Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 265 (2008) 262–274
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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / p a l a e o
Global and regional influences on equatorial shallow-marine carbonates during
the Cenozoic
Moyra E.J. Wilson ⁎
Department of Applied Geology, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia
A R T I C L E
I N F O
Article history:
Received 24 January 2008
Received in revised form 18 May 2008
Accepted 26 May 2008
Keywords:
Coral reef
Climate change
Nutrients
CO2
Tectonics
Oceanography
Cenozoic
Carbonate platform
A B S T R A C T
The SE Asian carbonate record allows insight into the poorly known response of equatorial marine systems to
regional and global change during the Cenozoic. There is a marked change from larger benthic foraminifera
to corals as dominant shallow-marine carbonate producers in SE Asia around the Oligo-Miocene boundary.
The Early Miocene acme of coral development in SE Asia lags Oligocene coral development in the Caribbean
and Mediterranean, despite local tectonics providing apparently suitable habitable areas. Regional and global
controls, including changing CO2, oceanography, nutrient input and precipitation patterns are inferred to be
the main cause of this lag in equatorial reefs. It is inferred that moderate, although falling level of CO2, Ca2+
and Ca\Mg when combined with the reduced salinities in humid equatorial waters all contributed to reduced
aragonite saturation hindering reefal development compared with warm more arid regions during the
Oligocene. By the Early Miocene, atmospheric CO2 levels had fallen to pre-industrial levels. Although this was
a relative arid phase globally, in SE Asia palynological evidence indicates that the Early Miocene experienced
everwet, but more stable and less seasonal conditions than periods before or after. Tectonic convergence
truncated deep throughflow of cool nutrient-rich currents from the Pacific to Indian Ocean around the
beginning of the Miocene, thereby directly, and perhaps indirectly (though less seasonal conditions) reducing
nutrients. It is inferred that aragonitic reefs were promoted where previously the waters had been more
acidic, more mesotrophic, more turbid, and less aragonite saturated. Extensive reefal development resulted in
an order of magnitude expansion of shallow-carbonate areas through buildup and pinnacle reef formation in
the Early Miocene. Tectonics via increased habitat partitioning and reducing distances to other coral-rich
regions may also have contributed to enhanced reefal development. Declining reefal importance at the end of
the Early Miocene resulted from uplift of land areas, enhanced oceanic ventilation, through thermohaline
circulation and narrowing of oceanic gateways as well as increased seasonal runoff, at least in SE Asia
through initiation\intensification of the monsoons. Implications of this study are that with current
anthropogenically-induced environmental changes it will be the diverse reefs of SE Asia that are likely to be
amongst the first and hardest hit as oceanic aragonite saturation decreases and terrestrial nutrient runoff
increases.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The response of equatorial marine systems remains poorly known
to long-term global change spanning the Cenozoic. This is despite
recent realisation that equatorial regions have not remained static
during global climatic shifts (Pearson et al., 2001), and that as well as
being participants tropical oceans may be dominant drivers of climate
change (Kerr, 2001). Shallow-marine carbonates are known to be
highly responsive to changing environmental conditions. The hypothesis here is that by evaluating spatiotemporal changes in equatorial
⁎ Tel.: +61 8 9266 2456.
E-mail address: [email protected].
0031-0182/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.05.012
carbonates it should be possible to infer main controls on shallowmarine systems, and whether any trends are consistent with theories
of how the tropics respond to global change. Major global trends in the
Cenozoic include the transition from greenhouse to icehouse conditions (Zachos et al., 2001), radical variations in atmospheric CO2 levels
(Pearson and Palmer, 2000; Pagani et al, 2005), the development of
the monsoons (Jia et al., 2003), and the evolution of modern reefs
(Perrin, 2002). Additionally plate tectonic reorganization, eustasy,
oceanography and trophic resources are all involved in environmental
feedback loops, strongly influencing marine systems (Perrin, 2002;
Halfar and Mutti, 2005). SE Asia has the most extensive and complete
record of equatorial carbonates spanning the last 50 My: the EoceneRecent (Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989; Wilson, 2002). The aims of this
work are: 1) to present new data on spatiotemporal changes in
Cenozoic SE Asian carbonates, 2) to evaluate factors controlling
M.E.J. Wilson / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 265 (2008) 262–274
263
Fig. 1. Carbonate biofacies plotted onto simplified plate tectonic and palaeogeographic time slices of Hall (1996, 2002; after Wilson and Rosen, 1998). Time slices shown are a) Late
Eocene, b) Early Oligocene, c) Late Oligocene, d) Early Miocene, e) Middle Miocene, f) Late Miocene, and g) Present day. S=Setting, C=Coral.
regional carbonate development, and 3) to assess if, and how the
equatorial marine systems may be responding to regional and global
change.
2. Methodology and data
The location, age, and components of all SE Asian carbonate
formations analyzed by Wilson (2002) are plotted onto plate tectonic
and palaeogeographic time-slices reconstructions (Fig. 1a–g and
Appendix A, Hall, 1996, 2002; Wilson and Rosen, 1998). To determine
long-term trends the selected time slices fall within the major
subdivisions of the Cenozoic and away from environmental shortterm perturbations at epoch boundaries (Zachos et al., 2001).
Although the reconstructions of Hall (1996, 2002) were used, plotting
the carbonates onto plate tectonic reconstructions by other workers
(Rangin et al., 1990, Daly et al., 1991; Lee and Lawver, 1995) would
yield a similar picture of spatial and temporal carbonate development.
Warm-water, light-dependent biota predominated in all shallowwater limestones. Using only limestones (250 out of 299 formations)
dominated by these components eliminated any variations due to
depths below the photic zone, major eutrophication, or temperatures
below an annual average of 16 °C. The shallow-water limestones were
subdivided into three biofacies (Fig. 1 and Appendix A). These are
dominated by: 1) aragonitic corals (and sometimes Halimeda),
2) diverse calcitic larger benthic foraminifera (and sometimes coralline algae, including rhodoliths), and 3) mixed biofacies containing
abundant corals and larger benthic foraminifera. Deposits reported as
coral-rich in the literature, or reefal with corals (with few larger
benthic foraminifera described), were plotted as dominated by corals.
Zooxanthellae are not preserved in fossil corals. However, where
described the solitary and colonial corals from all ages in SE Asia are
almost all z-corals, z-like or z-like?1 (Adams et al., 1990; Wilson and
Rosen, 1998), rather than azooxanthellate. Larger benthic foraminifera
are biostratigraphic indicators in SE Asia and their occurrence and
abundance are often qualitatively recorded. Appendix A tabulates for
the first time the areas and biofacies types for each shallow-carbonate
formation from the literature and geological maps. Where possible,
entries (15% out of the 250 shallow formations) were validated by the
author's independent field, sample and/or petrographic analysis to
quantify biofacies types for each formation (Appendix A). The results
of this independent biofacies analysis did not differ significantly from
the published literature.
New data collected on temporal changes in the areas of carbonate
biofacies, numbers of extensive platforms versus localized shoals or
buildups are plotted against regional and global events to evaluate
1
Terminology defined in Wilson and Rosen (1998): 1) z-coral: species is still living
and known to be zooxanthellate, 2) z-like coral: species is extinct, but a) belongs to a
genus whose living species are all z-corals and/or b) has skeletal characteristics found
only in living z-corals (mainly stable isotopes, morphology); 3) z-like coral?: Species is
extinct but a) occurs in warm, shallow carbonate facies and/or b) lacks skeletal
characteristics consistently found in living z-corals and/or c) there is doubt about
applicability of other stronger lines of evidence (1 and 2 above).
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M.E.J. Wilson / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 265 (2008) 262–274
Fig. 1 (continued).
possible main factors influencing equatorial carbonate development
(Figs. 2 and 3). Shoals/buildups are defined as being less than ∼20 km
across. The carbonates of SE Asia, particularly surface outcrops
without hydrocarbon potential, remain understudied. The biofacies
of only around 10% of the carbonate formations tabulated by Wilson
(2002) have been documented in detail. There is little regional
systematic data on the evolution and extinction of corals or the
diversity of reefal deposits (Wilson and Rosen, 1998). Geochemical
data such as O or C isotopes are sparse since Pre-Quaternary aragonitic
components have been altered, and the abundant tests of calcitic larger
benthic foraminifera may not be in equilibrium with seawater. Future
study on these topics would to help elucidate short-term changes, but
despite limitations long-term trends are apparent (Fig. 2). Most
deposits have been dated through their larger benthic foraminifera
(using the East India Letter Classification; Adams, 1970), and/or
microfossils if present. More workers are beginning to use strontium
isotope dating for Oligo-Miocene sections (Lunt and Allan, 2004).
Although the detailed dates of individual formations may change with
further dating, on the basis of recent redating it is unlikely that the
overall general trends will change significantly.
3. Results: patterns and trends
Long-term trends (Figs. 1, 2 and 3) are: 1) Shallow, warm-water
carbonates are present in SE Asia throughout the Eocene-Recent and
∼10% are mixed biofacies in most periods. 2) Biofacies dominated by
larger benthic foraminifera are present throughout the Cenozoic, and
although corals are known from the Eocene, coral-dominated systems
are not reported until the Late Oligocene. 3) A change in the dominant
biota from larger benthic foraminifera to corals around the OligoMiocene boundary. 4) A minor gradual increase in the area of carbonate
production from the late Eocene through the Oligocene, a marked
increase around the Oligo-Miocene boundary, followed by a decline to
the present. 5) A minor gradual increase then decrease in the number of
large-scale platforms through the Cenozoic, whereas there is over an
order of magnitude increase in the number of buildups and shoals
around the Oligo-Miocene boundary followed by a decline to the present.
SE Asia has a complex tectonic evolution during the Cenozoic, being
the site of convergence of the Indo-Australian and Philippine-Pacific
Plates with the stable Sundaland (Asian) mainland, all interacting with
many smaller microcontinental and oceanic fragments (Hall, 1996,
2002). The tectonostratigraphic context was studied to help evaluate
possible regional or global influences on carbonate trends.
Paleocene and Early Eocene carbonates are rare in SE Asia. By the
Late Eocene extensive carbonate platforms were common on microcontinental blocks in eastern SE Asia or along the margins of newly
formed marine extensional basins bordering eastern Sundaland (van
de Weerd and Armin, 1992; Wilson et al., 2000; Wilson, 2002). During
the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene extensive platforms formed in
New Guinea (Leamon and Parsons, 1986; Brash et al., 1991), as the
Australian craton and associated microcontinental blocks drifted
northwards, and also along the margins of the developing extensional
S China Sea Basin (Adams, 1965; Holloway, 1982; Hinz and Schlüter,
1985). These Paleogene carbonates are dominated by diverse larger
M.E.J. Wilson / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 265 (2008) 262–274
265
Fig. 1 (continued).
benthic foraminifera and less commonly coralline algae (Adams, 1965;
Brash et al., 1991; Wilson et al., 2000; Wilson, 2002). The larger benthic
foraminifera are mostly perforate forms, and were variously adapted to
occupy the full range of habitats within the photic zone. Carbonates were
not extensive in western SE Asia as a consequence of a major land area
extending from mainland Asia, through Sumatra and Borneo during the
Paleogene (Wilson, 2002). Localized, and often transient, carbonates only
accumulated on the narrow shelves when clastic input was insufficient to
hinder production resulting mainly in mixed biofacies (Wilson, 2002).
During the Eocene and most of the Oligocene corals are rare, with solitary or
isolated colonial forms present in shallow and sometimes muddy coastal
deposits, such as those documented in the Tonasa and Tampur Limestones
(de Smet, 1992; Wilson and Rosen, 1998; Wilson, 1999). Patch reefs, reefal
buildups or reef rimmed margins only start to be reported from in the later
part of the Oligocene (Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989; Wilson and Rosen,
1998). These develop in the marine backarc basins of Java and Sumatra
(Sharaf et al., 2005), along the subsiding margins of the Sundaland craton,
close to emerging islands in the Philippines (Porth et al. 1989), and possibly
in New Guinea (Brash et al., 1991).
There was a marked increase in the extent of carbonates, and a
change from larger foraminifera to coral dominance around the OligoMiocene boundary (Fig. 2). Corals were widespread, abundant and
diverse throughout the region during the Neogene. Many modern
genera or species and all the growth forms typical of the modern IndoWest Pacific are present in these Miocene reefs (Wilson and Rosen,
1998). The accompanying biota is also closely comparable with
modern reefs, with diverse benthic foraminifera, echinoderms,
molluscs, coralline algae and Halimeda. During the Early Miocene
reefal carbonates, with buildups and pinnacle reefs, were common in
all the marine basins bordering mainland SE Asia (Fulthorpe and
Schlanger, 1989; Grötsch and Mercadier, 1999; Wicaksono et al., 1995;
White et al., 2007). To the east, reefal production occurred on
microcontinental blocks, despite some collision-related uplift (Hall,
2002). The Early Miocene was a major phase of carbonate deposition
both in SE Asia and throughout much of the tropics and subtropics,
with reef corals occurring in higher latitudes than today (Fulthorpe
and Schlanger, 1989). During the mid-Miocene, the area of carbonate
deposition, though still extensive and diverse, had been reduced, due
to the emergence of land areas, resulting in part from microcontinental collisions (Hall, 1996) and the associated shedding of clastics.
This trend of reduced areal extent of high diversity carbonates
continues to the present day. Neogene foraminifera-dominated and
mixed biofacies are generally in coastal areas receiving terrestrial
runoff, in areas of upwelling associated with oceanic currents, or
perforate foraminifera dominate over corals in deeper photic areas
(Wilson and Vecsei, 2005).
4. Discussion: controls on equatorial carbonates
Possible controlling influences must be consistent with the main
trends in equatorial carbonates and their exceptions as outlined above. The
paucity of corals in most Paleogene deposits also needs explanation,
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M.E.J. Wilson / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 265 (2008) 262–274
Fig. 1 (continued).
particularly during the Oligocene when corals and reefs are common in
other tropical areas such as the Caribbean and Mediterranean (Wilson and
Rosen, 1998; Edinger and Risk, 1994; Budd, 2000; Perrin, 2002).
4.1. Tectonics and biogeography
Regional tectonics via plate tectonic movement, extensional basin
formation and uplift was the dominant control on the location of
carbonates during the Cenozoic in SE Asia (Wilson and Hall, submitted
for publication). These processes controlled movement into the tropics,
emergence and disappearance of shallow-marine areas. Locally, the
creation of faulted highs, volcanic edifices, microcontinental blocks, and
basins trapping siliciclastics influenced the location of carbonate
initiation. The extent of large-scale platforms, increasing slightly into
the Miocene then decreasing (Fig. 2), is related to the tectonic formation,
drift, and subsequent subaerial exposure through tectonic uplift of largescale, shallow-water areas. Although there was widespread subsidence
of basins around the Oligo-Miocene boundary, local tectonics cannot be
the cause of the major change in biota around this time. A biogeographic
cause may help explain the paucity of corals during the Paleogene in SE
Asia, since the tectonic context resulted in geographical isolation from
other coral-rich areas (Wilson and Rosen, 1998). However, additional
environmental factors are inferred since corals were present in the
Paleogene, but other than locally did not become dominant contributors
until around the Oligo-Miocene boundary.
4.2. Eustasy
There is no positive correlation between the area of SE Asian
carbonates and periods of global highstands or late transgressive
phases on the scale of the Cenozoic, as might be predicted from
sequence stratigraphic principles. Eustasy was therefore not the
dominant control on the regional extent of carbonates. As an
exception, a period of eustatic high, together with subsidence of
many basins during the Early Miocene may have partially influenced
the areal extent of carbonates (Greenlee and Lehmann, 1993), but does
not explain the change in biota. Glacio-eustatic fluctuations of sea
level are a major feature of the Neogene. Corals may have been
promoted at this time because they are able to ‘keep-up’ with the
rapid rises, and because suitable lithified substrates for colonization
were provided via meteoric cementation from repeated subaerial
exposure. However, corals are also capable of colonizing shells or
pebbles in soft substrates. Also this ‘fluctuations’ hypothesis cannot
explain why corals are common in other tropical regions outside SE
Asia during much of the Oligocene. Smaller-scale buildups or shoals
are mainly of Neogene age in SE Asia, and the increase in areal extent
of carbonates in the Early Miocene was only possible through their
development (Figs. 2 and 3). Whatever the cause, the change to coral
dominance would have enhanced the potential for buildup formation
through framework development and faster accumulation rates than
the larger benthic foraminifera (Fig. 3; Wilson, 2002).
M.E.J. Wilson / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 265 (2008) 262–274
267
Fig. 1 (continued).
4.3. Temperatures
The high temperatures of the early Paleogene (Pearson et al., 2001)
may have inhibited corals in the equatorial tropics, through processes
such as coral bleaching (Sheppard, 2003; Scheibner et al, 2005). Larger
benthic foraminifera are much less susceptible to symbiont expulsion
due to increased temperature (Hallock, 2000). However, coral
communities can become acclimatized to higher temperatures
(Hallock, 2005). The SE Asian data does not support temperature
being the prime limiting factor since corals are often present in very
shallow, near coastal deposits during the Paleogene where seawater
temperatures would have been at a maximum. Rises of ∼4–6 °C
(Zachos et al., 2001) in deep-sea and low latitude surface temperatures around the Paleocene Eocene Thermal Maximum are inferred to
have hindered coral growth (Scheibner et al., 2005). However, by the
late Eocene (when the main Cenozoic SE Asian carbonates record
begins) sea surface temperatures (SST) in low latitudes were b2–4 °C
higher than today. SE Asia has probably always been a region of
depressed SST due to oceanic throughflow (Kuhnt et al., 2004) and
past temperatures of up to 34 °C (today 26–30 °C; Gordon et al., 2003)
are unlikely to have hindered corals. A warm phase may have allowed
the expansion of reefal corals during the Early Miocene into much
higher latitudes than today (Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989). This was
followed by global cooling in the Middle Miocene perhaps related to
organic-carbon-rich deposition, resulting in drawdown of atmospheric CO2 and East Antarctic ice-sheet growth (the ‘Monterey
Hypothesis’; Vincent and Berger, 1985; Flower and Kennett, 1993;
1994). Pomar and Hallock (2007) speculated that during the Early
Miocene high summer temperatures and exposure to full sunlight via
clear skies in the Mediterranean may have caused loss of symbionts in
shallow-water corals, resulting in few reefs building to sea level.
Available data from SE Asia suggests that corals reefs built to sea level
throughout the Neogene. If elevated temperatures were an issue in
other regions, the presence of an active oceanic gateway and the
commonly cloudy skies in SE Asia may have maintained temperatures
below the threshold for symbiont expulsion.
4.4. Ocean/atmosphere interactions
High CO2 levels and/or low Mg/Ca ratios in the early Paleogene may
have both hindered the recovery of aragonitic corals following the end
Cretaceous extinction event. Aragonite saturation in surface waters
decreases as both pCO2 and Ca/Mg increase, and under these conditions
calcitic organisms are promoted (Stanley and Hardie, 1998; Kleypas
et al., 1999; Hallock, 2005). Fine and Tchernov (2007) have shown that
aragonitic corals decalcify when seawater pH is reduced where
increased oceanic acidification is related to elevated CO2. Total
decalcification occurred when pH values were reduced from 8.3 (today's
value) to 7.4 (postulated to occur within the next 300 years). During the
Eocene, pCO2 values varied around 1000–2000 ppm (Pagani et al., 2005;
Fig. 2) with a likely associated reduction of 0.3 to 0.5 of a pH value
(Caldeira and Wickett, 2003). The global predominance of calcitic larger
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M.E.J. Wilson / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 265 (2008) 262–274
Fig. 1 (continued).
benthic foraminifera and coralline algae over aragonitic corals and
calcareous green algae in shallow waters during the Eocene has been
related to these elevated CO2 and/or Ca/Mg values (Stanley and Hardie,
1998; Hallock, 2005).
Although fluctuating, values of atmospheric CO2, together with oceanic
Ca2+ and Ca/Mg ratios were all falling through the Oligocene (Stanley and
Hardie, 1998; Pagani et al., 2005). Aragonite hypercalcification needed for
reef framework formation, is promoted by low atmospheric CO2 levels,
Mg/Ca ratios N3, increased temperatures and additionally normal to
elevated salinities (Stanley and Hardie, 1998; Kleypas et al., 1999). Due to
high equatorial runoff the surface waters of SE Asia have significantly
reduced salinities (30–34‰) compared with global averages (36‰). This is
true around coasts of everwet islands (such as Borneo), or those with a
seasonal monsoonal climate (such as Sulawesi or Java; Gordon et al., 2003;
Wilson and Vecsei, 2005). Moderate CO2 levels during the Oligocene
combined with reduced salinities in SE Asia may have hindered aragonitic
reef formation and promoted calcitic larger foraminifera. Although the
diversity of corals may have recovered, their ability to hypercalcify was
hindered by low aragonite saturations, meaning that although corals were
present reef development was patchy, indicating a geochemical control
(anonymous referee, pers. comm.. 2008). In comparison with SE Asia,
more arid areas outside the equatorial region, such as the Caribbean and
Mediterranean, are likely to have had higher aragonite saturations,
promoting earlier extensive reef growth (Kleypas et al., 1999, 2001).
Simulations of ocean chemistry related to postulated rising CO2 levels over
the next century show that the aragonite saturation in equatorial regions
(and SE Asia in particular) will drop below those suitable for reef
development (Ω-arag N4) significantly earlier than for the Caribbean
(Kleypas et al., 1999). Due to reduced salinities, SE Asian waters typically
show aragonite saturations of ∼0.5–1 less than those for the Caribbean or
Red Sea, translating to ∼10% reduction in calcification rates.
The Indo-West Pacific is the largest coral-reef province and may
partially ‘swamp’ the perceived trend of Cenozoic coral reefs with a
global acme in the late Oligocene to Early Miocene (Perrin, 2002;
Hallock, 2005). Although difficult to make direct comparison due to the
lack of diversity data on corals from SE Asia, reefs are abundant and
diverse in the Caribbean and Mediterranean during the late Oligocene
and decline in importance in the Early Miocene (Perrin, 2002; Edinger
and Risk, 1994; Budd, 2000; Pomar and Hallock, 2007). Reasons for this
Early Miocene decline in the Caribbean and Mediterranean include
closure of the Tethys seaway resulting in a reduced dispersal pool and
increased upwelling, together with increased turbidity and cooling in
the Caribbean (Edinger and Risk, 1994, Budd, 2000; Perrin, 2002). High
temperatures and exposure to full sunlight may have also limited
shallow reef growth in the Mediterranean (Pomar and Hallock, 2007).
4.5. Nutrification
Factors influencing the distribution of Neogene foraminiferadominated carbonates are indicative that periods of siliciclastic runoff
and/or elevated nutrients causing reduced water clarity associated
with plankton blooms may also have strongly influenced Cenozoic
M.E.J. Wilson / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 265 (2008) 262–274
269
Fig. 1 (continued).
carbonate producers (Pomar et al., 2004; Wilson and Vecsei, 2005). SE
Asian modern and Miocene perforate foraminifera biofacies are
promoted in areas of terrestrial runoff or upwelling, with an indication
that nutrients (high oligotrophy to mesotrophy rather than eutrophy)
may be influencing Cenozoic development of this biofacies (Renema
and Troelstra, 2001; Wilson and Vecsei, 2005). Corals, when
associated with terrestrial runoff, may occur as mixed deposits, but
are restricted to the shallower parts of the photic zone (Titlyanov and
Latypov, 1991; Wilson and Lokier, 2002; Sanders and Baron-Szabo,
2005; Hallock, 2005; Wilson, 2005). Although larger benthic foraminifera and corals are associated with oligotrophic conditions, both
can switch from dominantly photoautotrophy to increasing heterotrophic mixotrophy under increasing mesotrophy (Anthony and
Fabricus, 2000; Mutti and Hallock, 2003). Among larger benthic
foraminifera, nummulitids and alveolinids are increasing mixotrophic
r-strategists (Scheibner et al., 2005), and both are common in SE Asia.
Although excessive nutrients may hinder both corals and larger
benthic foraminifera (Hallock, 2001), it is the reduced water clarity
associated with plankton blooms during nutrient increases that may
be influential in SE Asia (Wilson and Vecsei, 2005, cf. Mutti and
Hallock, 2003, Hallock, 2005). Many hermatypic corals contain
different photosynthetic symbionts from perforate larger benthic
foraminifera that restrict them to shallower levels in the photic zone
(Falkowski et al., 1990; Lee and Anderson, 1991). Larger benthic
foraminifera may also have an advantage over corals under mesotrophy because they are shorter lived and can perhaps cope better with
a seasonal lack of light than corals (anonymous reviewer, pers. comm.,
2008). There is a strong global correlation between increased depth of
abundant coral development with reduced nutrients and increased
water clarity (Fig. 4). Coral growth in SE Asia is abundant to depths of
20 m, where nutrient levels are elevated due to high terrestrial runoff
and oceanic upwelling. This compares with abundant coral growth to
depths of 100 m in clearer, lower nutrient regions.
It is inferred that nutrient influx to the seas of SE Asia decreased in
the early Miocene related to changes in terrestrial runoff and
upwelling, and that this may have promoted reef development.
Globally, the Early Miocene is thought to have been a relatively dry
period with restricted polar glaciation related to reduced precipitation, perhaps linked to low greenhouse gas levels (Zachos et al., 2001)
and oceanographic change (Dumai et al., 2005). Although early work
suggested that many areas including SE Asia (Morley, 2000) and the
Mediterranean (Alvarez Sierra et al., 1990; Cabrera et al., 2002) were
drier during the Early Miocene, recent studies reveal a more complex
picture (Morley et al., 2003; Hamer et al., 2007). Palynological data
indicates that areas on the equator including Borneo remained
everwet during the Cenozoic (Morley, 2000). However, adjacent
regions such as Malaysia and Java had everwet climates in the Early
Miocene, but seasonal climates prior to, and following this interval
(Morley, 2000; Morley et al., 2003). In the warm tropics, although
organic productivity is high under everwet conditions, runoff is more
stable and cumulatively there is less siliciclastic and nutrient runoff
than under seasonal conditions (Cecil and Dulong, 2003; Cecil et al.,
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M.E.J. Wilson / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 265 (2008) 262–274
Fig. 2. Carbonate biofacies, numbers of platforms/buildups in SE Asia plotted against regional and global events during the Cenozoic.
M.E.J. Wilson / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 265 (2008) 262–274
271
Fig. 3. Changes in morphology and accumulation rates of SE Asian carbonates during the Cenozoic. On the upper diagram Neogene buildups plot in the field shown, but to aid clarity
not all are shown. Maximum values for carbonate accumulation rates for formations shown in the lower diagrams are from Wilson et al. (2000), Adams (1965), Cucci and Clark (1993),
Saller et al. (1993), Dunn et al. (1996), Park et al. (1992) and Jones and Desrochers (1992).
2003, Milliman, 1997). Paradoxically, a humid but stable climate
during the Early Miocene compared with strongly seasonal ones may
have resulted in less nutrient input, clearer waters and therefore
promoted reef growth.
Today, SE Asia remains as the only equatorial gateway for major
oceanic throughflow (from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean), with
Quaternary changes in the Indonesian Throughflow shown to
influence global climate (Gordon et al., 2003; Visser et al., 2003).
The formation of bathymetric barriers in the Philippines around the
Oligo-Miocene boundary due to the Australian Plate impacting on the
Philippine Sea Plate restricted the deep to intermediate, nutrient-rich
part of this major oceanic throughflow (Kuhnt et al., 2004). It is
inferred that this change in trophic resources of decreased nutrients
promoted increased coral development in the Early Miocene in SE Asia
through expansion of the photic zone. A positive feedback mechanism
linking changes to the regional oceanic currents and precipitation
(both reducing nutrient influx) has been suggested (Morley et al.,
2003; Morley, 2006). Restricting the deep throughflow reduced the
input of cool deep waters (Kuhnt et al., 2004). The resultant increase in
sea surface temperatures would promote evaporation and the
development of humid, but stable conditions (Morley et al., 2003).
Independent evidence for changes in nutrient partitioning in the
oceans around the Oligo-Miocene boundary come from a positive δ13C
excursion in the deep oceans (Fig. 2; Zachos et al., 2001), variations in
the δ13C signature from the deep to intermediate waters of the Indian
compared with the Pacific Oceans (Kuhnt et al., 2004), but a paucity of
organic rich rocks of Early Miocene age in SE Asia (Howes, 1997).
Corals continue to be important framework producers during the
later Neogene in SE Asia with diversity perhaps influenced by
increased habitat partitioning due to continued tectonic convergence.
Overall however the areal importance of corals diminishes post Early
Miocene likely due to increased uplift of land areas and increased
272
M.E.J. Wilson / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 265 (2008) 262–274
Fig. 4. Depth of abundant coral growth (from Schlager, 1992) plotted against satellite-derived chlorophyll a: a nutrient and water clarity proxy (after Halfar et al, 2004). Oligotrophic
and mesotrophic fields are delimited according to Hallock (2001).
seasonal runoff/nutrient input due to development or intensification of
the East Asian Monsoon (Jia et al., 2003). Nutrient upwelling due to global
intensification of oceanic ventilation (Halfar and Mutti, 2005) combined
with constriction of ocean currents due to continued closure of the IndoPacific ‘ocean gateway’ may have also contributed to post Early Miocene
reduced extent of corals in SE Asia (Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989).
5. Summary
This study highlights that there are strong spatiotemporal differences in the development of shallow-water reefs and carbonates during
the Cenozoic influenced by both global and regional factors. Although
corals and larger benthic foraminifera are present in SE Asian carbonates
throughout the Cenozoic coral-dominated facies are only apparent from
the Late Oligocene, and their importance together with the areal extent
of carbonates increases markedly around the Oligo-Miocene boundary.
Corals would have enhanced the potential for buildup development
through framework development and faster accumulation rates than
larger benthic foraminifera. The Early Miocene acme of reefal carbonates
in SE Asia lags a Late Oligocene peak in other regions such as the
Caribbean and the Mediterranean. Although the areal extent of
carbonates declines after the Early Miocene in SE Asia, coral-dominated
facies continue to be important to the present day.
Major factors most likely to be linked to these changes are: 1) global
CO2 levels, together with 2) regional oceanographic change, 3) nutrient
influx and 4) precipitation. In SE Asia, as in many other regions, local
tectonics provided the template allowing carbonate development. The
inundation of a number of basins by marine waters around the OligoMiocene boundary likely contributed to Early Miocene expansion of
carbonates. However, a marked increase in small-scale buildups and
associated increase in areal extent of carbonates in the Early Miocene
in SE Asia was only possible through promoted coral development.
Tectonic, eustatic or temperature changes are not dominant controls
influencing this biota change, instead global CO2 levels, together with
regional oceanographic change, nutrient influx and precipitation are
considered major factors.
Moderate, although falling levels of CO2, Ca2+ and Ca\Mg when
combined with the reduced salinities in equatorial waters probably all
contributed to reduced aragonite saturation hindering reefal development compared with warm, more arid regions during the
Oligocene. It is inferred that aragonitic reefs were promoted by the
Early Miocene in SE Asia where previously the waters had been more
acidic, more mesotrophic, more turbid, and less aragonite saturated.
These changes relate to low atmospheric CO2 levels, greater water clarity
through reduced nutrient runoff (year-round everwet precipitation
compared with more seasonal conditions) and reduced nutrient-rich
upwelling (through tectonic truncation of deep oceanic currents).
With predicted anthropogenically-induced rising CO2 levels and
continued high, deforestation-linked runoff in equatorial regions
what does the future hold for SE Asia's reefs? If the Cenozoic record is
a good analogue for the future, then this century's postulated
decimation of reefs due to reduced aragonite saturation (Kleypas
et al., 1999) together with changes towards mesotrophication will
likely hit the most globally diverse reefs of SE Asia earliest and hardest.
Acknowledgements
Supports from the SE Asia Research Group, UK and its funding
companies, together with the Geological Survey of Indonesia are
acknowledged. I thank H. Armstrong, D. Bosence, N. Deeks, K. Johnson,
R. Hall, S. Lokier, B. Park, W. Renema, B. Rosen and three anonymous
reviewers for helpful comments.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.05.012.
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