Semantics
(Grundkurs Linguistik)
Károly Varasdi
November 26, 2015
What is Semantics?
What is Semantics?
Oxford English Dictionary
semantics (noun)
1 the study of the meanings of words and phrases
2 the meaning of words, phrases or systems
What is Semantics?
Oxford English Dictionary
semantics (noun)
1 the study of the meanings of words and phrases
2 the meaning of words, phrases or systems
flabbergasted (adj.) extremely surprised or shocked
Synonym: astonished
Friends were flabbergasted by the news that they’d
split up.
She was too flabbergasted to speak.
What is Semantics?
Oxford English Dictionary
semantics (noun)
1 the study of the meanings of words and phrases
2 the meaning of words, phrases or systems
flabbergasted (adj.) extremely surprised or shocked
Synonym: astonished
Friends were flabbergasted by the news that they’d
split up.
She was too flabbergasted to speak.
Describing the meaning(s) of a word −→ Lexicography
What is Semantics?
Oxford English Dictionary
semantics (noun)
1 the study of the meanings of words and phrases
2 the meaning of words, phrases or systems
flabbergasted (adj.) extremely surprised or shocked
Synonym: astonished
Friends were flabbergasted by the news that they’d
split up.
She was too flabbergasted to speak.
Describing the meaning(s) of a word −→ Lexicography 6= Semantics
Data
(1)
a.
Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
Data
(1)
a.
Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a.
Fido won’t ever leave you.
Data
(1)
a.
Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a.
Fido won’t ever leave you.
(3)
a.
Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
Data
(1)
a.
Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a.
Fido won’t ever leave you.
(3)
a.
Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
(4)
a.
I don’t like that at all.
Data
(1)
a.
Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a.
Fido won’t ever leave you.
(3)
a.
Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
(4)
a.
I don’t like that at all.
(5)
a.
They didn’t lift a finger to help her.
Data
(1)
a.
Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a.
Fido won’t ever leave you.
(3)
a.
Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
(4)
a.
I don’t like that at all.
(5)
a.
They didn’t lift a finger to help her.
(6)
a.
John doesn’t give a damn if he’s late for work.
Data
(1)
a. Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
b. #Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a.
Fido won’t ever leave you.
(3)
a.
Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
(4)
a.
I don’t like that at all.
(5)
a.
They didn’t lift a finger to help her.
(6)
a.
John doesn’t give a damn if he’s late for work.
Data
(1)
a. Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
b. #Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a.
Fido won’t ever leave you.
(3)
a.
Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
(4)
a.
I don’t like that at all.
(5)
a.
They didn’t lift a finger to help her.
(6)
a.
John doesn’t give a damn if he’s late for work.
Data
(1)
a. Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
b. #Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a. Fido won’t ever leave you.
b. #Fido will ever leave you.
(3)
a.
Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
(4)
a.
I don’t like that at all.
(5)
a.
They didn’t lift a finger to help her.
(6)
a.
John doesn’t give a damn if he’s late for work.
Data
(1)
a. Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
b. #Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a. Fido won’t ever leave you.
b. #Fido will ever leave you.
(3)
a.
Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
(4)
a.
I don’t like that at all.
(5)
a.
They didn’t lift a finger to help her.
(6)
a.
John doesn’t give a damn if he’s late for work.
Data
(1)
a. Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
b. #Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a. Fido won’t ever leave you.
b. #Fido will ever leave you.
(3)
a. Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
b. #Rob has written the article yet.
(4)
a.
I don’t like that at all.
(5)
a.
They didn’t lift a finger to help her.
(6)
a.
John doesn’t give a damn if he’s late for work.
Data
(1)
a. Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
b. #Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a. Fido won’t ever leave you.
b. #Fido will ever leave you.
(3)
a. Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
b. #Rob has written the article yet.
(4)
a.
I don’t like that at all.
(5)
a.
They didn’t lift a finger to help her.
(6)
a.
John doesn’t give a damn if he’s late for work.
Data
(1)
a. Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
b. #Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a. Fido won’t ever leave you.
b. #Fido will ever leave you.
(3)
a. Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
b. #Rob has written the article yet.
(4)
a. I don’t like that at all.
b. #I like that at all.
(5)
a.
They didn’t lift a finger to help her.
(6)
a.
John doesn’t give a damn if he’s late for work.
Data
(1)
a. Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
b. #Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a. Fido won’t ever leave you.
b. #Fido will ever leave you.
(3)
a. Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
b. #Rob has written the article yet.
(4)
a. I don’t like that at all.
b. #I like that at all.
(5)
a.
They didn’t lift a finger to help her.
(6)
a.
John doesn’t give a damn if he’s late for work.
Data
(1)
a. Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
b. #Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a. Fido won’t ever leave you.
b. #Fido will ever leave you.
(3)
a. Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
b. #Rob has written the article yet.
(4)
a. I don’t like that at all.
b. #I like that at all.
(5)
a. They didn’t lift a finger to help her.
b. #They lifted a finger to help her.
(6)
a.
John doesn’t give a damn if he’s late for work.
Data
(1)
a. Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
b. #Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a. Fido won’t ever leave you.
b. #Fido will ever leave you.
(3)
a. Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
b. #Rob has written the article yet.
(4)
a. I don’t like that at all.
b. #I like that at all.
(5)
a. They didn’t lift a finger to help her.
b. #They lifted a finger to help her.
(6)
a.
John doesn’t give a damn if he’s late for work.
Data
(1)
a. Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
b. #Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a. Fido won’t ever leave you.
b. #Fido will ever leave you.
(3)
a. Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
b. #Rob has written the article yet.
(4)
a. I don’t like that at all.
b. #I like that at all.
(5)
a. They didn’t lift a finger to help her.
b. #They lifted a finger to help her.
(6)
a. John doesn’t give a damn if he’s late for work.
b. #John gives a damn if he’s late for work.
Data
(1)
a. Mary didn’t see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
b. #Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(2)
a. Fido won’t ever leave you.
b. #Fido will ever leave you.
(3)
a. Rob hasn’t written the article yet.
b. #Rob has written the article yet.
(4)
a. I don’t like that at all.
b. #I like that at all.
(5)
a. They didn’t lift a finger to help her.
b. #They lifted a finger to help her.
(6)
a. John doesn’t give a damn if he’s late for work.
b. #John gives a damn if he’s late for work.
Negative Polarity Items (NPI’s)
(1)
a.
Mary did not see any famous paintings in the exhibition. 3
Negative Polarity Items (NPI’s)
(1)
a.
b.
Mary did not see any famous paintings in the exhibition. 3
Mary did not saw any famous paintings in the exhibition. 7
Negative Polarity Items (NPI’s)
(1)
a.
b.
c.
Mary did not see any famous paintings in the exhibition. 3
Mary did not saw any famous paintings in the exhibition. 7
Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition. 3
Negative Polarity Items (NPI’s)
(1)
a.
b.
c.
Mary did not see any famous paintings in the exhibition. 3
Mary did not saw any famous paintings in the exhibition. 7
Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition. 3
Our data appear to show that:
1
there are special expressions in English that can only co-occur
with the negation word “not”
2
e.g.: any, ever, yet, lift a finger, give a damn, . . .
Negative Polarity Items (NPI’s)
(1)
a.
b.
c.
Mary did not see any famous paintings in the exhibition. 3
Mary did not saw any famous paintings in the exhibition. 7
Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition. 3
Our data appear to show that:
1
there are special expressions in English that can only co-occur
with the negation word “not”
2
e.g.: any, ever, yet, lift a finger, give a damn, . . .
Negative Polarity Items (NPI)
Such expressions are called negative polarity items, or NPI’s for short.
Data
(2)
a. Mary did not see any famous paintings in the exhibition.
b. #Mary saw any famous paintings in the exhibition.
(3)
a. Fido will not ever leave you.
b. #Fido will ever leave you.
(4)
a. Rob has not written the article yet.
b. #Rob has written the article yet.
(5)
a. I do not like that at all.
b. #I like that at all.
(6)
a. They did not lift a finger to help her.
b. #They lifted a finger to help her.
(7)
a. John does not give a damn if he’s late for work.
b. #John gives a damn if he’s late for work.
NPI’s in German
(8)
Es ist nicht der Fall, daß er jemals im Jemen war.
(9)
Es stimmt nicht, daß er in irgendwelche Affären verwickelt ist.
(10)
Er hat ihr kein Haar gekrümmt.
(11)
Er hat keinen Finger gerührt.
(12)
Es fällt ihr im Traum nicht ein, ihm zu helfen.
(13)
Ich habe keine Sekunde daran gezweifelt.
Research question
NPI’s can occur in some sentences but they are excluded in other
sentences.
Research question
NPI’s can occur in some sentences but they are excluded in other
sentences.
Question
What licences NPI’s in a sentence?
Let’s make a hypothesis
Hypothesis-1
NPI’s are licensed by the presence of the word not in the sentence.
Let’s make a hypothesis
Hypothesis-1
NPI’s are licensed by the presence of the word not in the sentence.
Does this hypothesis cover all available data?
Let’s make a hypothesis
Hypothesis-1
NPI’s are licensed by the presence of the word not in the sentence.
Does this hypothesis cover all available data?
it certainly explains sentences (1)–(6) above
Let’s make a hypothesis
Hypothesis-1
NPI’s are licensed by the presence of the word not in the sentence.
Does this hypothesis cover all available data?
it certainly explains sentences (1)–(6) above
We have to look for potentially refuting data!
Let’s make a hypothesis
Hypothesis-1
NPI’s are licensed by the presence of the word not in the sentence.
Does this hypothesis cover all available data?
it certainly explains sentences (1)–(6) above
We have to look for potentially refuting data!
if we cannot find such refuting data, we have a working theory
Let’s make a hypothesis
Hypothesis-1
NPI’s are licensed by the presence of the word not in the sentence.
Does this hypothesis cover all available data?
it certainly explains sentences (1)–(6) above
We have to look for potentially refuting data!
if we cannot find such refuting data, we have a working theory
if we find refuting data, we have to modify our hypothesis
New data
(14)
a. No guards reported any suspicious visitors.
b. #Some guards reported any suspicious visitors.
(15)
a. Less then five people have ever gone into that zone.
b. #A lot of people have ever gone into that zone.
(16)
a. At most five astronauts have been to the Moon yet.
b. #At least five astronauts have been to the Moon yet.
c. #Exactly five astronauts have been to the Moon yet.
New data
(14)
a. No guards reported any suspicious visitors.
b. #Some guards reported any suspicious visitors.
(15)
a. Less then five people have ever gone into that zone.
b. #A lot of people have ever gone into that zone.
(16)
a. At most five astronauts have been to the Moon yet.
b. #At least five astronauts have been to the Moon yet.
c. #Exactly five astronauts have been to the Moon yet.
Observation
Some sentences can have NPI’s even though the word not is not
present in them.
Looking for common properties
What is common to sentences containing
negation (not)
no guards, less then five people, at most five astronauts
that makes them different from sentences containing
some guards, a lot of people, (at least) five astronauts
Looking for common properties
What is common to sentences containing
negation (not)
no guards, less then five people, at most five astronauts
that makes them different from sentences containing
some guards, a lot of people, (at least) five astronauts
An apparent common feature
They express the total absence or the presence of too little quantity of
something (guards, people, astronauts).
Hypothesis-1 + new data −→ Hypothesis-2
Hypothesis-1 + new data −→ Hypothesis-2
Hypothesis-2
NPI’s are licensed by the presence of a phrase in the sentence that
expresses the presence of too little or no quantity of something.
Hypothesis-1 + new data −→ Hypothesis-2
Hypothesis-2
NPI’s are licensed by the presence of a phrase in the sentence that
expresses the presence of too little or no quantity of something.
Does this new hypothesis cover all available data?
Hypothesis-1 + new data −→ Hypothesis-2
Hypothesis-2
NPI’s are licensed by the presence of a phrase in the sentence that
expresses the presence of too little or no quantity of something.
Does this new hypothesis cover all available data?
it appears to explain sentences (1)–(16) above
Hypothesis-1 + new data −→ Hypothesis-2
Hypothesis-2
NPI’s are licensed by the presence of a phrase in the sentence that
expresses the presence of too little or no quantity of something.
Does this new hypothesis cover all available data?
it appears to explain sentences (1)–(16) above
We have to look for potentially refuting data!
Hypothesis-1 + new data −→ Hypothesis-2
Hypothesis-2
NPI’s are licensed by the presence of a phrase in the sentence that
expresses the presence of too little or no quantity of something.
Does this new hypothesis cover all available data?
it appears to explain sentences (1)–(16) above
We have to look for potentially refuting data!
if we cannot find such refuting data, we have a working theory
if we find refuting data, we have to modify our hypothesis
The hypotheses so far
Hypothesis-1
NPI’s are licensed by the the word not in the sentence → refuted
Hypothesis-2
NPI’s are licensed by the presence of a phrase in the sentence that
expresses the presence of too little or no quantity of something.
New data
New data
(17)
a. Every tourist who has ever been to the Louvre enjoyed it.
b. #Some tourists who have ever been to the Louvre enjoyed it.
New data
(17)
a. Every tourist who has ever been to the Louvre enjoyed it.
b. #Some tourists who have ever been to the Louvre enjoyed it.
All of them
every tourist doesn’t expresses “the presence of too little or no
quantity” of tourists; on the contrary.
New hypothesis
Hypothesis-2 + new data −→ Hypothesis-3
New hypothesis
Hypothesis-2 + new data −→ Hypothesis-3
Hypothesis-3
NPI’s are licensed by a phrase in the sentence that expresses the
presence of too little or no or all the quantity of something.
New hypothesis
Hypothesis-2 + new data −→ Hypothesis-3
Hypothesis-3
NPI’s are licensed by a phrase in the sentence that expresses the
presence of too little or no or all the quantity of something.
We have a problem
Hypothesis-3 explains nothing: it cannot be used to make clear
predictions.
More data
More bad news
Even worse, every tourist sometimes allows NPI’s and sometimes
disallows them.
(18)
a.
Every tourist who has been to the National Gallery must
have seen paintings by Turner. → no NPI here
b. Every tourist who has ever been to the National Gallery
must have seen paintings by Turner. → NPI is okay
c. #Every tourist who has been to the National Gallery must
have seen any paintings by Turner. → NPI is not okay
More data
More bad news
Even worse, every tourist sometimes allows NPI’s and sometimes
disallows them.
(18)
a.
Every tourist who has been to the National Gallery must
have seen paintings by Turner. → no NPI here
b. Every tourist who has ever been to the National Gallery
must have seen paintings by Turner. → NPI is okay
c. #Every tourist who has been to the National Gallery must
have seen any paintings by Turner. → NPI is not okay
We are stuck
There must be some rule licensing NPI’s, but we seem to be getting
farther and farther away from discovering it.
Syntax to the rescue
Sentences are not structureless sequences of words. Let’s try
to identify the structure of our data sentences.
Syntax to the rescue
Syntax to the rescue
Syntax to the rescue
Syntax to the rescue
Syntax to the rescue
Syntax to the rescue
Det: Determiner (no, every, at least three, . . . )
N: Noun (guard, astronaut, people, cars, . . . )
Mod: optional Modifier (in the museum, under the chair, that I know, . . . )
VP: Verb Phrase (reported suspicious visitors, laughed, talked to Mary, . . . )
GQ: Generalized Quantifier (= Det+N+(Mod))
Syntax to the rescue
Det: Determiner (no, every, at least three, . . . )
N: Noun (guard, astronaut, people, cars, . . . )
Mod: optional Modifier (in the museum, under the chair, that I know, . . . )
VP: Verb Phrase (reported suspicious visitors, laughed, talked to Mary, . . . )
GQ: Generalized Quantifier (= Det+N+(Mod))
Syntax to the rescue
Det: Determiner (no, every, at least three, . . . )
N: Noun (guard, astronaut, people, cars, . . . )
Mod: optional Modifier (in the museum, under the chair, that I know, . . . )
VP: Verb Phrase (reported suspicious visitors, laughed, talked to Mary, . . . )
GQ: Generalized Quantifier (= Det+N+(Mod))
Syntax to the rescue
Det: Determiner (no, every, at least three, . . . )
N: Noun (guard, astronaut, people, cars, . . . )
Mod: optional Modifier (in the museum, under the chair, that I know, . . . )
VP: Verb Phrase (reported suspicious visitors, laughed, talked to Mary, . . . )
GQ: Generalized Quantifier (= Det+N+(Mod))
Some syntactic structure
GQ
z
z
}|
{
Mod
N
VP
}|
{ z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{
More than six dogs in the kennel belonged to John .
|
{z
}|
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Det
Restrictor
Scope
Some syntactic structure
GQ
z
z
}|
{
Mod
N
VP
}|
{ z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{
More than six dogs in the kennel belonged to John .
|
{z
}|
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Det
Restrictor
Scope
GQ
z
}|
{
Det
N
VP
z }| { z }| { z
}|
{
Some people were waiting for us .
| {z } | {z } |
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
Scope
Some syntactic structure
GQ
z
}|
{
Det
VP
Mod
N
z }| { z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{
Every question that Bill had was answered immediately .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
Scope
Some syntactic structure
GQ
z
}|
{
Det
VP
Mod
N
z }| { z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{
Every question that Bill had was answered immediately .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
Scope
GQ
z
z
}|
{
VP
N
}|
{z
}|
{
}|
{z
Less than five |astronauts
have
been
to
the
Moon
{z
}|
{z
}.
|
{z
}
Det
Det
Restrictor
Scope
Some syntactic structure
GQ
z
}|
{
Det
VP
Mod
N
z }| { z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{
Every question that Bill had was answered immediately .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
Scope
GQ
z
z
}|
{
VP
N
}|
{z
}|
{
}|
{z
Less than five |astronauts
have
been
to
the
Moon
{z
}|
{z
}.
|
{z
}
Det
Det
Restrictor
Scope
DET (Restrictor) (Scope)
|
{z
} | {z }
first position
second position
Testing NPI’s in different positions of various determiners
Testing NPI’s in different positions of various determiners
GQ
z
}|
{
Det
N
Mod
VP
z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{z
}|
{
3 No archeologist who I ever met has found anything there .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
Scope
Testing NPI’s in different positions of various determiners
GQ
z
}|
{
Det
N
Mod
VP
z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{z
}|
{
3 No archeologist who I ever met has found anything there .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
Scope
GQ
z
}|
{
Det
N
Mod
VP
z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{z
}|
{
3 Every archeologist who has ever seen it resigned immediately .
{z
}|
{z
}
| {z } |
Det
Restrictor
Scope
Testing NPI’s in different positions of various determiners
GQ
z
}|
{
Det
N
Mod
VP
z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{z
}|
{
3 No archeologist who I ever met has found anything there .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
Scope
GQ
z
}|
{
Det
N
Mod
VP
z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{z
}|
{
3 Every archeologist who has ever seen it resigned immediately .
{z
}|
{z
}
| {z } |
Det
Restrictor
Scope
GQ
z
}|
Det
N
Mod
z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
7 Every archeologist who has seen
| {z } |
{z
Det
Restrictor
{
VP
{z
}|
{
it said anything .
}|
{z
}
Scope
Summing up NPI behavior
Det
no
some/a
less then five
at most five
at least five
every/all
Restrictor
Scope
NPI here?
NPI here?
3
7
3
3
7
3
3
7
3
3
7
7
Summing up NPI behavior
Det
no
some/a
less then five
at most five
at least five
every/all
Restrictor
Scope
NPI here?
NPI here?
3
7
3
3
7
3
3
7
3
3
7
7
Question
What is behind this pattern?
Subordinate and superordinate properties
Subordinate and superordinate properties
astronaut is a subordinate property of discoverer: every astronaut
is a discoverer
discoverer is a superordinate property of astronaut
Entailment patterns with some
Some astronauts can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [human]
∴ Some humans can play the guitar
Some
Some is an upward entailing determiner in the Restrictor position.
Case 1: Determiners upward entailing in the Restrictor
Case 1: Determiners upward entailing in the Restrictor
Case 1: Determiners upward entailing in the Restrictor
Case 1: Determiners upward entailing in the Restrictor
Case 1: Determiners upward entailing in the Restrictor
Case 1: Determiners upward entailing in the Restrictor
Case 1: Determiners upward entailing in the Restrictor
Case 1: Determiners upward entailing in the Restrictor
Determiners upward entailing in the Restrictor
An astronaut can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [human]
∴ A human can play the guitar
Determiners upward entailing in the Restrictor
An astronaut can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [human]
∴ A human can play the guitar
Some astronauts can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [human]
∴ Some humans can play the guitar
Determiners upward entailing in the Restrictor
An astronaut can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [human]
∴ A human can play the guitar
Some astronauts can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [human]
∴ Some humans can play the guitar
At least five astronauts can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [human]
∴ At least five humans can play the guitar
Determiners upward entailing in the Restrictor
An astronaut can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [human]
∴ A human can play the guitar
Some astronauts can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [human]
∴ Some humans can play the guitar
At least five astronauts can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [human]
∴ At least five humans can play the guitar
But not:
At most five astronauts can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [human]
6∴ At most five humans can play the guitar
Case 2: Determiners downward entailing in the Restrictor
Case 2: Determiners downward entailing in the Restrictor
Case 2: Determiners downward entailing in the Restrictor
Case 2: Determiners downward entailing in the Restrictor
Case 2: Determiners downward entailing in the Restrictor
Case 2: Determiners downward entailing in the Restrictor
Case 2: Determiners downward entailing in the Restrictor
Determiners downward entailing in the Restrictor
No discoverer can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [discoverer]
∴ No astronaut can play the guitar
Determiners downward entailing in the Restrictor
No discoverer can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [discoverer]
∴ No astronaut can play the guitar
At most five discoverers can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [discoverer]
∴ At most five astronauts can play the guitar
Determiners downward entailing in the Restrictor
No discoverer can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [discoverer]
∴ No astronaut can play the guitar
At most five discoverers can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [discoverer]
∴ At most five astronauts can play the guitar
Less then ten discoverers can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [discoverer]
∴ Less than ten astronauts can play the guitar
Determiners downward entailing in the Restrictor
No discoverer can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [discoverer]
∴ No astronaut can play the guitar
At most five discoverers can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [discoverer]
∴ At most five astronauts can play the guitar
Less then ten discoverers can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [discoverer]
∴ Less than ten astronauts can play the guitar
But not:
More than three discoverers can play the guitar
[astronaut] ⊆ [discoverer]
6∴ More than three astronauts can play the guitar
Subordinate and superordinate properties again
Subordinate and superordinate properties again
can play the guitar is a subordinate property of can play an
instrument: everyone who plays the guitar plays an instrument
can play an instrument is a superordinate property of can play the
guitar
Case 3: Determiners upward entailing in the Scope
Case 3: Determiners upward entailing in the Scope
Case 3: Determiners upward entailing in the Scope
Case 3: Determiners upward entailing in the Scope
Case 3: Determiners upward entailing in the Scope
Case 3: Determiners upward entailing in the Scope
Case 3: Determiners upward entailing in the Scope
Case 3: Determiners upward entailing in the Scope
Determiners upward entailing in the Scope
Some astronauts can play the guitar
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
∴ Some astronauts can play an instrument
Determiners upward entailing in the Scope
Some astronauts can play the guitar
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
∴ Some astronauts can play an instrument
All astronauts can play the guitar
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
∴ All astronauts can play an instrument
Determiners upward entailing in the Scope
Some astronauts can play the guitar
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
∴ Some astronauts can play an instrument
All astronauts can play the guitar
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
∴ All astronauts can play an instrument
But not:
No astronauts can play the guitar
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
6∴ No astronauts can play an instrument
Case 4: Determiners downward entailing in the Scope
Case 4: Determiners downward entailing in the Scope
Case 4: Determiners downward entailing in the Scope
Case 4: Determiners downward entailing in the Scope
Case 4: Determiners downward entailing in the Scope
Case 4: Determiners downward entailing in the Scope
Case 4: Determiners downward entailing in the Scope
Determiners downward entailing in the Scope
Determiners downward entailing in the Scope
No astronauts can play an instrument
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
∴ No astronauts can play the guitar
Determiners downward entailing in the Scope
No astronauts can play an instrument
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
∴ No astronauts can play the guitar
But not:
All astronauts can play an instrument
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
6∴ All astronauts can play the guitar
Summing up determiners’ polarities
Det
no
some/a
less then five
at most five
at least five
every/all
Restrictor
Scope
polarity?
polarity?
↓
↑
↓
↓
↑
↓
↓
↑
↓
↓
↑
↑
Discovering the connection
Det
no
some/a
less then five
at most five
at least five
every/all
Restrictor
NPI here?
3
7
3
3
7
3
Scope
NPI here?
3
7
3
3
7
7
Discovering the connection
Det
no
some/a
less then five
at most five
at least five
every/all
Restrictor
NPI here?
3
7
3
3
7
3
Scope
NPI here?
3
7
3
3
7
7
Det
no
some/a
less then five
at most five
at least five
every/all
Restrictor
polarity?
↓
↑
↓
↓
↑
↓
Scope
polarity?
↓
↑
↓
↓
↑
↑
Discovering the connection
Det
no
some/a
less then five
at most five
at least five
every/all
Restrictor
NPI here?
3
7
3
3
7
3
Scope
NPI here?
3
7
3
3
7
7
Det
no
some/a
less then five
at most five
at least five
every/all
Restrictor
polarity?
↓
↑
↓
↓
↑
↓
The relevant property is polarity
NPI’s may only occur in downward entailing positions.
Scope
polarity?
↓
↑
↓
↓
↑
↑
Let’s check it
Let’s check it
Det
↓
↑
z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{
3 Every archeologist who has ever seen it resigned immediately .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
Scope
Let’s check it
↓
Det
↑
z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{
3 Every archeologist who has ever seen it resigned immediately .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
Det
↓
Scope
↑
}|
{z
}|
{
z }| { z
7 Every archeologist who has seen it said anything .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
Scope
Let’s check it
↓
Det
↑
z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{
3 Every archeologist who has ever seen it resigned immediately .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
↓
Det
Scope
↑
}|
{z
}|
{
z }| { z
7 Every archeologist who has seen it said anything .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Det
Restrictor
↑
Scope
↑
z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{
7 An archeologist who has ever seen it resigned immediately .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
Scope
Let’s check it
↓
Det
↑
z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{
3 Every archeologist who has ever seen it resigned immediately .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
↓
Det
Scope
↑
}|
{z
}|
{
z }| { z
7 Every archeologist who has seen it said anything .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
↑
Det
Scope
↑
z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{
7 An archeologist who has ever seen it resigned immediately .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
Det
↓
Scope
↓
z }| { z
}|
{z
}|
{
3 No archeologist who has ever seen it said anything .
| {z } |
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
Scope
Det
↓
↓
z
}|
{z
}|
{z
}|
{
3 At most three archeologists who have ever seen it said anything .
|
{z
}|
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Restrictor
Scope
Det
↓
↓
z
}|
{z
}|
{z
}|
{
3 At most three archeologists who have ever seen it said anything .
|
{z
}|
{z
}|
{z
}
Det
Det
Restrictor
↑
Scope
↑
z
}|
{z
}|
{ z }| {
7 At least three archeologists who have ever seen it resigned .
|
{z
}|
{z
} | {z }
Det
Restrictor
Scope
Data we haven’t accounted for yet
Data we haven’t accounted for yet
(19)
a. John will not ever leave you.
b. #John will ever leave you.
(20)
a. Pete does not give a damn.
b. #Pete gives a damn.
GQ
z
VP
}|
{z
}|
{
.
John
will
leave
you
| {z } |
{z
}
Det+Restrictor
Scope
GQ
z
Det+Restrictor
John can play the guitar
VP
}|
{z
}|
{
.
John
will
leave
you
| {z } |
{z
}
Scope
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
∴ John can play an instrument
GQ
z
Det+Restrictor
John can play the guitar
VP
}|
{z
}|
{
.
John
will
leave
you
| {z } |
{z
}
Scope
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
∴ John can play an instrument
Proper names are upward entailing GQ’s
John is upward entailing in its Scope.
GQ
z
Det+Restrictor
John can play the guitar
VP
}|
{z
}|
{
.
John
will
leave
you
| {z } |
{z
}
Scope
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
∴ John can play an instrument
Proper names are upward entailing GQ’s
John is upward entailing in its Scope.
GQ
7
z
↑
}|
{z
}|
{
.
John
will
ever
leave
you
| {z } |
{z
}
Det+Restrictor
Scope
What does negation do?
(21)
a. #John will ever leave you.
b. John will not ever leave you.
What does negation do?
(21)
a. #John will ever leave you.
b. John will not ever leave you.
What does “not” do?
What does negation do?
(21)
a. #John will ever leave you.
b. John will not ever leave you.
What does “not” do?
John can play the guitar
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
∴ John can play an instrument
What does negation do?
(21)
a. #John will ever leave you.
b. John will not ever leave you.
What does “not” do?
John can play the guitar
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
∴ John can play an instrument
John can not play the guitar
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
6∴ John can not play an instrument
What does negation do?
(21)
a. #John will ever leave you.
b. John will not ever leave you.
What does “not” do?
John can play the guitar
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
∴ John can play an instrument
John can not play the guitar
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
6∴ John can not play an instrument
John can not play an instrument
[can play the guitar] ⊆ [can play an instrument]
∴ John can not play the guitar
Reverse logical polarity
The negation word not reverses the position’s logical polarity.
What is Semantics?
What is Semantics?
Semantics is not Lexicography
What is Semantics?
Semantics is not Lexicography
Semantics uses notions like
(morpho-)syntactic structure
truth/falsity
logical entailment/inference patterns
reference/denotation
What is Semantics?
Semantics is not Lexicography
Semantics uses notions like
(morpho-)syntactic structure
truth/falsity
logical entailment/inference patterns
reference/denotation
in order to formulate exact hypotheses and make clear predictions
about how language works
What is Semantics?
Semantics is not Lexicography
Semantics uses notions like
(morpho-)syntactic structure
truth/falsity
logical entailment/inference patterns
reference/denotation
in order to formulate exact hypotheses and make clear predictions
about how language works