benefit from them
GENE
EFFECTS
ACE-II
Improves efficiency of mitochondria.
Normally 70% of the fuel energy given off as heat (ACEII diverts % heat energy into making extra ATP)
Increase in enzyme activation for increasing the uptake
of amino acids to increase muscle growth/regeneration
and strength
IGF-1
4
PERFORMERS
BENEFITING
Extra ATP has been
shown to improve
aerobic endurance
Strength/power
activities/performers
BLOOD DOPING
 This is where a person’s total volume of red blood cells (RBC’s) is increased
 In order to do this it involves the removal (transfusion) and storage of blood from a
performer about 4-6 weeks before an event
 The body then compensates for this blood loss by replenishing its RBC’s to restore
its haemoglobin levels
 Just before the event, the blood is then reinfused into the performer, which
increases the overall RBC/haemoglobin volume
 An increase in RBC/haemoglobin helps the transportation of O2 available to the
muscles during exercise
Summary of Blood Doping
POSITIVE EFFECTS
Increases RBC and Hb
levels.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
Put Heart under strain (possibly
cause blood clots and Heart
failure). Contamination
problems.
USERS
Endurance
athletes.
LEGAL
STATUS
Illegal
RECOMBINANT ERYTHROPOIETIN (RH EPO)
 The hormone erythropoietin (EPO) is found naturally in the body and is secreted
by the kidneys
 A small amount is found in the blood to regulate/increase the RBC production to
maintain it at basal rate
 Rh EPO is an artificial synthetic copy of EPO which is injected into the body and
produces the same results as blood doping (the increase of production of
RBC/haemoglobin levels and raises O2 transport)
 Testing procedures detect high levels of RBC/haemoglobin, which result in athletes
being suspended from competitions
 Some athletes use fluids just before testing to dilute the blood. These fluids are
now also on the banned list of substances
 Rh EPO is now being used by strength/power athletes, not just endurance athletes
 Some athletes have naturally high concentrations of EPO and this can cause
problems when testing
 Therefore, athletes should be tested early on in their career’s to produce a baseline
value to measure against at a later stage
Summary of EPO
POSITIVE EFFECTS
Increases RBC and Hb
levels.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
Put Heart under strain (possibly
cause blood clots and Heart
failure). Don’t know how the
body will react to it. More
danger of blood clots
5
USERS
Endurance
athletes.
LEGAL
STATUS
Illegal
COOLING AIDS




These are used prior to an activity to reduce core body temperature to help
improve performance or after the activity to improve the recovery process
The main methods include cold air exposure, water immersion/ice baths, fan
cooling, cold water spraying, body/head cooling jacket/vest, cold therapy
packs/wraps or simply packing ice into damp towels
Cold air exposure and water immersion have been the predominant methods used,
but are not practical for most performers
Cooling jackets/vests are highly practical and are made from wet suit material and
packed with ice
PRE-COOLING
 Using a cooling jacket or ice-packed towels aims to reduce skin temperature and
consequently core body temperature
 It should last between 8-30 minutes during warm-ups and /or the intervals between
warm-ups and the start of performance
 Temperature guidelines vary between 5 and 16 degrees Celsius
 Pre-cooling is advisable before prolonged exercise in hot temperatures as it helps
to sustain intensity and speed, reduces thermal strain, allows for different pacing
strategies and increases exercise intensity towards the end of performance
 Metabolic and cardiovascular responses (reduced heart rate and inaccurate
perceived exertion) can be affected during the first 15 minutes of exercise after
pre-cooling
 Cooling the body too much will hamper the performance and pose a health risk
POST-COOLING
 Cooling treatments used as part of recovery (cryotherapy) may be used in
different ways on acute and chronic injuries
 The benefits of cooling on damaged soft tissue is now widely accepted
 The application of ice in the treatment of injuries to soft tissues to reduce swelling
and blood leaking into the tissues has been a long term method, accompanied by
compression, elevation and rest (RICE)
ICE WRAPS/PACKETS
 They are used as part of RICE to help provide immediate treatment and to speed
up recovery of any soft tissue injuries
ICE BATHS
 These have been used for their pain-relieving properties in the treatment of injuries
 More recently the belief is that:
o Blood vessels constrict and blood flow is drained away from that muscles
that have been working (removing lactic acid)
o Once out of the bath the capillaries dilate and ‘new’ blood flows back to the
muscles, bringing with it oxygen that will help the functioning of the cells
 This process is thought to improve muscle function, reduce muscle damage and
decrease soreness associated with DOMS
 Therefore, this not only treats injury and pain, but helps with injury prevention and
exercise recovery
 Ice baths are popular in contact sports (rugby and Football) and with endurance
athletes
 Whole-body ice baths would be used for contact sports like Rugby and for Football,
running, Hockey etc, only immersion of the lower limbs would be needed
6




The process involves the performer immersing body parts at a temperature
between 5-16 degrees Celsius for 7-10 minutes (shorter for pain relief)
Initially start with 1 minute sessions and progress to a maximum of 10 minutes over
a period of 10 weeks
Once in the ice bath, athletes should keep moving around to prevent warm water
from forming around their limbs
However, there are various concerns with the use of ice baths:
o Different individuals have different sensitivity to ice (some find it
immediately painful)
o If used on the chest the cold may cause muscle reaction, bringing about
angina pain from constriction of coronary arteries
o Check skin sensitivity/touch before applying ice as it may indicate nerve
impingement and ice will hide or complicate the problem
o Do not use with high blood pressure as vasoconstriction will increase blood
vessel pressure
o There is decreased efficiency with vasoconstriction (particularly affecting
older people)
o The ice burns if place directly onto skin and can cause tissue/vascular
impairment if held on the skin for too long (more than 10 minutes)
RESISTANCE AIDS
PULLEYS
 These provide a form of resistance to apply force against to develop strength, in
the same way as weights on a multi-gym
 The main advantage of pulleys is that they better meet the principle of specificity as
they can match more closely the actual movement patterns used in the
performance of an activity
 A cheaper alternative to pulleys are elasticated resistance bands, which do not
replicate the smoothness of movements that pulleys offer
 Swimmers can benefit from pulley resistance/ergometer-type machines that allow
them to lay flat and replicate the movement patterns of various strokes against a
resistance during the arm action
PARACHUTES
 These increase the resistance to apply a force against while maintaining the
movement
 They are used predominantly in sprint-type running activities
 These are a better form of resistance training than lifting weights with the legs
while the body is in a sitting or standing position
 The downside is that parachutes make athletes run with a slower arm and leg
action which is not specific to sprinting
 Although there is no solid evidence that parachutes improve sprint performance in
comparison to conventional training, it provides fun and variety to a training regime
 Ankle and wrist weights are two other forms of resistance aids which are
comparable with parachutes
7
OTHER PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT AIDS TO CONSIDER
ALCOHOL
 Alcohol has no real benefits to sport performance, although it does act as a
carbohydrate (CHO) source of energy
 It does also provide a temporary psychological effect of calming, anxiety reduction
and confidence building
 In the long-term alcohol is primarily a depressant and research shows that alcohol
deceases both motor skill and physiological performance
Summary of Alcohol
POSITIVE EFFECTS
None. Although can make
athlete feel more relaxed
and confident.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
Impairs psychomotor
performance. Speeds up
dehydration.
USERS
None
LEGAL
STATUS
Legal
(over
18’s)
CAFFEINE
 Caffeine can be found in tea, coffee, cocoa, most soft drinks, many foods and in
some medications
 Caffeine stimulates the central nervous system (CNS) and acts like a weak
amphetamine (stimulant) which increases alertness, concentration and reaction
time
 It produces increased breakdown of FFA’s, increases energy levels and lowers
perception of effort
 Some athletes take in caffeine prior to exercise to increase the breakdown of FFA’s
to save their important glycogen stores
 Caffeine is not banned, however, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) have
a limit beyond which performers should not consume (around 7-8 strong cups of
coffee)
 Caffeine also acts as a diuretic, increasing urine production and can increase
dehydration and therefore heat regulation
Summary of Caffeine
POSITIVE EFFECTS
Can help improve mental
alertness, concentration
and reaction time. Reduce
the feeling of fatigue, which
allows athletes to exercise
at higher intensities for
longer. Increase the ability
to utilise fats as a fuel and
increase aerobic capacity.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
Increase the sensation of
nervousness, anxiety and
restlessness. Disturbed sleep.
Risk of dehydration. It is
addictive.
8
USERS
Endurance
athletes (for
increase of fat
metabolism)
LEGAL
STATUS
Legal
ANABOLIC STEROIDS
 These are synthetically copies of the naturally produced hormone testosterone,
which promotes bone maturation and development of muscle mass
 They are thought to help repair muscle tissue and recovery after exercise
 They come in the form of tablets, capsules, a solution for injection and a cream or
gel to rub into the skin
 The anabolic (building) effect is dependent on the dosage
 These are used for medical reasons for rehabilitation and muscle wastage
diseases
 They are also commonly used by body builders and weight lifters
Summary of Anabolic Steroids
POSITIVE EFFECTS
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
USERS
Increase muscle mass and
strength and may aid in
recovery of high-intensity
training.
Affect the balance of sex
hormones (women = reduction
in breast size, hair growth and
develop a deeper voice, Men =
larger breasts, reduction in size
of their penis). Acne, weak
joints and aggressiveness.
High
intensity/short
duration
athletes.
LEGAL
STATUS
Illegal
ANALGESICS/ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS
 Analgesics come in the form of non-steroidal aspirin and ibuprofen, but also in the
form of steroidal cortisone injections (unless accompanied by a medical note)
 These relieve pain and act as anti-inflammatory agents to relieve swelling
 They are often taken in combination after soft tissue injuries to relieve
pain/inflammation
 Analgesics and anti-inflammatory agents are often used prior to competition to
mask pain in order to allow performers to compete
 If used in this way there is likely to be further and more severe injuries
MASKING AGENTS
 These all have the same aim, which is to prevent the identification of other agents,
normally a banned illegal agent
 If masking agents are detected they are classified as a positive test in the same
way as the substance they would be hiding would have done
 Diuretics are a common masking agent that increase urine production to help
athletes to flush steroids out of their system
9
EXAM QUESTIONS
JANUARY 2002
No Questions.
JUNE 2002
1
c)
To gain the edge over rivals, aerobic athletes may be tempted to use an
illegal ergogenic aid. Explain the ways in which such aids physiologically
enhance performance. What are the long term negative physiological
effects?
(5 marks)
JANUARY 2003
1
b)
Carbohydrates are used as an energy source during both aerobic and
anaerobic conditions. It is therefore beneficial that an athlete’s stores of
carbohydrate re at a maximum before competition day.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of glycogen loading.
(3 marks)
2
c)
For some endurance athletes, the pressure to perform at the highest levels
means that the temptation to gain unfair aerobic training benefits from
ergogenic aids, despite the dangers, becomes too great. Identify a
physiological (not nutritional) aid that would benefit such an athlete and
briefly outline what it is and how it enhances performance. Discuss health
risks that are associated with its use and explain the advantages it has over
altitude training.
(10 marks)
JUNE 2003
No Questions.
JANUARY 2004
2
c)
Name two ergogenic aids that might affect performance in explosive
activities. Describe the physiological effects of each aid. (8 marks)
JUNE 2004
No Questions.
JANUARY 2005
2
c)
An Ergogenic Aid is any substance that enhances performance.
Discuss the following as aids to enhancing performance
 The use of dietary manipulation
 Pre competition meals
 Post competition meals
10
(9 marks)
JUNE 2005
No Questions.
JANUARY 2006
1
b)
To improve aerobic capacity most performers will undergo a period of
aerobic training while others may cheat using illegal means.
(ii)
Identify one illegal aid that might be used to enhance VO2 max and
describe the associated risks to a performer’s health.
(3 marks)
JUNE 2006
No Questions.
JANUARY 2007
2
c)
Carbohydrate loading and creatine supplementation are two types of
nutritional ergogenic aid.
Discuss the effects of using one of these aids referring to the following:
 The type of performer benefiting
 The performance enhancing qualities
 The associated side effects
(5 marks)
JUNE 2007
No Questions.
JANUARY 2008
1
b)
Ergogenic aids are substances that enhance performance. Some examples
are given in table 1.
Nutritional ergogenic aid
Aerobic Athlete
Anaerobic Athlete
D
Fluid intake
Physiological ergogenic
aid
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Anabolic Steroids
Describe a method of performance enhancement that could be placed in
box D. Identify advantages of using this method.
(4 marks)
JUNE 2008
1
b)
(iii)
A performer may decide to take steroids to further improve their
maximum strength.
Describe two long term health risks associated with taking steroids.
(2 marks)
11