THOMAS HOBBES AND HIS MECHANISTIC PHYSIOLOGY:
FACTORS
IN THE RECEPTION OF THE MECHANICAL
IN SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
PHILOSOPHY
ENGLAND
BY
W I L L I A M FREDERICK SPOHN
B.Sc. U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ,
B.A. U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ,
A T H E S I S SUBMITTED
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE
OF
MASTER OF ARTS
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
( D e p a r tmen t . o f H i s t o r y )
We a c c e p t t h i s
t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g
to the required
standard
THE UNIVERSITY OF B R I T I S H
April,
1979
(c) W i l l i a m
1976
1977
Frederick
COLUMBIA
Spohn,
1979
In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s
thesis in partial
an advanced d e g r e e a t
the L i b r a r y
I further
for
shall
the U n i v e r s i t y
make i t
agree that
freely
this
thesis for
It
Department of
f i n a n c i a l gain shall
History
The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a
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Date
BP
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April
8,
1979
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ABSTRACT
Thomas Hobbes
political
i s the g e n e r a l l y acknowledged
philosopher
in the seventeenth century,
a r e a s o f h i s w o r k h a v e been much s t u d i e d .
field
has
of physiology
it
has remained
it.
the
in
the developing
basis
at
mechanical
opinion
this
study
much a s a p a r t
physiological tradition.
surrounding
Hobbes
situation
to English
o f mechanical
Furthermore,
physiology
to include the theological
d o c t r i n e and H o b b e s
by h i s p h i l o s o p h y .
paradoxical
bution
and comparing
in
The r e a s o n s why s u c h a p o s i t i v e r o l e i s n o t
apparent a r e found
t o any m a t e r i a l i s t i c
entailed
have
f o r m a k i n g a c a s e f o r a p o s i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i v e r o l e f o r Hobbes
i s formulated.
first
by t h o s e s c h o l a r s who
t h a t Hobbes was w o r k i n g v e r y
t h e encouragement and d i s s e m i n a t i o n
England
and i n f a c t
contemporary p h y s i o l o g i c a l s c i e n t i s t s ,
reaches the c o n c l u s i o n
of
His c o n t r i b u t i o n i n the
By e x a m i n i n g Hobbes' p h y s i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y
to that of other
English
and t h e p o l i t i c a l
largely unappreciated,
been deemed t o be l a r g e l y n e g a t i v e
examined
pre-eminent
1
r e p u t a t i o n a s an a t h e i s t
The c l i m a t e o f s c i e n t i f i c
1
ideas
i s a l s o examined.
i n w h i c h Hobbes c o u l d
science
and y e t g a i n
that c o n t r i b u t i o n i s discussed.
ii
objections
and c l e r i c a l
The s e e m i n g l y
make a s i g n i f i c a n t
no o v e r t
recognition f o r
contri-
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT
•ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
i i i
PHOTOGRAPH OF HOBBES
iiia
EPIGRAPH
iv
CHAPTER
I
HOBBES ' MECHANICAL PHYSIOLOGY
9
II
HOBBES AND THE ENGLISH PHYSIOLOGISTS
26
III
HOBBES* ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY
54
BIBLIOGRAPHY
69
iii
liia
" I know a l r e a d y , by e x p e r i e n c e , how much g r e a t e r
t h a n k s w i l l be due t h a n p a i d me, f o r t e l l i n g
men t h e t r u t h o f w h a t men a r e . "
Hobbes
INTRODUCTION
In an
important
article
published
i n 1977,
the development of p h y s i o l o g i c a l theory
with particular
osophy
He
reference
a philosophy
found
of nature
university
the
physiology
role of
Several
w h i c h Brown
medical
He
e n t h u s i a s m was
a u t h o r i t y , and
As
contemporary
qualified
was
to embrace a p h y s i o l o g y
b a s e d on
and
De
i d e a s o f Thomas H o b b e s .
Corpore
( 1 6 5 5 ) and
i n t h a t and
had
phil-
the
neo-
orthodox
materialism.
part of
the mechanical
philosophy
Hobbes had
the
to
degree,
circumscribed."'
influence of
theological objections
scientists
the
Descartes.
ambivalence toward mechanical
this
phil-
incursion"
carefully
h e s i t a n c y on
with
1660,
mechanical
e s p e c i a l l y W i l l i a m Harvey's
that
to
to a c o n s i d e r a b l e
p o s s i b l e reason f o r the
Brown s u g g e s t e d
1640
identified with
a final
of nature
discussed
found t h a t "even w i t h i n
philosophy
f o r s u c h an
tradition,
from
t h e new
osophy were o f f e r e d , i n c l u d i n g the c o n s e r v a t i v e
classical
Brown
a " m u l t i p l y ambivalent
philosophy.
the mechanical
explanations
in England
reception of
that England experienced
of Cartesian mechanical
and
to the
T.M.
the
English
philosophy
become a s s o c i a t e d
published
Leviathan
(1651)
t h e n e x t d e c a d e r e c e i v e d much
2
adverse
was
that
r e a c t i o n to h i s moral
and
a l s o a f e r v e n t proponent of
i t may
mechanical
Hobbes.
without
philosophies.
the mechanical
h a v e become d i f f i c u l t
philosophy
political
philosophy,
f o r anyone t o accept
r i s k i n g c e n s u r e by
1
As
Hobbes
Brown
freely
the
association with
argued
2
It
is d i f f i c u l t
physiological
studies
to-assess
context,
has c e n t r e d
f o r the recently
biological
discussed
in o r d e r
exception
increased
Hobbes
natural
1
philosophy
is Frithiof
and
discussion
h a v e f o r t h e most p a r t
B r a n d t who
religious
The few a u t h o r s who
t o e x p l i c a t e some m o r a l o r p o l i t i c a l
to this
moral
f o r t h e most p a r t o m i t t i n g
and p h y s i o l o g i c a l t h o u g h t .
in the
i n t e r e s t i n Hobbes'
o v e r w h e l m i n g l y on t h e p o l i t i c a l ,
aspects of h i s philosophy,
his
t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Thomas Hobbes
point.
have
done s o
The o n l y
notable
gave a m e t i c u l o u s and
u a b l e a c c o u n t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f Hobbes'
of
inval-
t h o u g h t s on n a t u r a l
philos-
3
ophy and o f h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o c o n t e m p o r a r y n a t u r a l
Unfortunately,
logical
f o r our purposes, Brandt d i d not examine Hobbes
c l e a r that
philosophical
and
perhaps s e v e r a l
E n g l i s h moral
the d i s c u s s i o n
intellectual
reasons.
The
and p o l i t i c a l
o f Hobbes
environment
w h i c h Hobbes was
critics
denounced w i t h
a s o u t l i n e d by Samuel
such a s p e r i t y
theories of biology
c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , and t h i s
There are
image o f Hobbes a s t h e b e t e n o i r e o f
t o h a v e g e n e r a t e d most o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n
Hobbes'
i n h i s contemporary
i s incomplete.
h a v e become s o m e t h i n g o f a s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g
his
physio-
1
theories.
I t seems
well.
philosophers.
truism.
The
i n h i s own
Mintz
ideas f o r
time
seem
in the present century
h a v e been
may
largely neglected
as
by
i s a r e s p o n s e t h a t modern w r i t e r s
have
seen f i t t o f o l l o w .
Whereas
several
seventeenth century
none h a v e p r o p e r l y
a u t h o r s have d e a l t w i t h
context,
most
Hobbes
1
thought
r e c e n t l y and n o t a b l y
in the
Quentin
e x a m i n e d h i s p h y s i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l
Skinner,
ideas
3
In
this
fashion.
A first
This
i s s u r e l y a lacuna
reaction to the suggestion
a r e an i m p o r t a n t
disciplines
case,
ones.
the p o l i t i c a l
To i g n o r e t h e s e
trivial
and o f t h e development o f t h e s e
he d i d t o m a t h e m a t i c s , a n d ,
in
sections o f h i s w r i t i n g s are the t r u l y
poorly explored areas
o r as p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y
reasons.
psychology
c e n t u r y , m i g h t be t h a t he no more
made a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o b i o l o g y t h a n
any
be f i l l e d .
t h a t Hobbes' p h y s i o l o g y a n d
p a r t o f h i s thought
i n the seventeenth
that should
To do a t r u l y
o f Hobbes' thought
important
as
i s o l a t e d w o u l d be an e r r o r f o r s e v e r a l
c o m p l e t e c o n t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s o f Hobbes a n d
his
w o r k s , a l l p o r t i o n s o f t h a t w o r k must be c o n s i d e r e d on H o b b e s
own
terms,
as a l l p a r t o f a d e v e l o p i n g whole.
mechanical
philosophy
physiology
i n t h e manner s u g g e s t e d
relationship
important
Not o n l y
i s Hobbes
to the h i s t o r y o f seventeenth
1
century
by B r o w n , b u t : i t i s i m p o r t a n t
to the other portions o f h i s philosophy
1
for its
according to
Hobbes h i m s e l f .
In
o r d e r p r o p e r l y t o compare Hobbes' work w i t h
oraries,
i t i s necessary
first
t o c l o s e l y examine t h e s e works and
summarize h i s thoughts
on m e c h a n i c a l
These c o n c l u s i o n s w i l l
then
phers and medical
order
was i m p o r t a n t
i n England.
not only
o f p h y s i o l o g y and psychology,
of
o f the l a t t e r
t o s e e i f Hobbes has a n y p a r t
thought
p h y s i o l o g y , s e n s a t i o n and
psychology.
be c o m p a r e d w i t h t h o s e o f o t h e r p h i l o s o -
scientists
'Cartesian philosophy'
t h a t o f h i s contem-
seventeenth
century i n
in the incursion o f so-called
Itwill
be shown t h a t
Hobbes
1
f o r i t s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e development
but a l s o t o the methodological
development
English science.
A case w i l l
seventeenth
be made t h a t c o n t r a r y t o Brown t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
century mechanistic
trends
i n a s i g n i f i c a n t way due t o H o b b e s .
t h a t Hobbes may h a v e had a p a r t
i n E n g l i s h p h y s i o l o g y was
While
Brown
in the ambivalence
i s correct in stating
o f the incursion
h
o f mechanism
into E n g l i s h thought,
u t i o n o f Hobbes.
scientists
may o u t w e i g h t h e n e g a t i v e , a n d much o f t h e s o - c a l l e d
t h e o r y a d o p t e d by t h e s e
be d e s c r i b e d a s H o b b e s i a n .
was a l m o s t
the negative
contrib-
The p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s o f H o b b e s ' t h o u g h t on h i s f e l l o w
doctrine o r Epicurean
as a p t l y
he s t r e s s e s o n l y
scientists
The r e a s o n s
could
why s u c h
u n t h i n k a b l e t o Hobbes' c o n t e m p o r a r i e s
will
Cartesian
just
an a p p e l a t i o n
a l s o be d i s c u s s e d .
Thomas Hobbes was a s e x c e p t i o n a l f o r h i s l o n g e v i t y as f o r h i s
ideas.
see
Born
h i s ninety-second
a traditional
at
A r m a d a , 1588,
i n the year o f the Spanish
year, dying
i n 1679-
Hobbes was e d u c a t e d
s c h o l a s t i c manner a n d r e c e i v e d h i s B.A. f r o m
t h e age o f n i n e t e e n .
His l i f e
f o r the next
as
the grand
life,
trip
Hobbes g r e a t l y .
when i n 1629,
to the Continent.
Euclidean geometric
atical
the
Although
His personal
t o noblemen's
he s p e n t
some
sons
time
enlightenment
method o f d e d u c t i v e
a n d was much t a k e n w i t h
reasoning.^
t o p h i l o s o p h y , a n d he h a d f o r m u l a t e d
1630,
using mechanistic explanations.
7
o f sens-
deductive
were t o form t h e b a s i s
t h e development o f Hobbes' p h i l o s o p h i c a l
friends
recounts
a t h e o r y o f s e n s a t i o n by
T h e s e two e l e m e n t s ,
i n human p s y c h o l o g y ,
somewhat a s o l i t a r y
t h e mathem-
Hobbes h i m s e l f e l s e w h e r e
i n c i d e n t i n w h i c h he became c o g n i z a n t o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e
Although
late
A u b r e y d e s c r i b e d how Hobbes c h a n c e d upon some
demonstrations
l o g i c a n d an i n t e r e s t
came
a t t h e a g e o f Ul, he was a b r o a d on h i s s e c o n d
ation
for
Oxford
F r a n c i s B a c o n ' s s e c r e t a r y , none o f t h e c h a n c e l l o r ' s i d e a s seem t o
have i m p r e s s e d
in
tour o f the Continent.
in
t h r e e d e c a d e s was an
i t i n e r a n t o n e , a s he s e r v e d a s c o m p a n i o n a n d t u t o r
taking
he l i v e d t o
system.
man, Hobbes n e v e r t h e l e s s made a
few
important
in s c i e n t i f i c
circles.
After
the
i n s t r u c t o r and f r i e n d o f W i l l i a m Cavendish,
Earl
I63O, Hobbes was
of
Newcastle
5
( l a t e r Marquis
a n d Duke) a n d o f h i s b r o t h e r S i r C h a r l e s
When i n t h e autumn o f 1 6 4 0 , Hobbes f l e d
tance w i t h the i n t e l l e c t u a l
Mersenne.
sojourn
(1634-1637)
While
scientific
his
brother.
fled
England
t o F r a n c e , he r e n e w e d k i s
i n P a r i s o r g a n i z e d by F a t h e r
Hobbes h a d f r e q u e n t e d t h i s
Florence.
of
circle
group
i n thecourse o f which
back
i n England
and p h i l o s o p h i c a l
Cavendish.
on h i s p r e v i o u s
he a l s o met G a l i l e o i n
he h a d been a member o f a n o t h e r
amateurs c e n t r e d around
1640s,
Marin
continental
i t was n a t u r a l
that
group
N e w c a s t l e and
When some o f t h e o t h e r members o f t h e N e w c a s t l e
i n the e a r l y
acquain-
circle
they would
convene
o n c e more i n P a r i s , w h e r e Hobbes p l a y e d a p a r t i n t h e e x c h a n g e o f i d e a s
between E n g l i s h and French
P i e r r e Gassend
thinkers.*
( G a s s e n d i ) , f o r i n s t a n c e , was a good f r i e n d o f
H o b b e s , a n d i n 1644 showed h i m t h e m a n u s c r i p t o f t h e f i r s t
major
present-
q
ation of his physics.
Hobbes saw more m e r i t
m e c h a n i s t i c atomism than
criticized.
that
can
Gassendi
philosophical
of
for
t h esenses
that
T h i s v i e w was b a s i c a l s o
agreement had i m p o r t a n t
Gassendi's work
first
i n D e s c a r t e s ' work which
in English
interesting
Epicurean
Hobbes r e p e a t e d l y
b e l i e v e d . ( c o n t r a r y to D e s c a r t e s * opinions)
i t i s only through
come.'^
i n Gassendi's
circles.
knowledge o f the n a t u r a l
t o Hobbes' t h e o r y , a n d t h e i r
implications
Hobbes
for the reception
is probably responsible
t h e members o f t h e N e w c a s t l e
circle
i n Epicurean
atomism, and i n i n t r o d u c i n g h i s f r i e n d W a l t e r C h a r l e t o n t o t h i s
ophy.''
C h a r l e t o n was l a t e r
world
philos-
t o become an a v i d e x p o n e n t o f G a s s e n d i
12
and
an i n f l u e n t i a l
man i n c i r c l e s
Hobbes t o o k f a r l e s s
opher
to
than as a geometer.
r e l i g i o u s orthodoxy
o f learning
interest
Although
i n R e s t o r a t i o n England,
i n D e s c a r t e s as a f r i e n d o r p h i l o s Hobbes c a s t i g a t e d
him f o r pandering
and f o r d e t a i l s o f t h e o r y on w h i c h
t h e two
6
differed,
of
he seems n e v e r t h e l e s s
the mechanical
philosophy
t o h a v e had an open m i n d on t h e
and was w i l l i n g
to consider
subject
the Cartesian
13
v e r s i o n on
i t smerits.
postulating
a rational
By h i s v e r y
d i s a g r e e m e n t , Hobbes
as w e l l
as o f G a s s e n d i
Thus
sity,
t h e 16k0s saw
(an ' i n v i s i b l e
ophy, c e n t r e d
He c o u l d n e v e r a g r e e ,
soul
rational
or psychological
phenomena.
c o l l e g e ' ) concerned with
o f an u n o f f i c i a l
t h e new
a r o u n d Hobbes, Mersenne, D e s c a r t e s ,
14
components.
o f the l a t e r e f f e c t s of t h i s
The
Hobbes was
to play
the seventeenth
univer-
mechanical
and G a s s e n d i ,
•
philosincluding
t a s k h e r e .'.includes :.the
' u n i v e r s i t y ' on
and p s y c h o l o g y , a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r ,
Descartes
circle.
in P a r i s the formation
physiology
of
of
instigated discussion of
among h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l
b o t h E n g l i s h and c o n t i n e n t a l
determination
to explain
on t h e n e c e s s i t y
English
the role that
Thomas
in the p h y s i o l o g i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n o f the l a t t e r
century.
half
7
FOOTNOTES
INTRODUCTION
1. T h e o d o r e M. B r o w n , " P h y s i o l o g y and t h e M e c h a n i c a l P h i l o s o p h y i n
M i d - S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y E n g l a n d , " B u i 1. H i s t . Med. 51
(1977):5^.
2 . F o r an a c c o u n t o f t h i s
o f L e v i a t h a n (Cambridge:
c r i t i c i s m s e e Samuel I . M i n t z , The
Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1962).
Hunting
3- F r i t h i o f B r a n d t , Thomas H o b b e s ' M e c h a n i c a l P h i l o s o p h y o f N a t u r e ,
(Copenhagen:
L e v i n & Munksgaard, 1928).
Brandt i s p a r t i c u l a r l y informa t i v e on H o b b e s o p t i c a l t h e o r y . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , a c c o r d i n g t o K a r g o n ,
the t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s work from the o r i g i n a l Danish i s a v e r y poor
one r e n d e r i n g t h e t e x t o f d o u b t f u l v a l u e .
See R o b e r t H. K a r g o n ,
A t o m i s m i n E n g l a n d f r o m Ha r i o t t o N e w t o n , ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s ,
1966)
p.5^.
1
4. R o b e r t K a r g o n , A t o m i s m i n E n g l a n d f r o m H a r i o t t o N e w t o n ,
1966,
was t h e f i r s t t o d e a l a t any l e n g t h w i t h H o b b e s ' m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y ,
e s p e c i a l l y h i s a t o m i s m , i n an E n g l i s h c o n t e x t .
He d e a l t o n l y i n p a s s i n g
w i t h t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r y o f Hobbes.
More a t t e n t i o n has been
p a i d to the i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t o f Hobbes p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t , n o t a b l y
by S k i n n e r , "The I d e o l o g i c a l C o n t e x t o f H o b b e s ' P o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t , "
H i s t o r i c a l J o u r n a l 9 ( 1 9 6 6 ) and by J.A.W. Gunn i n P o l i t i c s and t h e
P u b l i c I n t e r e s t i n t h e S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e £ K. P a u l ,
1968). .
1
5 . The b e s t b i o g r a p h y o f Hobbes r e m a i n s t h a t o f G.C. R o b e r t s o n , Hobbes
( E d i n b u r g h & London:
B l a c k w o o d a n d S o n s ) , 1886,
although Miriam
R e i k has done an i n f o r m a t i v e i f u n e x c e p t i o n a l r e v i s i o n o f t h a t a c c o u n t
o f Hobbes
l i f e i n The G o l d e n L a n d s o f Thomas Hobbes ( D e t r o i t :
Wayne
S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1-977).
;
1
6. J o h n A u b r e y ,
Press, 1898).
Brief
L i v e s , e d . A.
Clark
(Oxford:
The
Clarendon
7- T h i s t h e o r y i s t h e S h o r t T r a c t on F i r s t P r i n c i p l e s w h i c h Hobbes
never published.
The r e v i s e d i d e a s o f t h i s t r a c t w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n
E l e m e n t s o f Law, i n E n g l i s h W o r k s , e d .
S i r . W. M o l e s w o r t h ( L o n d o n :
J o h n B o h n , 1839)
v o l . IV.
The S h o r t T r a c t i t s e l f was f i r s t p u b l i s h e d
by F e r d i n a n d T o n n i e s i n 1889,
E l e m e n t s o f Law , ( L o n d o n : . F r a n k C a s s &
Co, L t d . , 1 9 6 9 ) .
8. W h i l e H o b b e s , N e w c a s t l e , C h a r l e s C a v e n d i s h a n d o t h e r s l i v e d i n
P a r i s , some o f t h e i r a s s o c i a t e s r e s i d e d i n o t h e r a r e a s , s u c h a s J o h n
P e l l in the Netherlands.
9- T h i s w o r k was A n i m a d v e r s i o n e s i n Decimum L i b r u m D i o g e n i s L a e r t i i ,
p u b l i s h e d i n 1649C a v e n d i s h n o t e d t h e f r i e n d s h i p o f Hobbes and G a s s e n d i
i n a l e t t e r t o P e l l , 10 O c t o b e r 1644
( H a l l i w e l l , Collection of Letters
I l l u s t r a t i v e o f the P r o g r e s s o f S c i e n c e in England (London: H i s t o r i c a l
S o c i e t y o f S c i e n c e , 1644
p.85)
and R o b e r t K a r g o n ,
d i scusses t h i s
r e l a t i o n s h i p i n A t o m i s m i n E n g l a n d , 1966
p.60ff.
8
10. C. B r u s h , S e l e c t e d Works o f P i e r r e G a s s e n d i (New Y o r k :
Johnson
Reprint Corporation,
1972) p.86,
Gassendi a l s o included d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n
as a p o s s i b l e s o u r c e f o r k n o w l e d g e , I b i d , , p . 1 3 .
11. R o b e r t K a r g o n , A t o m i s m i n E n g l a n d ,
p.60.
12. A n o t a b l e w o r k by C h a r l e t o n i s Phys i o l o g i a E p i e u r o - G a s s e n d - C h a r i t o n i a n a
( 1 6 5 4 ) , an u p d a t i n g o f G a s s e n d i ' s t h e o r i e s .
Hobbes may a l s o h a v e
introduced W i l l i a m Petty to Gassendi's w r i t i n g s .
13. A u s e f u l w o r k on Hobbes and D e s c a r t e s a s s e e n t h r o u g h c o n t e m p o r a r y
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i s H e l e n H e r v e y , "Hobbes and D e s c a r t e s i n t h e L i g h t o f
some U n p u b l i s h e d L e t t e r s o f t h e C o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n S i r C h a r l e s
C a v e n d i s h a n d Dr. J o h n P e l 1," O s i r i s X ( 1 9 5 2 ) : 6 7 " 9 0 .
14. R o b e r t K a r g o n , A t o m i s m i n E n g l a n d , p p . 6 8 - 6 9 .
CHAPTER I
HOBBES
The
1
MECHANICAL
q u e s t i o n o f t h e p l a c e o f Hobbes
psychology
w i t h i n t h e grand
been a c o n t r o v e r s i a l
one.
PSYCHOLOGY
1
mechanistic
physiological
scheme o f h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l
corpus
has
Hobbes h i m s e l f e n v i s i o n e d a t r i p a r t i t e
whole
w h i c h he d e s c r i b e d a s f o l l o w s : '
In t h e f i r s t (parO I w o u l d h a v e t r e a t e d o f body a n d i t s
g e n e r a l p r o p e r t i e s ( j . e , t h e - p h y s i c s t ) , i n t h e s e c o n d o f man
and h i s s p e c i a l f a c u l t i e s a n d a f f e c t i o n s ' Q .e. p h y s i o l o g y a n d
p s y c h o l o g y } ; j n t h e t h i r d o f c i v i l government and t h e d u t i e s
of s u b j e c t s . "
C.B. M a c P h e r s o n h a s s t a t e d t h a t most o f H o b b e s
critics
" h a v e p r o c e e d e d by b r e a k i n g
monolithic
results
i n t e r p r e t e r s and
up w h a t Hobbes had p r e s e n t e d
s t r u c t u r e . . . a s o f t e n as t h i s
have been
1
as a
h a s been done t o H o b b e s , t h e
i n c o n c l u s i v e , a n d i t may be d o u b t e d w h e t h e r t h e
2
process
case
has f u r t h e r e d t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g
f o r s t u d y i n g Hobbes
1
physiological
Such a s t u d y w o u l d n o t o n l y s e r v e
seventeenth
century
mechanistic
t i o n , as i s t h e aim o f t h i s
physiological
of
theory
the significance
o f Hobbes's t h e o r y . "
philosophy
t o p l a c e Hobbes
physiological
appears doubly
strong.
in the context of
and p s y c h o l o g i c a l s p e c u l a -
p a p e r , b u t a l s o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g
i n i t s own t e r m s may a l l o w a b e t t e r
t h a t Hobbes i n t e n d e d
The
o f the
understanding
i t t o have t o t h e o t h e r
two
p a r t s o f h i s work.
Hobbes c o n s i d e r e d
t h e " s c i e n c e o f man's body
(j.o be3
t h e most
3
profitable part of natural science,
an amount o f e f f o r t
in developing
a n d y e t he was d e s t i n e d t o s p e n d
a fully
a r t i c u l a t e physiology
less
t h a n c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h t h e a p p a r e n t 9s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p h y s i o l o g y t o
10
his
is
philosophy.
the
Short
the
elements
the
basics
to
be
The
Tract,
of
of
a
a
published
which
deals
before
1640,
i t
the
also
to
his
1640,
own
widening
the
f i r s t
and
instead
be
The
of
1-
c r i s i s .
year
of
Hobbes
was
he
in
Once
the
more
f i r s t
and
was
which
Hobbes
nature.
published
was
of
not
man,
but
time
of
a
of
be
philosophy,
work
1642,
natural
of
f u l l e r
In
Hobbes1
had
included
the
in
most
of
and
included
Latin
in
men.
was
Hobbes
thus
according
1637
d i r e ;
to
and
corrupt
part
It
between
Elements,
a
second
exposition
England
of
the
De
Cive
to
composed
to
p h i l o s o p h i c a l
in
the
of
t r e a t i s e
then
and
the
neglect
psychology,
theory
consideration
order
he
renovated
which
part
this
and
p o l i t i c a l
much
t r a n s l a t i o n
s i t u a t i o n ,
and
wrote
physics
on
physiology
f i r s t
c i v i l
caused
the
through
philosophy
published
said
a
a
the
and
which
England.
Leviathan.
p o l i t i c a l
Latin
to
deferring
published
the
t r e a t i s e
use
followed
in
Parliament
b r i e f
of
down
sensation
with
systematic
composed
and
his
a
t h i r d ,
s i t u a t i o n
Hobbes
King
involved
the
from
p o l i t i c a l
immediate
to
with
Law,
physiology
laying
involving
1649-1650,
u n t i l
p r i m a r i l y
deviation
published
part
1654,
not
provide
p o l i t i c a l
published
and
The
most
English
greatest
the
Although
man
parts
Hobbes
that
the
of
was
on
after
discussed
Elements
Hobbes
between
was
Hobbes
The
precedent
philosophy
which,
by
f i r s t
to
o p t i c s ,
in
thought
work
which
two
of
1630,
Hobbes'
e a r l i e s t
plan.
r i f t
about
of
The
work
the
during
would
theory
philosophy
marks
written
evidence
psychology.
with
v e r s i o n . T h i s
of
e a r l i e s t
the
be
in
meet
the
e a r l i e r
was
following
p r o f i t a b l e
the
the
De
Cive,
De
of
his
f i r s t
politica1
not
same
requirements
Levi athan,
year.
part
p o l i t i c a l
1651,
deferred.
system,
natural
English
translated
his
of
thought.
Corpore,
f i n i s h e d
De
u n t i l
Homine,
natural
s c i e n c e ,
11
and
upon w h i c h he had w o r k e d s i n c e a t l e a s t
until
and
to
I658, a g a i n
scientists;
in Latin.
The L a t i n w o r k s w e r e a v a i l a b l e
the p o l i t i c a l
works were p u b l i s h e d
reach a l a r g e r and l e s s educated
The
first
1 6 4 6 , was n o t p u b l i s h e d
s e c t i o n o f Hobbes
1
to scholars
i n English i n order
audience,^
Elements o f P h i l o s o p h y ,
d e a l s o n l y b r i e f l y w i t h s e n s a t i o n and animal
motion.
De
Corpore,
De H o m i n e , i n
w h i c h Hobbes h a d p r o m i s e d
h i s long d e f e r r e d p h y s i o l o g i c a l
and p s y c h o l o g i c a l
d i s c u s s i o n o f man, p r o v e d
t o be a c o l l e c t i o n
optical
theory w i t h , according
human n a t u r e a p p e n d e d
to Robertson,
of hisearly
"a f e w c h a p t e r s
i n excuse o f the t i t l e "
on t o p i c s o f
i n w h i c h " t h e r e was
little
g
if anything,
is
t o w h i c h he had n o t g i v e n
repeated
e x p r e s s i o n before, '
1
1
It
p o s s i b l e t h a t Hobbes h a d d e f e r r e d w o r k on De Homine f a r t o o l o n g .
While
he l i k e l y
started
n o t h i n g was r e a l l y
this
s e c t i o n o f h i s work as e a r l y
accomplished
f o r almost
a s 1646,
t e n y e a r s , by w h i c h
time
Hobbes was n o t o n l y a p a l s i e d o l d man, b u t he was a l s o u s i n g much o f
his
energy debating
and d e f e n d i n g
hispolitical
many c r i t i c s , a n d h i s m a t h e m a t i c a l
theory against h i s
t h e o r y a g a i n s t h i s opponent Dr.
g
Wall i s .
and
I t i s n o t so s u r p r i s i n g
the demonstrations
then,
o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f human n a t u r e
g o v e r n m e n t do n o t a p p e a r t o f u l f i l l
to
g a i n some u n d e r s t a n d i n g
necessary
which they
to glean
repose.
t h a t t h e w o r k on human
o f the psychology
the parts o f this
This
Hobbes' e a r l i e r
theory
i s not t o suggest
i n s i g n i f i c a n t o r too sparse
to c i v i l
promises.
and p h y s i o l o g y ,
In o r d e r
i t is
from t h e v a r i o u s works i n
t h a t such
however, f o r even
sections are
i n h i s most
politically
d i d a c t i c work,. L e v i a t h a n , Hobbes r e m a i n e d t r u e t o h i s o r i g i n a l
and
gave a d e s c r i p t i o n
of physiology
that
nature
i s very d i r e c t
intentions
and unambiguous,
12
if
f a r from
The
S h o r t T r a c t on
a x i o m s and
man.
complete.
The
third
theorizes
s h o r t paper o f f e r s
t e n c o n c l u s i o n s b a s e d on
that
internal
shows Hobbes u s i n g m e c h a n i s t i c
to c o n c l u s i o n s about
section of this
these
'animal s p i r i t s ' .
body moves s o m e t i m e s b u t n o t a l w a y s , t h e m o t i o n s
i m p a r t come n o t f r o m an
where e l s e ,
m a t t e r and
is the
that
spirits
'species' of external
w i t h as w e l l
objects, that
t h a t make c o n t a c t and
and c a u s e m o t i o n s
Similarly,
comprehension
collide with
and
M o t i o n t o w a r d an o b j e c t
itself,
something
i n the Short T r a c t , developed
theory.
and
cause motion
i s the motion o f the
i n terms o f
(Mallum) a r e d e f i n e d as m o t i o n s ; something,
in
local
i s sensation
u n d e r s t a n d i n g a r e n o t h i n g more t h a n
toward
ogical
emissions
the b o d i e s ' substance
or understanding i s defined
causes motion
has,
f r o m some-
variously
of
. . 1 3
Sensation, in fact,
s i n c e comprehension
t h e body.
spirits
.
spirits.
Bad
(human)
the animal
i s , the m a t e r i a l
as w i t h o u t t h e m e d i a t i o n o f the b r a i n
the animal
Good and
these
Hobbes c o n c l u d e s t h a t i t
i n the organs o f sense which
12
only
he c a l l s
S i n c e the
that
('animate
a r e moved by some e x t e r n a l
i n t u r n move p a r t s o f t h e b o d y .
from o b j e c t s
things,
i n h e r e n t power t o move, b u t r a t h e r
i s the animal
about
principles.'^
f r o m some i n t e r i o r m o t i o n s , and
motive agents
p h y s i c s and
ten p r i n c i p l e s c o n c e r n i n g
the motion o f the b o d i e s o f l i v i n g
m o t i o n ' ) , must r e s u l t
material
Principles
proceeding l o g i c a l l y
s e n s a t i o n and
He
First
He began w i t h
motion, the animal
i s bad w h i c h c a u s e s a
is called
appetite.
motion
sensations.
which
repulsion
Hobbes
the m e c h a n i s t i c b a s i s o f h i s p s y c h o l -
the p o s t u l a t e that sensation
spirits
Hobbes s a y s , u n d e r s t a n d i n g and
i s good
spirits.
moved by e x t e r n a l
comprehension
i s merely
o b j e c t s , and
since,
are simply combinations
13
of
ideas which are
standing
toward
in
is local
in turn merely
motion
c o m b i n a t i o n s o f s e n s a t i o n s , under-
i n the body.
He
had
e x p l a i n i n g a l l o f human m e n t a t i o n and
taken the f i r s t
'soul'
step
i n terms o f
matter
motion.
The
"both
p e r v a d i n g theme o f t h e S h o r t T r a c t may
the e x t e r n a l
functions derived
and
the
internal
be summed up
a c t o f s e n s e and
t h e r e from a r e l o c a l
motion
and
thus:
the h i g h e r , p s y c h i c
n o t h i n g but
local
motion."^
It
is interesting
t o n o t e t h a t Hobbes had
c o n c l u s i o n s a t an e a r l y
by
1630,
and
prior
stage
developed
in h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l
to h i s e n l i g h t e n i n g
third
trip
these
career,
perhaps
to the Continent
16
( 1 6 3 4 - 1 6 3 7 ) on w h i c h
he met
Galileo,
c o n c e p t i o n o f n a t u r e was
likely
production of his f i r s t
political
The
in
mechanical
the Elements
o f Law,
in sensation.
(Hobbes s a i d ) ,
to
the eye,
and
a t about
dated
i t , which
i n t h e o p t i c n e r v e , and
of fluids
plan
May
i s apparent
9,
1640.
p r o g r e s s i o n of events
A l u c i d o b j e c t c o n t r a c t s and
o f the rebound,
mechanical
1
ten years b e f o r e the
in the d e d i c a t o r y l e t t e r
the mechanical
these motions
t h u s , because
f o r Hobbes
work.
and moves t h e medium a r o u n d
the s p i r i t s
From t h e b r a i n
basis
f o u n d a t i o n o f Hobbes' p h i l o s o p h i c a l
Hobbes d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l
results
arrived
The
rebound
dilates
motion
thence
outward
the
that
physically
proceeds
brain.
through
the
a l t h o u g h the motion i s a c t u a l l y
nerves
within
o u r b o d i e s , t h e s e n s a t i o n seems t o have a s o u r c e o u t s i d e , t h e o b j e c t
17
18
of sense.
The s u b j e c t i v i t y o f s e n s a t i o n i s s u m m a r i z e d i n t h i s way:
W h a t s o e v e r a c c i d e n t s o r q u a l i t i e s o u r s e n s e s make us t h i n k t h e r e
be i n t h e w o r l d , t h e y a r e n o t t h e r e , b u t a r e s e e m i n g s and a p p a r i t i o n s
only.
The t h i n g s t h a t r e a l l y a r e i n t h e w o r l d w i t h o u t u s , a r e
t h o s e m o t i o n s by w h i c h t h e s e s e e m i n g s a r e c a u s e d .
14
Hobbes n e x t
c a r r i e s mechanism
f a c u l t i e s o f the mind.
He
into
explained
the e x p l a n a t i o n o f
i m a g i n a t i o n as
the
higher
"conception
remaining,
19
and
by
little
The
motion w i t h i n our
slowly,
and
and
little
decaying
b o d i e s was
f r o m and
thought
s o m e t i m e s o v e r w h e l m e d by
after
the a c t o f
to r e v e r b e r a t e ,
sense."
decaying
f r e s h e r motions or sensory
stimuli,
other
t i m e s , as i n s l e e p , a p p e a r i n g as d r e a m s .
He e x p l a i n e d memory
20
as r e p e a t e d sense:
•'j
When t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e same t h i n g c o m e t h a g a i n , we t a k e
n o t i c e t h a t i t i s a g a i n * t h a t i s t o s a y , t h a t we h a v e had t h e
same c o n c e p t i o n b e f o r e ; w h i c h i s as much as t o i m a g i n e a t h i n g
past; which i s impossible to sense, which i s o n l y of t h i n g s present.
The
is
succession of conceptions
d i s c o u r s e o f the mind.
called
w e n t on
experience,
and
i n t h e m i n d , When o r d e r l y i n m a n n e r ,
When s u c h
from e x p e r i e n c e
Of
in a
later
more i m m e d i a t e
importance
S h o r t T r a c t , i s e x p a n d e d and
stop
bases.
be
language,
This
i t is
made,
a
Hobbes
nominalistic
theory w i l l
be
dis-
section.
d e s c r i p t i o n o f a p p e t i t e and
The
c o n c l u s i o n s may
t o o u t l i n e h i s t h e o r y o f k n o w l e d g e and
t h e o r y w h i c h d e p e n d s upon m e c h a n i s t i c
cussed
d i s c o u r s e i s remembered
to p h y s i o l o g i c a l
aversion.
idea, outlined
in
i s the
the
u s e d t o d e s c r i b e human m o t i v a t i o n s .
motions which cause conception
i n the b r a i n , but
This
psychology
or
sensation are
to f o l l o w a path
thought
t o t h e h e a r t , and
not
once
to
there
21
either
h e l p o r h i n d e r 'i'tbat m o t i o n w h i c h
motion
i s enhanced, the s e n s a t i o n
then
and
pain
is felt.
The
away f r o m p a i n f u l
speech)
'appetite' or
tendency
is called
' o b j e c t s of sense'
1
If
vital
is pleasurable, i f " i t is hindered
t o draw p h y s i c a l l y
'[aversion ,
vital."
i s termed
toward
(as
pleasurable
in ordinary
A l l o f the f e e l i n g s or
passions
15
of
and
man c a n be e x p l a i n e d
i n terms o f t h e v a r i o u s a v e r s i o n s o r a p p e t i t e s ,
Hobbes g o e s o n t o d e s c r i b e shame, c o u r a g e , a n g e r ,
many o t h e r human p a s s i o n s a n d e m o t i o n s
all
t o a p p e t i t e and a d v e r s i o n , which
physical
istic
enhancement o r i n h i b i t i o n
basis o f the l i f e
Hobbes u s e s
love,
i n these terms,
is itself
of vital
l u s t and
r e d u c i n g them
reduced t o t h e a c t u a l
motion.
It i s this
o f men a n d t h e w o r k i n g s o f men's m i n d s
t o f o r m u l a t e a s c i e n c e o f human i n t e r a c t i o n
mechanthat
or politics
22
in
the l a t t e r
h a l f o f E l e m e n t s o f Law.
Thus i n t h e E l e m e n t s
time h i s f u l l
orarily with
tradition
o f Law, Hobbes d e m o n s t r a t e d
philosophical
plan.
Just prior
D e s c a r t e s , Hobbes h a d f o r m e d
that Boyle would
later
terms o f t h e "two c a t h o l i c
1630 t o 1640.
away f r o m s c h o l a s t i c i s m ,
traditional
logical
phenomena w o u l d
be e x p l a i n e d
23
p r i n c i p l e s " , m a t t e r and motion.
important developments
In 1630 Hobbes was t a k i n g
still
contemp-
name t h e "mechan i c a l f o r c o r p u s c u l a r )
T h e r e a r e some p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y
thought from
t o 1640, w r i t i n g
h i s own t h e o r y i n t h e e m e r g i n g
philosophy o f nature," i n which a l l natural
in
f o r the f i r s t
u s i n g some s c h o l a s t i c
i n Hobbes'
his first
steps
language and
methods b u t r e j e c t i n g A r i s t o t e l i a n
forms and q u a l -
24
ities.
By 1640 Hobbes h a d t a k e n t h e i m p o r t a n t l o g i c a l
yet
clearly
stated
all
phenomena o f a n i m a t e b o d i e s i n c l u d i n g
step (not
i n t h e S h o r t T r a c t ) , o f e x t e n d i n g mechanism t o
life,
t h o u g h t and mind.
Whereas Hobbes' c o n t e m p o r a r i e s such as D e s c a r t e s a n d G a s s e n d i
maintained
t h e e x i s t e n c e o f an i m m a t e r i a l
as p h i l o s o p h i c a l
was
soul,
r e a s o n s , Hobbes saw no n e e d
25
apparently unafraid
t o say so.
f o r such c o n s t r u c t s and
Furthermore, while
g a v e us t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a m e c h a n i c a l
h y d r a u l i c a l l y o p e r a t e d automatons
f o r r e l i g i o u s as w e l l
a n a l o g o f Man
Descartes
inspired
a t S t . Germain-en-Laye,
by t h e
he r e s e r v e d
16
for
the soul
the governing,
Hobbes g a v e a s i m p l e r
mechanism as s e l f
mechanical
governing;
which enhance i t s v i t a l
motion.
animating
i n t h e b o d i l y economy.
26
d e s c r i p t i o n o f man by d e s c r i b i n g a
an o r g a n i s m w i l l
move t o w a r d
m o t i o n a n d away f r o m t h o s e
L i k e a machine w i t h
enhance t h e i r v i t a l
role
that
stimuli
reduce
this
feedback mechanisms, organisms seek t o
motions.
Chronologically,
Leviathan
was t h e n e x t p u b l i s h e d
o f Hobbes
1
27
works d e a l i n g w i t h
as
Hobbes
in
England
tical
1
physiology.
political
magnum o p u s
i n 1651.
Hobbes c a l l e d
government, occasioned
intended
T h i s w o r k was w r i t t e n p r i m a r i l y
" t o s e t before
i n response t o the i n c r e a s i n g
strife
i t a " d i s c o u r s e o f c i v i l and e c c l e s i a s -
by t h e d i s o r d e r s o f t h e p r e s e n t
men's e y e s t h e m u t u a l
relation
time"
between
protec-
28
tion
a n d obedience.';'
Leviathan,
Although
Hobbes s t a t e d
" I h o p e t o r e t u r n t o my
in the conclusion to
interrupted speculation of
n a t u r a l , " he h a d n e v e r t h e l e s s
included
of h i s mechanistic
as t h e b a s i s f o r h i s s c i e n c e o f human
nature
and
The
physiology
politics.
i n Leviathan
bodies
a brief outline
29
i n t r o d u c t i o n begins
with
the axiom that " l i f e i s but a motion
30
of
the limbs"
and d i s c u s s e s
as:havi:ng
31
an a r t i f i c i a l
l i f e automa t a . s i mi 1 a r
t o t h o s e m e n t i o n e d by D e s c a r t e s .
"What i s t h e h e a r t b u t a s p r i n g
and t h e n e r v e s b u t s o many s t r i n g s ; a n d t h e j o i n t s , b u t s o many w h e e l s ,
32
g i v i n g motion
familiar;
universe
to
t o t h e whole body."
he h a s t a k e n
constructed
The l a n g u a g e u s e d by Hobbes i s
t h e macrocosmic c l o c k metaphor o f a
a n d r u n by t h e m a s t e r A r t i f i c e r ,
t h e m i c r o c o s m o f man's b o d y .
This
clockwork
and a p p l i e d i t
i n i t s e l f was n o t a n o v e l
innovation.
17
Descartes
had
used the
language o f
the
c l o c k metaphor
same f a s h i o n when d e s c r i b i n g b o d i l y a n i m a t e m o t i o n ,
of a l i v i n g
thing
required
three
things:
that
15,3
parts
of
(e.g.
d i g e s t i o n , r e s p i r a t i o n e t c . ) ; and,
p a r t i c l e s of
t h a t body
internalized
involved
in c e r t a i n
finally,
limbs,
of a l i v i n g
the beginning
thing
whereof
definition
structure,
the motion o f
'life
an
p r i n c i p l e o f m o t i o n o f a wound c l o c k
a motion of
corporeal
the
function'
internalized
t h e s e p a r t i c l e s w h i c h m i g h t be
Thomas H o b b e s ' c o n c e p t i o n
the
Descartes'
the
s u i t a b l e arrangement of matter; second
p r i n c i p l e of motion of
is but
first
i n much
likened
spring.
to
the
33
is similar:
i s i n some
"life
principal
34
part w i t h i n . "
There are
the c o n c l u s i o n s
that^so
Hobbes and
to speak, winds the
For
Descartes,
the
universe
must be
and
of
some v e r y
God
that
a first
not
He
only
Descartes,
differences
between
however.
For
both, the e n t i t y
m a i n s p r i n g o f b o t h man
and
universe
constructs
built.
c a u s e , but
significant
For
He
but
also
H o b b e s , God
regulates
must e x i s t s i n c e
merely assembled the
then gave the m a c r o c o s m i c pendulum
and
its first
universal
push,
is
God.
maintains
there
machine
thenceforth
35
allowing
the
universe
t o p r o c e e d on
w r o t e t o H e n r y More i n 1649,
of our
m o v e m e n t — v i z . , one
and
i t s m e c h a n i c a l way.
s a i d "There are
which
is plainly
Descartes
two d i f f e r e n t p r i n c i p l e s
mechanical
and
corporeal,
36
...the other
the
incorporeal, that
philosophically consistent
phically
difficult
explain a l l things;
other
immaterial
orary
philosophers
philosophy
trance
stand
entities.
t o s u c h an
that w i l l
be
but
that only
there
who
i s to say,
i s no
religiously
m a t t e r and
necessity
This
mind...."
belief
d a n g e r o u s and
motion are
to p o s t u l a t e
seen,
in the
conclusion,
an
next s e c t i o n , to
took
philoso-
needed
a soul
s e t Hobbes a p a r t
were u n w i l l i n g to f o l l o w the
unpalatable
Hobbes
from
logic of
ideological
influence
or
to
any
contempthe
mechanistic
recalciphysiologists
18
as
wel1,
Hobbes
in
Leviathan
Elements
f u l l y
of
proceeded
of
which
Law.
is
and
seems
give
a
concise
s u b s t a n t i a l l y
The
d e s c r i b e d ,
Leviathan
to
n o m i n a l i s t i c
the
more
the
account
of
same
that
account
s e c t i o n * o f
p o l i s h e d ,
as
of
given
speech
passions* is
and
sensation
and
in
of
the
is
s e c t i o n
thought
the
names
expanded.
some
and
is
The
more
prose
d e s c r i p t i o n s
of
37
passions
was
not
e f f e c t
are
a
on
century.
the
part
of
and
major
s i n c e
time,
a
apt.
Elements
d i s c u s s i o n s
The
however,
at
engagingly
of
There
of
Law
s c i e n t i f i c
explanation
Hobbes
f u l l e r
and
of
thought
a
which
seems
methodology
psychology
the
a r t i c u l a t i o n
was
natural
to
knowledge
have
late
p o l i t i c a l
of
on
in
had
theory
some
the
intended
seventeenth
for
most
philosophy
which
De
Homine,
important
was
again
deferred.
When
as
De
the
Corpore,
natural
the
part
Physicians
of
human
most
o p t i c s
of
which
s t i l l
to
For
his
he
rest
the
contumelies
I
be
know
due
s h a l l ,
The
d e s c r i p t i o n
had
already
In
of
brought
chapter
by
paid
25
his
own
part,
of
s i x
soon
much
of
De
years
previously
1 can,
how
t e l l i n g
that
c r i t i c i s m
Corpore,
added
of
some
much
men
Hobbes
in
only
the
the
once
include
true
College
science
again
s i x
and
of
his
to
i t ;
chapters
the
remaining
truth
had
though
u n s k i l f u l
greater
the
Hobbes
from
did
of
1654
39
be
i n j u r i e s
nature
Hobbes
in
"the
men
advance
He
experience,
for
of
however,
s a i d :
published
learned
man.
he
as
petty
was
p h y s i c i a n s ,
most
instruments
me,
human
our
the
w r i t t e n
as
c i t e d
as
and
already,
than
of
accomplished
The
philosophy
dedicatory
d i s c u s s i o n
had
be
Hobbes1
e s p e c i a l l y
London"
bodies.
deferred
portion
in
of
e p i s t l e
p h i l o s o p h e r s ,
of
on
f i r s t
thanks
of
given
what
in
by
men,
w i l l
men
Levi
are.
:
athan
peers.
once
more
states
h i s
mechanistic
i9
p r i n c i p l e of the s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n o f l i v i n g
beings.
vital
by t h e h e a r t was
motion, the motion o f blood c i r c u l a t e d
by s e n s o r y
spirits
i n p u t and t h a t
o f that motion."
thus minimize p a i n ,
force
"will
possessing
speech
This s t r i v i n g
not shared w i t h o t h e r animals.
i s t h e same a s l i f e ,
that
and
motion
i s the governing
Men a r e s e t a p a r t n o t by a s o u l
and t h e a b i l i t y
affected
to enhance v i t a l
( a p p e t i t e and a v e r s i o n ) ,
in a l l animal motion.
that
be d i s p o s e d t o g u i d e t h e
i n s u c h manner a s c o n d u c e t h most t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n
augmentation
and
the organs
He s a i d
b u t by
t o name t h i n g s w h i c h e n t a i l s p a s s i o n s
For Hobbes, t h e s o - c a l l e d
i s the c o l l e c t i v e
faculties
human s o u l
and m o t i o n s
and
4l
make-up
o f an
individual.
The d o c t r i n e
strictly
t h a t men
mechanical
free w i l l .
a r e r u l e d by a p p e t i t e and a v e r s i o n
fashion
Hobbes s a i d
had d i r e
t h a t man
implications
h a d no g r e a t e r
in a
f o r any b e l i e f i n
freedom
in w i l l i n g
42
or not w i l l i n g
than a n i m a l s ,
a r g u m e n t s had b r o u g h t
that
h i s views
t o Dr. B r a m h a l 1 ,
/
intense c r i t i c i s m
Hobbes s t o o d by h i s c o n c l u s i o n s
and d e f e n d e d
i s h a v e no f r e e w i l l ,
from c l e r i c s
Bishop Bramhall.
in the face o f a l l criticism,however,
i n Of L i b e r t y a n d N e c e s s i t y
reiterating
like
and such
(165*0
i n each, t h e m a t e r i a l i s t
a n d An A n s w e r
and m e c h a n i c a l
43
bases
f o r h i s psychology.
Finally,
i n I 6 5 8 , Hobbes p u b l i s h e d
of h i s philosophy.
half
which
part
I t c o n t a i n s n o t h i n g new f r o m t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l
v i e w p o i n t and, i n f a c t , t h e f i r s t
t h e same o p t i c a l
De H o m i n e , t h e s e c o n d
t h e o r y a s was
i s concerned w i t h
religion
r e p e a t s e a r l i e r work.
w o r t h q u o t i n g a t some l e n g t h
h a l f o f the work c o n s i s t s o f e s s e n t i a l l y
included
i n De C o r p o r e .
The
second
and a u t h o r i t y a n d a c h a p t e r on
The d e d i c a t o r y
f o r the l i g h t
letter
emotions
t o De Homine i s
i t c a s t s on H o b b e s
1
attitude
20
to
h i s work and t h e n e c e s s i t y
f o r h i s c o n t i n u e d a c t i v e advocacy
ofhis
theories:
The f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s s e c t i o n was l o n g s i n c e r e a d y f o r t h e
p r e s s . "Why t h e n , " y o u may a s k , " s i n c e t h e r e m a i n d e r was
e a s y , h a v e we had t o a w a i t p u b l i c a t i o n s o l o n g ? What h a v e
you been d o i n g i n t h e meantime?" I r e p l y , " I have been f i g h t i n g
t h e b e a s t s . " F o r I t o o h a v e my D e m e t r i u s e s a n d A l e x a n d e r s ,
w h o s e t r i f l i n g w o r k s 1 am t h o u g h t , t h o u g h f a l s e l y , t o w i s h
to oppose.
Y e t s i n c e I had t o answer t h e i r c l a m o r i n g s and
i n s u l t s , t h e l o n g , drawn-out c o n t r o v e r s y hath caused e x c e s s i v e ^
delay in p u b l i c a t i o n .
I h a d d e c i d e d t h a t , when t h e s e E l e m e n t s
w e r e f i n i s h e d , 1 w o u l d c a s t my pen a s i d e .
B u t when I s e e
the c u r r e n t manners o f t h o s e t h a t t e a c h s c i e n c e , I c a s t
t h i s h o p e a s i d e a n d r e t a i n my p e n ; f o r p e r a d v e n t u r e t h e s e
t h i n g s may a l s o h a v e t o be d e f e n d e d .
H o b b e s , by 1658,
mathematics
h a d e m b a r k e d upon t h e d i s p u t e s w i t h W a i l i s
that would
over
c o n t i n u e f o r t w e n t y y e a r s , a n d he h a d become
46
involved
in the current reform controversy in the u n i v e r s i t i e s .
Hobbes' m a t h e m a t i c s
was d o u b t f u l , a n d t h e r e a s o n s
b u t dogged d e f e n s e a r e a m a t t e r
t h a t t o be f o u n d
in error
f o r speculation.
i n one a r e a would
in o t h e r a r e a s , a r e p u t a t i o n which
for his ill-founded
He may h a v e
felt
impugn h i s r e p u t a t i o n
he a l w a y s
jealously,
i f immodestly
47
guarded.
about
had
In any c a s e ,
these matters
i t i s clear
in h i s later
life,
f o r so long d e f e r r e d h i s f i n a l
distraction
final
of his latter
debates
t h a t Hobbes f e l t
very
strongly
and w h i l e p o l i t i c a l
expediency
w o r k on p s y c h o l o g y , s o may t h e
have caused
an a b r i d g e m e n t
o f the
publication.
If
theory
the f i n a l
d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e l i n k between b i o l o g i c a l
i s w a n t i n g , h o w e v e r , Hobbes n e v e r t h e l e s s was
faithful
to h i s general plan o f mechanistic biology.
mind and s o u l
criticism.
as c o n s i s t i n g o f m a t t e r and motion
Since the soul
must c e a s e
and
civil
consistently
H i s view o f
brought
t o e x i s t when v i t a l
understandable
motion
ceases
21
(i.e.
death),
t o be r e c o n s t i t u t e d
t o H o b b e s , Hobbes was p a t e n t l y
that
an ' i m m a t e r i a l
spirit'
by God on j u d g e m e n t d a y a c c o r d i n g
a mortalist.
48
S i n c e Hobbes
was a c o n t r a d i c t i o n
thought
i n terms and
that
49
God
i s substantial
and m a t e r i a l ,
In s p i t e o f t h e f u r o r
less
than
as w o u l d b r i n g
explanation
such
society
theory
his
in
inhibited
physiology
o f t h e new m e c h a n i c a l
a universal
construction
a n d man w i t h i n
as w e r e f o u n d
That t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l
applicable
and r e l i g i o u s
the wider
section.
attempted
philosophy
o f human
conceived,
knowledge
t h e same p r i n c i p l e s o f s c i e n t i f i c
to the world of nature.
reaction
e n g e n d e r e d by H o b b e s '
p u b l i c acknowledgement o f t h e m e r i t o f
but not the r e a l i z a t i o n o f that
the f o l l o w i n g
a sadducist.
c a u s e d by h i s p h i l o s o p h y , "Hobbes
a t a s k w h i c h no o t h e r a d h e r e n t
nothing
he was o p e n l y
merit w i l l
be shown
22
FOOTNOTES
CHAPTER J.
HOBBES' MECHANICAL PSYCHOLOGY
1. Thomas H o b b e s , The E n g l i s h W o r k s o f Thomas H o b b e s , e d . S i r W i l l i a m
Molesworth (London!
J o h n B o h n , 1839)
Vol I I x i x - x x .
2 . C.B. M a c P h e r s o n , The P o l i t i c a l T h e o r y o f P o s s e s s i v e I n d i v i d u a l i s m
(New Y o r k :
O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1962)
p.9
3-
H o b b e s , E n g l i s h W o r k s , p.
viii.
k. See t h e t h i r d s e c t i o n o f t h e
S h o r t T r a c t , i n Hobbes, i T h e ' E l e m e n t s
o f Law N a t u r a l and P o l i t i c , e d . F~ Tonn i e s ( L o n d o n :
F r a n k Cass &
Co. L t d . , 1969)
pp.204-210.
5. Hobbes had d i s t r i b u t e d The E l e m e n t s o f Law by c i r c u l a t i n g i t i n
m a n u s c r i p t b e f o r e he f l e d t o t h e c o n t i n e n t .
I t was n e x t p u b l i s h e d
i n two p a r t s i n London and t h i s c o r r u p t v e r s i o n was t h e b a s i s f o r
M o l e s w o r t h ' s e d i t i o n i n H o b b e s , E n g l i s h W o r k s V o l . IV. The f i r s t
v e r s i o n p u b l i s h e d f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l m a n u s c r i p t was t h a t o f T o n n i e s
i n 1889.
T o n n i e s ' e d i t i o n was u s e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s p a p e r .
6. On Hobbes' d e f e r a l o f n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y t o meet p o l i t i c a l e x i g e n c i e s
see MacPherson's
i n t r o d u c t i o n t o Hobbes, L e v i a t h a n (London:
Penguin
B o o k s , 1968)
p . 1 9 - 2 0 and B. G e r t , Man and Ci t i z e n (New Y o r k :
Doubleday
S Co. L t d . , 1972)
p.357. An E n g l i s h v e r s i o n o f De C o r p o r e p u b l i s h e d i n I 6 5 6 was o n l y
p a r t i a l l y c h e c k e d by H o b b e s , a n d De Homine a p p e a r e d , i n p a r t , f o r t h e
f i r s t t i m e i n E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n i n 1972
i n G e r t , Man a n d C i t i z e n .
8. G e o r g e C. R o b e r t s o n , Hobbes
S o n s , 1886)
p.178.
( E d i n b u r g h S London:
Blackwood
and
9 . Hobbes i n 1658 was s e v e n t y y e a r s o l d . He was i n v o l v e d i n a c o n t r o v e r y w i t h many c h u r c h m e n s u c h a s S e t h Ward and B i s h o p B r a m h a l l ,
F i l m e r , R o s s and L u c y , and t h e i m b r o g l i o w i t h W a l l i s o v e r g e o m e t r y
was b e g i n n i n g t o h e a t up.
The l a s t p o l e m i c s h o t i n t h i s l a t t e r d e b a t e
was n o t t o be f i r e d u n t i l Hobbes' n i n e t i e t h y e a r , I 6 7 8 .
10. O n l y t h e f i r s t t h r e e p r i n c i p l e s a r e u s e d t o p r o d u c e c o n c l u s i o n s ;
t h i s may i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s s e c t i o n i s i n c o m p l e t e o r u n f i n i s h e d ,
c.f.
B r a n d t , Thomas Hobbes' M e c h a n i c a l C o n c e p t i o n o f N a t u r e
(Copenhagen:
L e v i n & M u n k s g a a r d , 1928)
p.32.
11. H o b b e s ' a n i m a l s p i r i t s a r e s u b s t a n t i a l f l u i d s w h i c h p e r f o r m e d t h e
t a s k o f m o v i n g t h e b o d y ' s m u s c l e s , and a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same a s
Descartes' hydraulic f l u i d s .
23
12. Though Hobbes l a t e r c h a n g e d h i s t h e o r i e s o f o p t i c s f r o m an e m i s s i o n
to a m e d i u m i s t i c one, the p r i n c i p l e o f the sense organs b e i n g p h y s i c a l l y
moved f r o m o u t s i d e r e m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d .
13- On t h e c o m p l e x r e a s o n i n g o f s e n s a t i o n s e e B r a n d t , Thomas H o b b e s ,
" A c t u a l sense i s a m o t i o n . . . " , Hobbes, S h o r t T r a c t p.208.
14.
Hobbes,
E l e m e n t s o f Law,
15-
Frithiof
B r a n d t , Thomas H o b b e s ' ,
p.39ff;
p.209.
p.46.
16.
I f Brandt's dating o f the short t r a c t i s c o r r e c t , i . e . c . 1 6 3 0 ,
then MacPherson's a t t r i b u t i o n o f the d i s c o v e r y o f the b a s i c t h e o r y
t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i s m a t t e r i n motion t o the p e r i o d o f 1634-1637 in
P a r i s w i t h M e r s e n n e and i n F l o r e n c e w i t h G a l i l e o i s i n c o r r e c t .
See
B r a n d t , Thomas H o b b e s ' ; c . f . M a c P h e r s o n e d . L e v i a t h a n , p . l 8 .
17T h i s n o t i o n o f the e x t e r n a l seeming o f s e n s a t i o n s b e i n g the r e s u l t
o f a r e b o u n d i n m o t i o n w i t h i n t h e body i s a n o v e l one a n d p e r h a p s i s
o r i g i n a l t o Hobbes.
W i l l i s n o t e d t h a t s e n s e i s m i s t a k e n by us t o be
a p e r i p h e r a l p r o c e s s when i t r e a l l y t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e b r a i n , b u t d o e s n ' t
g i v e an e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s .
C e r e b r i A n a t o m e , 1664,
c i t e d by H. I s l e r ,
Thomas W i l l i s , New Y o r k , 1968,
p.9318.
H o b b e s , E l e m e n t s o f Law,
19.
Ibid,
20.
Ibid,
p.7-
p.8.
p.11.
21.
I b i d . , p.28 V i t a l m o t i o n , a l t h o u g h i t i s n o t s t a t e d i n t h e E l e m e n t s
Law, i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e f l o w o f t h e b l o o d . Hobbes s t a t e s t h i s
e x p l i c i t l y , g i v i n g due c r e d i t t o H a r v e y i n De C o r p o r e , E n g l ?sh Works
V o l . I , p.407-
of
22. Hobbes e v e n f r a m e d t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r a p r i m e mover o r c a u s e f o r
t h e u n i v e r s e i n m e c h a n i s t i c t e r m s , t h u s God must be m a t e r i a l and s p i r i t s
may n o t be i n s u b s t a n t i a l .
H o b b e s , E l e m e n t s o f Law, p p . 5 3 - 5 5 .
2 3 . R.S. W e s t f a l l , The C o n s t r u c t i o n o f Modern S c i e n c e : M e c h a n i s m s
M e c h a n i c s (New York"! J o h n W i l e y a n d S o n s , 1971)
p.41 .
2 4 . R o b e r t K a r g o n , A t o m i s m i n E n g l a n d f r o m Har i o t ;.to;.New.ton
C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1966)
p. 5 5 .
and
(Oxford;
25.
I t may be n o t e d t h a t Hobbes d i d n o t s t a t e t h i s b e l i e f i n a n y i m p o r t a n t
p u b l i c way u n t i l he had s a f e l y f l e d t o F r a n c e .
E l e m e n t s o f Law was
p u b l i s h e d i n 1649 and 1650,
p r o b a b l y w i t h o u t Hobbes p a r t i c i p a t i o n , p . v i .
24
26.
D e s c a r t e s s a i d in< t h e T r e a t i s e o f L i g h t t h a t he w o u l d p o r t r a y a
p o s s i b l e w o r l d t h a t God c o u l d h a v e c r e a t e d , . h a d he w i s h e d t o c o n s t r u c t
a m e c h a n i c a l a n a l o g o f t h e w o r l d He c r e a t e d i n f a c t .
Thomas H a l l ,
" D e s c a r t e s P h y s i o l o g i c a l Method" J . H i s t . B i o l . 3 ( 1 9 7 0 ) : 7 8 - 7 9 .
He c i t e d t h e a u t o m a t o n s o f S t . G e r m a i n i n T r a i t e de 1'Homme, T. H a l l
t r a n s . (1972) p . 2 1 f f .
2 7 . Of L i b e r t y a n d N e c e s s i t y was f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 6 5 4 , a n d b o r e
t h e d a t e o f 1646 i n i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n , t h o u g h l a t e r e d i t i o n s c h a n g e d
t h i s t o 1652.
T h i s work w i l l be d i s c u s s e d a f t e r L e v i a t h a n .
28.
Thomas H o b b e s , L e v i a t h a n ,
p.728.
29.
I b i d . , p.729Hobbes s a i d t h a t he i n c l u d e d t h e a c c o u n t o f s e n s a t i o n
t o " f i l l e a c h p a r t o f my p r e s e n t m e t h o d , " I b i d . , p . 8 5 30.
I b i d . , p.81.
31.
Vide supra, n . 2 6 .
32.
Hobbes, L e v i a t h a n , p.81.
33- M a c K e n z i e , A . " A Word A b o u t D e s c a r t e s ' M e c h a n i s t i c C o n c e p t i o n o f
L i f e , " J . H i s t . B i o l • 8 ( 1 9 7 5 ) : 1 , a l s o s e e D i s c o u r s e on Method.
34.
H o b b e s , L e v i a t h a n , p.81
35- F o r r e f e r e n c e t o t h e a r g u m e n t f o r t h e n e c e s s i t y o f a m a t e r i a l
prime mover, s e e above n . 2 2 .
36.
E.A. Adam a n d P a u l T a n n e r y
J . V r i n , 1967) 5 , l e t t e r 5 3 7 -
e d s . , Oeuvres de D e s c a r t e s
(Paris:
37F o r e x a m p l e , f e a r o f i n v i s i b l e p o w e r , f e i g n e d by t h e m i n d o r
imagined from p u b l i c a l l y a l l o w e d t a l e s i s ' r e l i g i o n , i f imagined
from t a l e s n o t a l l o w e d , ' s u p e r s t i t i o n ' . "
H o b b e s , L e v i a t h a n p. 1 2 4 .
L a u g h t e r i s a g r i m a c e c a u s e d by a r e a l i z a t i o n o f 'sudden g l o r y
when
o n e s e e s d e f o r m i t y i n a n o t h e r , by c o m p a r i s o n w h e r e o f t h e y s u d d e n l y
a p p l a u d t h e m s e l v e s , p.125.
1
1
38.
T. H o b b e s , E n g l i s h Works V o l . I , p . i x .
39.
Ibid. , p.xi i .
40.
I b i d . , p.407Hobbes i n c l u d e d i n t h e c a t e g o r y o f v i t a l
motion
o t h e r l i f e f u n c t i o n s l i k e r e s p i r a t i o n , n u t r i t i o n , and e x c r e t i o n .
T. H o b b e s , L e v i a t h a n Chap. V I .
41.
I b i d . , p.410.
Hobbes c i t e s s c r i p t u r e t o s u p p o r t h i s i d e a
s o u l i s t h e same a s l i f e .
T. H0M5.es, L e v i a t h a n , p . 4 8 4 .
42.
Ibid.,
p.409-
that
25
43.
T. H o b b e s , E n g l i s h Works
V o l IV, p p . 2 2 9 - 4 1 2 .
4 4 . Hobbes r e f e r r e d t o h i s c o m p l e t e w o r k i . e . De C o r p o r e , De H o m i n e ,
and De C i v e c o l l e c t i v e l y a s t h e E l e m e n t s o f P h i l o s p h y .
With the completion
o f De Homine, Hobbes f e l t h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l s y s t e m was a c c o m p l i s h e d .
W h i l e De Homine has n o t h i n g o f p h y s i o l o g y n o t c o n t a i n e d i n e a r l i e r
w o r k s , some o f H o b b e s ' t h o u g h t s on t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o f p s y c h o l o g y
a r e an a d v a n c e a n d e l a b o r a t i o n o f p r e v i o u s w o r k .
B. G e r t , Man a n d
Ci t i z e n (New Y o r k :
D o u b l e d a y & Co. L t d . , 1 9 7 2 ) p . 3 .
45.
B. G e r t , Man a n d C i t i z e n ,
4 6 . Hobbes was d i s c u s s e d
context.
p.35-36.
i n V i n d i c i a e Academiarum (1654)
in this
4 7 . C o n s i d e r a t i o n upon t h e R e p u t a t i o n , L o y a l t y , M a n n e r s a n d R e l i g i o n
o f Thomas H o b b e s , L o n d o n , 1662 i s a n o t a b l e e x a m p l e o f s u c h d e f e n s i v e
essays.
T. H o b b e s , E n g l i s h Works V o l . IV.
48.
H a r v e y was s i m i l a r l y a c c u s e d
of mortalistic'beliefs.
4 9 . T. H o b b e s , E n g l i s h W o r k s , V o l . I V , p. 60-61 . S a d d u c i s m
term g i v e n t o a d i s b e l i e f i n i m m a t e r i a l s p i r i t s .
i sthe
5 0 . G.C. R o b e r t s o n ,
X I I I , p.552.
11th
"Hobbes" i n E n c y c l o p a e d i a
Brittannica,
ed.,
26
CHAPTER ( I
HOBBES AND
The
ENGLISH PHYSIOLOGISTS
centres of physiological
1640-1680 w e r e
a t Oxford
and
London.
o f t h e new
William
1650s,
Physiological
mechanical
study
period
When E n g l i s h p h y s i o l o g y
i t blossomed p a r t i c u l a r l y
the Royal
at the
College of
grew i n p a r a l l e l
authority cited
p h y s i o l o g y , on
t h o u g h he
writing
by
Hobbes
t h e h e a r t and
with
university
Physicians
the
acceptance
1616,
of a
point
certainly
e x p l a n a t i o n s and
o f the b l o o d J
i n about
in support
c i r c u l a t i o n , was
u s e d some m e c h a n i c a l
in h i s study o f the c i r c u l a t i o n
G a l e n i s t when f i r s t
in the
philosophy.
H a r v e y , an
not a mechanist,
i n England
defined.
under the a u s p i c e s o f
in m e c h a n i s t i c
attitude
thought
i n s t i t u t i o n a l l y well
began t o grow i n t h e
in
THE
H a r v e y had
and
when he
i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the p u b l i c a t i o n o f
De
language
been a
changed
Motu C o r d i s
his
in
2
1628,
The
he
changed not
Aristotelian
central
to mechanistic
philosophy
metaphor o f t h e h e a r t as
to Harvey'stheory,
and
but
to
sovereign
he a l s o u s e d an
Aristotelianism.
i n t h e body
astronomical
was
allusion
3
to the p r i o r i t y
was
t h e h e a r t when he
compared
n e i t h e r f o r nor a g a i n s t mechanism
H a r v e y had
popular
and
of
become a d e v o t e d
philosophy
of
the
to
inhibit
i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s , by
anti-mechanist
when t h a t
challenged Aristotelianism.
i n f l u e n c e e x e r t e d by
H a r v e y was
f u t u r e i n v o l v e d mechanism,
i t to the sun.
not
This
While
I f he
1649-1651
increasingly
the a u t h o r i t y
i n c o n s i d e r a b l e , the
direction
t r e n d Harvey c o u l d o n l y
temporarily;^
I t became c l e a r t h a t a l m o s t e v e r y p h y s i o l o g i s t a f t e r H a r v e y
t r i e d t o w o r k o u t some p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e l a t e s t
hope
27
d e v e l o p m e n t i n p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e , and i t was t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p ,
not the attempted s o l u t i o n o f a s e t o f c o n t i n u i n g r e s e a r c h
problems, that determined the p a t t e r n o f development o f
E n g l i s h p h y s i o l o g y i n t h e l a t e s e v e n t e e n t h and e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h
centuries.
The key t o p o s t - H a r v e i a n p h y s i o l o g y . . . l a y . . . i n
the e v o l v i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the mechanical philosophy to
the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e 'animal oeconomy'."^
In 1648,
a group
These
many o f t h e members o f B o y l e ' s
of s c i e n t i f i c
'vi rtuos\) J
c h u r c h by
Jonathan
T h i s was
least p a r t i a l l y
t h e p u r i t a n p a r l i a m e n t ; t h e new
into
respiration
established
generally
in a t t i t u d e .
u n d e r t h e Commonwealth, t h e w r i t i n g s o f D e s c a r t e s ,
the e n q u i r i e s
Seth
themselves
a blow to the
appointees
and o t h e r p h i l o s o p h e r s became more g e n e r a l l y
and
Goddard,^
when j o i n e d by B o y l e , c a l l e d
at
available
After
Gassendi
in
England,
and n e u r o p h y s i o l o g y a t
Oxford
began t o i n c l u d e C a r t e s i a n ( m e c h a n i c a l ) e x p l a n a t i o n s , t h o u g h
attitude
The
by
t o w a r d m e c h a n i s m was
1
chairs.
P e t t y , who,
e s c h e w e d A r i s t o t e 1 i a n i s m and w e r e a n t i - c l e r i c a 1
1650,
college,
were a p p o i n t e d to Oxford
i n c l u d e d John W i l k i n s , John W a l l i s ,
Ward, and W i l l i a m
the
amateurs,
'invisible
a
mixed
apparent.
f l o u r i s h i n g of mechanical
I 6 6 7 - I 6 6 8 most o f t h e l e a d i n g
p h i l o s o p h y a t O x f o r d was
brief;
l i g h t s o f the research t h e r e
had
g
left
f o r London and
1670s,
the Royal
traditional
The
position
medical
and
Royal
By
through
like Willis
frankly
uncommitted
than the Royal
Society.
i n L o n d o n , by
under t h r e a t o f
losing
1660s and
ranged
like
Boyle
early
from
to
or Charleton.
C o l l e g e o f P h y s i c i a n s was
practice
the l a t e
S o c i e t y had members w h o s e a t t i t u d e s
Harveian
a v i d mechanist
the Royal S o c i e t y .
First
i n a somewhat more i n s e c u r e
c r e a t e d i n 1518
t h e 1650s t h e C o l l e g e was
t h e i r m o n o p o l y by a g r o u p
to regulate
under a t t a c k
called
the
28
Company o f A p o t h e c a r i e s .
who w i s h e d
woefully
that:
This
t o expand t h e i r
insufficient
Company was a g r o u p o f
business
to f i l l
the void
numbers o f p h y s t c f a n s .
pharmacists
left
by t h e
The C o l l e g e demanded
9
E v e r y a p o t h e c a r y must t a k e an o a t h t o c o n f i n e h i s p r a c t i c e
to d i s p e n s i n g the p r e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e p h y s i c i a n s o f t h e i r
C o l l e g e a n d t h a t he w o u l d n o t p r e s u m e , e x c e p t i n e m e r g e n c i e s
to o f f e r s e r v i c e o r a d m i n i s t e r treatment t o p a t i e n t s .
During
the Civi1'War,
strictures
t h e Royal
a n d t h e Company
T h e r e was an i m p o r t a n t
C o l l e g e was u n a b l e t o e n f o r c e
( l a t e r Society) o f Apothecaries
group o f Helmontain
chemical
M a r c h a m o n t N e d h a m , ^ who a l l i e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h
an
the usual
became s t r o n g e r .
physicians, including
the Apothecaries
in
a t t e m p t t o b r e a k t h e monopoly o f t h e C o l l e g e .
T h i s amorphous b u t i n f l u e n t i a l
included
in their
polemic
coalition
o f chemists
and d r u g g i s t s
armamentarium, the arguments t h a t the
C o l l e g e was t r a d i t i o n - b o u n d a n d s c i e n t i f i c a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e , a s
well
as the a l l e g a t i o n
that
i t s members w e r e
intellectually
incapable o f proper enquiry.
One o f t h e l e a d e r s . o f
P h y s i c i a n s was Thomas W i l l i s .
W i l l i s was an a c q u a i n t a n c e
a member o f t h e o l d O x f o r d
of
t h e Royal
Society
group
i n the f i f t i e s ,
the College o f
of Boyle,
a n d an a s s o c i a t e
i n t h e s i x t i e s and s e v e n t i e s .
He h i m s e l f
was
a d e v o t e d m e c h a n i s t and i a t r o c h e m i s t and h i s s t r a t e g y o f d e f e n s e
the A p o t h e c a r i e s
was t o t u r n
their
own a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t
demonstrate that
i t was t h e members o f t h e R o y a l
a b l e and w i l l i n g t o c a r r y o u t m e d i c a l
was ;best
Royal
p e r f o r m e d by i a t r o c h e m i c a 1
College
could
perform
t h e members o f t h e C o l l e g e
against
their
critics.
research
enquire,
methods.
them a n d
C o l l e g e who w e r e most
and t h a t t h i s
enquiry
By s h o w i n g t h a t t h e
i n t h e new m e c h a n i c a l
hoped t o b u t t r e s s
against
their
idiom,
flagging reputation
T h i s mode o f d e f e n s e became e s t a b l i s h e d
College
29
p o l i c y , a n d W i l l i s w r o t e t h a t '-•'•mechanical
art
f r o m t h e " . v i l e s t scum o f t h e p e o p l e
dirt
upon
The
foci
Physick .
means-' w o u l d s a v e t h e m e d i c a l
who
bark
a g a i n s t and f l i n g
12
1 1
Royal
S o c i e t y and t h e Royal
of mechanistic
seventeenth
physiological
century.
men w e r e s c i e n t i f i c
were r e l i g i o u s
the mechanical
philosophy.
amateurs, o t h e r s were medical
half o f the
a number o f men
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e i t h e r o f these
in furthering
two p r i n c i p a l
discussion in the l a t t e r
There were a l s o , o f c o u r s e ,
who w e r e n o t c l o s e l y
participated
C o l l e g e were thus
c e n t r e s and y e t
Some o f t h e s e
men, a n d s t i l l
men p r o p o u n d i n g m e c h a n i s m t o f u r t h e r t h e i r
others
theological
beliefs.
Sir
who
( l 6 0 3 - l 6 6 5 ) was o n e o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c
Kenelm Digby
influenced the early
England.
another
development o f the mechanical
philosophers
philosophy in
He was a Roman C a t h o l i c v i r t u o s o , s e r v i n g a t o n e t i m e o r
as p r i v a t e e r , p h i l o s o p h e r , r o y a l
c o u n c i l o r , and p l a y w r i g h t .
He was a l s o a g o o d f r i e n d o f H o b b e s , a n d a member o f M e r s e n n e ' s
in P a r i s .
D i g b y ' s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h Hobbes t r a n s c e n d e d
philosophical
and
d i f f e r e n c e s ; t o o n e God was m e r e l y
a r c h i t e c t o f the w o r l d machine; t o the o t h e r
their
group
basic
t h e p r i mum mob i 1 e
God was t h e a r c h i t e c t
13
o f man's d i v i n e s o u l .
in Gassendi's
While
T h e i r common g r o u n d , h o w e v e r , was t h e i r
a t o m i s t i c philosophy
and i n D e s c a r t e s '
D i g b y may h a v e been a n i m p o r t a n t
o f t h e new p h i l o s o p h y
i n England
figure
new
philosophy.
in the establishment
though h i s i n f l u e n c e i n t h e Royal
S o c i e t y and h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e Mersenne and N e w c a s t l e
this
importance
is c e r t a i n l y
interest
circles,
out o f proportion to the worth o f h i s
30
p u b l i c a t i o n s , which were o f a c o n s i s t e n t l y
amateurish
D i g b y was f u n d a m e n t a l l y an A r i s t o t e l i a n
philosophy
immaterial
and i m m a t e r i a l
soul would
other philosophers,
certainly
(1644),
undertook
including
therefore
immortal.'^
soul
like
physical
of,
Mersenne.In
Two T r e a t i s e s
He does t h i s by f i r s t
soul
showing
g o v e r n i n g m o t i o n o f b o d i e s , a n d t h e n a t t e m p t i n g t o show
that the o p e r a t i o n s o f the soul
and
While
by M e r s e n n e a n d many
t o p r o v e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f an i m m o r t a l
u s i n g h i s theory o f b o d i e s as a b a s i s .
principles
the mechanical
t h e m a g i c a l elements o f H e r m e t i c p h i l o s o p h y had
by many c h u r c h m e n ,
Digby
be d e f e n d e d
14
tradition,
s u b s t a n c e s such as t h e s o u l . ' " '
been a t t a c k e d
the
who i n c o r p o r a t e d
into a synthesis which allowed, i n the Hermetic
o c c u l t elements
an
quality,
the soul
c a n n o t be e x p l a i n e d by t h e s e
i s immaterial, and, since not subject
In o t h e r w o r d s , D i g b y a r g u e d
thought and i m a g i n a t i o n
t o decay,
that since functions o f the
d i d n o t ( c o n t r a H o b b e s ) seem t o f o l l o w
laws, then t h e s o u l , which
must be i m m a t e r i a l .
principles,
Digby n e v e r q u e s t i o n s t h e e x i s t e n c e
This sort o f tautological
a r g u m e n t was a
pitfall
o f many who r e g a r d e d f o r o n e r e a s o n o r o t h e r t h e e x i s t e n c e
of
t o be a x i o m a t i c .
soul
Digby
fashion.
treated
biology
Human s e n s a t i o n
r e m i n i s c e n t o f Hobbes
and p h y s i o l o g y i n a m e c h a n i s t i c , a t o m i s t i c
i s explained
i n an u n r e f i n e d manner somewhat
in the Short Tract.
Hearing i s thought
to function
by a m e d i u m i s t i c m o t i o n , b u t t h e o t h e r s e n s e s a r e a l l t h o u g h t
to function
18
by
The
r e c e p t i o n o f atoms from t h e p e r c e i v e d o b j e c t
sense organs
small
in the sense
organ.
t h e m s e l v e s do n o t s e n s e , s a y s D i g b y , b u t c h a n n e l t h e
atoms o r p a r t i c l e s
t o t h e b r a i n , h e l p e d and c a r r i e d
by " v i t a l
spirits,"
31
wherein
they
sensation
thenceforth
reside.
19
Dighy
v a g u e a s t o how
i s r e l a t e d t o b o d i l y a c t i o n , b u t he t h i n k s t h a t t h e p a r t i c l e s
c a u s e some s o r t o f m e s s a g e s t o be s e n t
The
isa little
passions
are explained
travel
to the heart
etc).
Digby
from t h e b r a i n t o t h e body.
in a strikingly
a n d make
i t expand
H o b b e s i a n manner.
(joy) o r contract
t h u s a g r e e d w i t h Hobbes t h a t
the heart
Particles
(fear,
h a s an
hate,
important
20
role
in passions,
but disagreed
on t h e s p e c i f i c s
F o r both^men t h e p a s s i o n s .are::! i n k e d
but o n l y
f o r Hobbes was s e n s a t i o n
force o f the being,
the o r i g i n a l
repose
the v i t a l
Digby
and passion
t h u s f a r was
i n agreement w i t h
manner.
the m e d i a t i o n
that the soul
somehow
cause the o r i g i n a l
To t h e q u e s t i o n
o f t h e senses Digby
to satisfy
f o r an i m m a t e r i a l ,
In t h i s
o f how t h i s
he s t o o d
i t i s done,
Digby's e x p l a n a t i o n s
immortal
i n some i n d e f i n a b l e
I shall
terms o f h i s r a t h e r p o o r l y a r t i c u l a t e d
without
n o t be
I know n o t how,
a r e as u n s a t i s f y i n g
Faced w i t h
the theological
s o u l , D i g b y was f o r c e d
t h a t he c o u l d n o t e x p l a i n any c o n n e c t i o n
with
c a n come t o p a s s
r e p l i e s , " ! confess
y o u , b u t must a n s w e r t h a t
21
t h e power o f t h e s o u l . "
the f u r t h e r step o f
"apprehends" o b j e c t s
t o us a s t h e y w e r e t o h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s .
in
up a g a i n
Hobbes;
saying
necessity
describes
o n c e more.
Descartes,
by
Digby
p a r t i c l e s o f s e n s e a s t h e v e h i c l e o f memory, w h i c h
s o u l was, however, u n t h i n k a b l e .
able
l i n k e d to the d r i v i n g
motion o f the blood.
mechanical
spiritual
role.
t o motion o f h e a r t and b l o o d ,
i n t h e b r a i n , a n d w h i c h when s t i r r e d
sensations
of that
t o admit
b e t w e e n t h e s o u l a n d t h e body
mechanical
Devout C a t h o l i c s were n o t t h e o n l y ones t o i n s i s t
theories.
upon t h e e x i s t e n c e
32
o f an i n c o r p o r e a l
the
soul
?
o f course,
Representative
o f t h e group c a l l e d
' C a m b r i d g e P l a t g n i s t s ' i s H e n r y More (.1614-1687) , a n e a r l y
convert
to Cartesian
philosophy
doctrine.
i n t h e1640s,
English
In h i s e a r l y e n t h u s i a s m f o r t h e new
M o r e may h a v e b e e n q u i t e
important
in
its
Descartes
i n 1648
22
dissemination
and
i n England.
He c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h
1649, mostly about t h e i s s u e o f animal
animal
s o u l , a n d i t was t h i s
motion and automatism and
issue which greatly contributed
l a t e r v o 1 t e - f a c e and h i s s u b s e q u e n t vehement d e r o g a t i o n
t o More's
o f his
former
23
idol's
theories.
This
issue o f animal
motion and s o u l , bears
directly
upon t h e r e l a t i o n s o f Hobbes a n d t h e C a m b r i d g e P l a t o n i s t s .
Descartes had d e s c r i b e d
automata.
sensation
man,
In t h e a n i m a l s ,
merely
lack a divine s o u l , the process o f
i sthe f i n a l
receptor
reach
animal
m a t t e r and m o t i o n , whereas
the i n s u b s t a n t i a l soul
machine, sensation
i n man t h e r e
the b r a i n ; i n
of sensation,
t h e a g e n t o r medium o f t h e p a s s a g e o f t h a t
Thus f o r D e s c a r t e s '
of
which
a n d t o a d e g r e e man, a s m e c h a n i c a l
i s c o m p l e t e d when t h e s e n s i b l e m o t i o n s
i t i s the soul which
brain
animals,
and t h e
sensation.
consists entirely o f
i s the problematic
i n the process o f sensation.
involvement
The f o l l o w i n g
quotation
shows t h a t
D e s c a r t e s a n d Hobbes a g r e e d c o m p l e t e l y
sensation
and motion
i n animals
on what
i s ; Hobbes c a r r i e d t h i s o n t o a p p l y
24
t o man a s w e l l .
Descartes s t a t e d i n 1649, that he:
had g i v e n h e e d t h a t t h e r e a r e two d i f f e r e n t p r i n c i p l e s o f
o u r movements t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d - - v i z . , o n e w h i c h i s
p l a i n l y m e c h a n i c a l a n d c o r p o r e a l , w h i c h d e p e n d s upon t h e
s o l e f o r c e o f t h e animal s p i r i t s and t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f
the v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e body,...the o t h e r i n c o r p o r e a l . . .
I s o u g h t q u i t e d i l i g e n t l y w h e t h e r a n i m a l movements a r i s e f r o m
t h e s e two p r i n c i p l e s , o r s i m p l y f r o m one.
When I h a d c l e a r l y
p e r c e i v e d t h a t a l l movement c o u l d o r i g i n a t e f r o m t h e o n e
p r i n c i p l e , that i s t o say, the corporeal and mechanical o n e ,
t h e n I h e l d f o r c e r t a i n a n d p r o v e n t h a t we c a n i n no way
demonstrate any r a t i o n a l soul i n b r u t e s .
For
More,the P l a t o n i s t , s p i r i t s
and soul
have p r i o r i t y
over the
33
physical
world,
dualistic
and
matter
coexistence
is 'sentient ,
W h i l e the
1
of material world
and
spiritual
Cartesian
world
at
first
26
seemed a t t r a c t i v e
that
the
two
t o the
Cambridge P l a t o n i s t s ,
p h i l o s o p h i e s were m e t a p h y s i c a l l y
i t became a p p a r e n t
at variance with
each
other.
More f i n a l l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t D e s c a r t e s ' t h e o r i e s w e r e b a s i c a l l y
p r e j u d i c i a l t o r e l i g i o n and t h a t no phenomenon c o u l d be p r o p e r l y
27
explained
in purely mechanical
o f m e c h a n i s m More was
who
said
ically
The
t h a t the
atheistic
e c h o e d by
Cartesians
neo-Platonist
1660s and
one
must w o n d e r how
reaped
the p a r t o f
in
the
was
reasoning
who
was
the
lead.
the
philosophy
mechan-
came i n
to Descartes
t h u s due
C a m b r i d g e men
with
I t was
c a u s e d most o f
who
to f i n d
theology
Hobbes' s t a t e m e n t
up
due
any
place which
as
had
who
reaction, while
mechanist.
The
a feeling of betrayal
to t h e i r
dismay
they
first
had
how
direction
championed h i s
that s p i r i t
the
in what
and
and
p e r h a p s Hobbes
the
e n h a n c e d p e r h a p s by
1650s, o n l y
compatible
that f i l l e t h
could
the c r i t i c i s m
those
1640s and
certainly
tang o f
Cudworth
them."
Hobbes s h o w i n g them c l e a r l y
Descartes
on
not
rejection
compeer Ralph
undiscerned
28
much t h e c r i t i c i s m was
t h e m a j o r enemy, and
was
" h a v e an
and
Platonic
1670s, a f t e r Hobbes' m a j o r works were p u b l i s h e d ,
such m e c h a n i s t i c
c r i t i c i s m of
his friend
repudiation of mechanistic
much w a s ~ a : r e s u l t o f
Descartes
In t h i s
humour h a n g i n g a b o u t
the
was
terms.
that
philosophy
mechanism
thought.
It
i s "a body n a t u r a l . . .
image o f a v i s i b l e body
might
29
fill
up"
this
sullen
that e l i c i t e d
the
r e s p o n s e f r o m More t h a t " t o
30
c o n c e i t " o f Hobbes was
P l a t o n i s t s might agree w i t h
of high
priority.
some o f Hobbes' t h e o r i e s on
root
The
out
Cambridge
sensation
3h
and
n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y , b u t t h e m a t e r i a l ism w h i c h d e n i e d
spirits
o f t h e w o r l d , t h e v i t a e mundi, which were a v i t a l
n e o - P l a t o n i c d o c t r i n e , must be d e p l o r e d , j u s t
man
must be d e p l o r e d
Descartes
for i t s materialistic
could not, o f course,
saw
this
logical
part o f
as t h e C a r t e s i a n
implications.
carry themechanistic
to t h e e x t e n t o f e x p l a i n i n g a l l t h i n g s
the ruling
including
mechanical
While
explanation
mind, t h e P l a t o n i s t s
s t e p , o r r a t h e r , had i t f o r c e f u l l y
pointed out to
them by H o b b e s .
( 1 6 3 6 - 1 6 8 0 ) was n o t a member o f t h e C a m b r i d g e
Joseph G l a n v i l l
g r o u p , b u t was n e v e r t h e l e s s an a d m i r e r
o f H e n r y More.
He was a l s o
31
a c h u r c h m a n a n d member o f t h e R o y a l
published
his first
ostensibly
philosophical
Society.
work,
The V a n i t y o f
intended as a rebuke t o s c h o l a s t i c s .
p u r s u e s a somewhat a m b i v a l e n t
the s t a t e o f ignorance
championing
Glanvill
Dogmatizing,
In f a c t
this
work
c o u r s e , on t h e o n e hand p o i n t i n g o u t
o f contemporary
t h e new m e c h a n i c a l
In 1661
thought
philosophy
a n d on t h e o t h e r
and t h e knowledge
hand
gained
32
from
i t .
I t i sw r i t t e n in a generally sceptical
this attitude
philosophy
mechanical
i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a number o f s e v e n t e e n t h
century
c a u g h t on t h e h o r n s o f t h e H o b b i s t - C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s t i c
Descartes'
with
a s much i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e hew
as i n the c r i t i c i s m o f the ancients' p h i l o s o p h i e s .
Glanvill
thinkers
i s apparent
ve1n, however, and
p u r e m i n d - b o d y d u a l i s m became i n c r e a s i n g l y
t h e mechanical
philosophers
were u n w i l l i n g
immaterial
to accept
soul,,
irreconcilable
p h i l o s o p h y w h i c h he h i m s e l f h a d p r o p o u n d e d .
(and c e r t a i n l y
Glanvill,
a s an o r t h o d o x
Many
churchman)
t h e e x t r e m e Hobb'ist v i e w t h a t t h e r e
and y e t t h e a l t e r n a t i v e p r e s e n t e d
dilemma.
imposing
i s no
logical
35
problems.
If
matertal
is
put
an
body,
and
f o r t h ,
bridge
the
The
new
men
such
immaterial
the
gulf
v i c e
as
Descartes
what
for
was
in
For
The
body
be
cannot
stranger
a
very
to
such
of
He
says
that
by
Digby,
or
Descartes,
should
i t
remove
soul
as
a
on
this
anything
therefore
is
it
is
i t
a
is
is
a
l o g i c a l l y
mind
(or
problem
s o u l ) .
which
committed
to
with
problem
the
sensation
cannot
faced
to
the
the
which
d i d n ' t
"as
and
by
motion;
dimension;
how
can
and
we
rather
cannot
is
a
nothing
conceive
i t
under
impressions?
mind
substance,
"une
chose
34
soul
both
pure
to
it
motion
the
as
hard
stated
33
but
material
considered
Mountains".
problem,
s u b s t a n t i a l i t y ,
thinking
makes
in
quantitative
subjection
if
This
Dogmatizing:
gross
q u a n t i t y . . . a n d
passive
s o u l .
of
immaterial
one
one
influence
one
with
If
i t
theory
where
and
phenomena,
involved
by
what
brought
solve.
can
philosophers.
act
but
matter
reached
had
a l l
about
Vanity
received
of
of
do
how
matter-in-motion
non-mechanical
G l a n v i l l
c l e a r l y
to
No
couldn't
problem
e x i s t s ,
always
philosophy
explanation
e x i s t
is
between
mechanical
of
versa?
point
mechanical
soul
apprehend
S i m i l a r l y ,
he
as
and
knowledge,
qui
pense",
that
denies
an
his
as
as
empty
f r i e n d
by
wish
Henry
35
More's
n e o - P l a t o n i s t
since
if
soul
could
i t
impart
G l a n v i l l
singled
out
theories
brain
lay
and
about
of
indeed
is
motion
to
c l e a r l y
for
d i s c u s s i o n
Digby's
the
brain
soul
and
extension,
penetrating
the
found
in
that
a l l
mechanical
c r i t i c i s m
Descartes'
that
he
has
is
l o c a t i o n ,
bodies,
how
bodies?
interested
Both
idea
that
everywhere,
was
memory.
in
idea
the
theory
o r i g i n a l
psychology.
major
contemporary
involving
s e n s i b l e
'unconceivable'.
36
He
paths
in
p a r t i c l e s
It
is
a
porous
somehow
noteworthy
36
that G l a n v i l l e
g a v e Hobbes t h e same s e r i o u s
the esteemed D e s c a r t e s ,
This
theory
held
when he d i s c u s s e d
t h a t memory
consideration
Hobbes' t h e o r y
(and i m a g i n a t i o n )
were
as he d i d
o f memory.
'decaying
sense ,
1
37
the
persisting
Glanvill
nature
and
vibration
i n t h e b r a i n c a u s e d by a s e n s o r y
d i d not think that
as t o m a i n t a i n
even
i fthis
situation
would
stimulus.
t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e b r a i n was o f s u c h
such v i b r a t i o n s l i k e a q u i v e r i n g mental
p r e c o n d i t i o n was g r a n t e d ,
resemble t r y i n g
to "play
he t h o u g h t t h a t
a thousand
jelly,
such a
tunes on a
lute
38
Glanvill
propounded h i s b e l i e f
are ignorant
i n man's n e c e s s a r y
saying
"We
o f some t h i n g s
acity,
as men; o f more f r o m o u r c o n t r a c t e d
ignorance,
from o u r s p e c i f i c a l
incap-
[ i n c a p a c i t y ] as s i n n e r s :
39
and
i t i s no f a u l t
In t h i s
to
in the spectacles
last allegorical
represent
science,
t o a d e g r e e by t h e i r
and t h e b l i n d
nature.
by s u c h a p t s i m i l e s
philosophy
were s u f f i c i e n t
Glanvill's
Ultra
man s e e s n o t . "
the spectacles
man t o r e p r e s e n t
a l l men,
blinded
H i s s u p p o r t o f t h e m e t h o d o f t h e new
a n d by h i s b e l i e f
in parts of that
t o c a u s e c h a r g e s o f a t h e i s m t o be
of h i s fervent anti-sadducist
Plus
author against
the b l i n d
p h r a s e G l a n v i l l was u s i n g
philosophy
to him i n s p i t e
that
(1668) was w r i t t e n
attached
opinions.^
in part
c h a r g e s o f a t h e i s m , an i n d i c t m e n t
to defend the
o f which
the v i r t u o s i
h]
of
t h e Royal
defending
ability
S o c i e t y were e x c e p t i o n a l l y wary.
the l e g i t i m a c y o f the mechanical
to r e l i g i o n , using
He d i d t h i s by
philosophy
and i t s
reconcil-
R o b e r t B o y l e a s a model o f t h e S o c i e t y ' s
hi
achievements.
T h i s work d i d n o t r e c e i v e
i t s intended
reaction
37
from a l l q u a r t e r s .
Meric
PI us U l t r a a n d G . l a n v i l l
and
Casaubon, a learned
by d e p l o r i n g
divine,responded
t h e tendency
t o d e f i n e advancement o f knowledge i n p u r e l y
He f e l t
t h a t s u c h an a m o r a l
a t t i t u d e would
lead
to
to disregard
ethics
materialistic
terms.
t o an i n c r e a s e
in the
43
atheism attached
t o Hobbes
materialism.
1
To p r e v e n t s u c h c r i t i c i s m
of
from m i t i g a t i n g the e f f e c t s o f h i s defense
t h e S o c i e t y , G l a n v i l l , when he n e x t
separated
Hobbes
from t h e S o c i e t y
Sadducee
("Hobbes^
pretends
rose
t o that defense,
vi rtuosi.
He n o t e d
pointedly
t h a t a "Modern
t h a t a l l t h i n g s we do a r e p e r f o r m e d by
meer m a t t e r a n d m o t i o n a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y
that
there
i s no s u c h
thing
44
as
an i m m a t e r i a l
of
the mechanical
soul:
being."
He f u r t h e r s t a t e d
philosophers
admitted
that
the majority
t h e e x i s t e n c e o f an
immaterial
"Thus f a r I d a r e s a y I may u n d e r t a k e f o r most o f t h e
Corpuscularian
Philosophers
o f our times,
excepting
those
[men]
of
45
Mr. Hobb's w a y . "
all
of
The f u r y s t i r r e d
adherents o f the mechanical
philosophy,
had t h u s a f f e c t e d
particularly
that
such t h i n k e r s
i n t h e Royal
William Petty
( 1 6 2 3 - 1 6 8 7 ) , was a n o t h e r member o f t h e R o y a l
had
been
introduced
a mathematician.
in p h y s i c s ;
I t was h e r e t h a t h e f i r s t
by h i s f r i e n d
Society
Petty
John
Pell,
d e v e l o p e d an i n t e r e s t
he became a good f r i e n d o f H o b b e s , a n d drew t h e d i a g r a m s
46
f o r Hobbes o p t i c a l
notable
In t h e 1640s
philosophy.
t o theNewcastle c i r c l e
1
only
concentration
Society.
who was i n t e r e s t e d i n m e c h a n i c a l
it
up by Hobbes
treatises.
w o r k on m e c h a n i c a l
to h i s o l d patron
When
i n 1674
philosophy
and f r i e n d W i l l i a m
Petty
presented
his
t o t h e S o c i e t y , he d e d i c a t e d
C a v e n d i s h , Duke o f N e w c a s t l e .
38
This
t r e a t i s e , A Discourse..,Concerning
was w r i t t e n
forte,
t o e n c o u r a g e members t o a p p l y m a t h e m a t i c s ,
t o the understanding o f matter,
the D i s c o u r s e
i s h i sj u s t i f i c a t i o n
P e t t y was a s much c o n c e r n e d
and
t h e Use o f D u p l i c a t e P r o p o r t i o n . . . ,
h e was c a r e f u l
Petty's
The i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t i n
o f h i s philosophy t o thetheologians;-
w i t h c h u r c h o p i n i o n a s any o f t h e v i r t u o s i ,
t o t r y t o l e g i t i m i z e h i s view o f t h e u n i v e r s e
47
as m e c h a n i c a l
or
'. By a t t r i b u t i n g
'femalenessj
he t r i e d
t o atoms a s e x u a l q u a l i t y ,
t o show t h a t atoms w e r e
indeed
'maleness'
mentioned
48
in Genesis
in the Bible
(male and f e m a l e
c r e a t e d He t h e m ) .
he was d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h a l l c u r r e n t p h y s i c a l
of mathematical
precision,
t h e men who o r i g i n a t e d
Though
theories for their
he drew h i s t h e o r i e s i n l a r g e p a r t
them a n d who i n f l u e n c e d
lack
from
him i n t h e 1640s,
49
D e s c a r t e s , Gassendi
competitor
a n d Hobbes.
t o Gassendi
Hobbes
i s cited
and Descartes.
A d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e members o f t h e R o y a l
with
Boyle
Hobbes c a n n o t
(1627-1691).
be c o n s i d e r e d c o m p l e t e
Although
primarily
Boyle probably gained a c e r t a i n
visit
t o I re 1 and
found
chemical
without mentioning
t o have any H e r m e t i c
ical
dissection.
Robert
inphysiology during a
"so unprocurable
In I r e l a n d
they
t h a t i t was
t h o u g h t " a n d t h e two men t u r n e d t o a n a t o m -
B o y l e was a l s o somewhat
o f mechanical
lacked a f i r m mathematical
relations
in chemistry,
i n 1653"1654 wi t h Wi11iam P e t t y .
hard
particularly
S o c i e t y and t h e i r
interested
interest
t o o l s and apparatus
current accounts
as a s e r i o u s
disenchanted with the
p h i l o s o p h y , not only because
they
b a s i s , a s P e t t y had remarked, b u t
because t h e t h e o r i e s o f D e s c a r t e s , Gassendi
a n d Hobbes
39
were t e n t a t i v e ,
had
sought
attitude,
p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s which
empirically
using the mechanical
instrument t o lead
particulars
and
to test,
none o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s
B o y l e h i m s e l f r e t a i n e d a good
philosophy "primarily
'Baconian'
a s an h e u r i s t i c
t o new e x p e r i m e n t s a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s . " ' ' '
Of t h e
o f t h e v a r i o u s v e r s i o n s o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y he was
sceptical,
he was w a r y o f o p e n l y s u p p o r t i n g a d o c t r i n e s o a s s o c i a t e d i n
52
the
p u b l i c mind w i t h a t h e i s m .
mechanical
of
When he d i d e x p r e s s an o p i n i o n o f
p h i l o s o p h y , i t was a n e u t r a l
Gassendi
and D e s c a r t e s , y e t r e f u s i n g
one, combining
elements
to d i f f e r e n t i a t e
them o r t o t a k e a s t a n d o v e r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s
in detail
between
between t h e
53
two.
B o y l e was v e r y much a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
philosophers
group.
t h e new m e c h a n i c a l
i n E n g l a n d , however, and i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h
He was a c o r r e s p o n d e n t o f J o h n
Pell,
a friend
P e t t y , a n a d m i r e r o f K e n e l m D i g b y , a n d an e a r l y
philosophy
and
through
scientific
the correspondence
for
one.
to Gassendi's
a merchant
natural
histories,
to write either
complete
t h e y must w r i t e s o m e t h i n g
t o be an e p i s t e m -
D e s c a r t e s and Gassendi
t h a t may a i d s c i e n t i f i c
t h a t when t h e s e men l a c k p a r t i c u l a r
that
o f Samuel H a r t l i b ,
W h i l e he l a u d s t h e men l i k e
i s , Baconian
constrained
initiate
t o Hobbes s e e m s , on t h e s u r f a c e ,
publishing general p r i n c i p l e s
that
and p u p i l o f
amateur.
Boyle's objection
ological
the Newcastle
endeavour,
he s a y s
t h a t some men seem
systems
o* n o t h i n g a t a l l , a n d
knowledge they n e v e r t h e l e s s f e e l
r a t h e r t h a n s a y n o t h i n g a t a l l on a
5k
subject.
While Boyle d i d c r i t i c i z e
Hobbes f o r some o f h i s i d e a s
on vacuum a n d f o r h i s m e t h o d , t h e r e seems t o be a d i s t i n c t
of
religious
political
o b j e c t i o n which
Boyle held
undercurrent
i n common w i t h
55
other c r i t i c s
l i k e Wall i s .
Boyle d i dnot d i r e c t l y
attack
Hobbes'
ko
physiology
the
implications of
motivate
figure
and
or psychology,
h i s general
in the early
securing
he o p p o s e d
Hobbes
yet
there
the derivative
criticism
Royal
of
the i n c l u s i o n of
for
to be seen
and
he d i d n o t want
him to
to
association
of
t h e Royal
he
spans
mechanical
with
Hobbes
Society
that
Boyle
that
that
was a
as
helped
English
Epicurean
t o do
and
of
of
and the Newcastle
a
materialist
Society,
abroad.^
however.
Hobbes^was
philosophy,
this,
denigrated
the
science
in the S o c i e t y ,
an o l d f r i e n d
building
He d i d n o t w a n t
representative
Walter
an e a r l y
possibly
circle.
i t was
powerful
In o r d e r
in the Society
represent
of
theory
Society.
and the P r e s i d e n t
t h e two c e n t r e s
to suspect
and was c o n c e r n e d w i t h
was n o t u n i v e r s a l
(1619-1707),
Gassendi's
Hobbes.
two r e a s o n s .
accused atheist
Charleton,
reason
political
Hobbes
and
attitude
of
Society
the reputation
and h i s theories
This
is
convert
due t o h i s
As an e a r l y
member
of
t h e Royal
College
of
physicians,
physiological
endeavour
discussed earlier
rQ
in
this
areas
essay.
of
Boyle
thought.
and Charleton
Charleton,
of
corpuscular
philosophy
would
r e l i g i o n and hinder
was
to
the revised
Physiologia
to
responsible
introduction
menace
Gassendi
of
England,
i t s Greek
Epicurean
were
quite
in
large
attempted
pagan
Epieuro-Gassendo-Char 1toniana
part
i n many
for the
to cleanse
elements
i t s acceptance
philosophy,
similar
which
the
he
Epicurean
felt
as a theory.
published
by
(1654),
that
It
Charleton
Boyle
as
later
59
adhered.
Although
to
Charleton
in
England,
his association with
in h i s attempt
there
a r e many
to
Hobbes
may h a v e
legitimize
congruent
been
an
the mechanical
points
embarrassment
philosophy
in the philosophies
of
41
the
two
men,
Charleton,
the
u n i v e r s a l prime m o v e r , ^
p u s h ' c o u l d be
explained
account of sensation
l i k e H o b b e s , saw
Everything
God
as
after
the
i n t e r m s o f m a t t e r and
i s remarkably s i m i l a r
the
First
first
Cause,
'divine
motion.
Charleton's
t o Hobbes and
he
cited
61
Hobbes as
a source
for his description of
that " a l l e f f e c t s which external o b j e c t s
may
be... r e f e r r e d t o two
general
the
can
passions.
He
stated
p o s s i b l e e x i s t e in
h e a d s , n a m e l y p l e a s u r e , and
us...
pain",
62
w h i c h he
associated with
good and
o f human p s y c h o l o g y b a s e d on
in d e t a i l
Charleton
m a t t e r and
from t h a t o f Hobbes.
m o t i o n t o t h e b r a i n and
evil.
He
motion which d i f f e r s
said that sensation
i f weak, d e c a y s ,
heart.
If a sensation
spirits
therein reserved
g a v e an
i f strong
only
proceeds
continues
i s p l e a s u r a b l e , " i t immediately
i n t o b r i s k e r but
account
as
to
puts
the
the
regular motions..., i f
63
displeasing
e x a c t l y as
The
departure
sensitive/components,
animal
spirits,
like a
maintains,
religious
problems
how
hath
no
the motions o f
He
d i d Digby; the
s e n s i t i v e soul
is,
rational
consists
to u n d u l a t i o n s
or waving motions
throughout."
Hobbes (and
t o be
in order
soul
can
be
ascribed
feeling
t o an
of strokes
immaterial
t h o u g h he
v i e w , "|
as
be
saw
little
immaterial,
can
and
Descartes).
must be
immortal,
in a Cartesian d u a l i s t i c
how
into
blood.
flame
reasons,
I do
Charleton
and
composed o f v i t a l
i s in agreement w i t h
[thought)
by
spirits
fluidum'
rational
e y e s , as
theory
passions,
the
d i v i d e d soul
however, t h a t the
inherent
Intuition
as
Thus t h e
from Hobbist
'lucid
"subject
Thus f a r C h a r l e t o n
for
affect
o v e r the matter o f s o u l .
in motion, being
He
them i n t o c o n f u s i o n . "
i n Hobbes t h e o r y ,
significant
of course,
and
i t puts
the
understand
that
ascribed
to
a>
66
thing
t h a t c a n n o t be
t h a n most o f
his
touched."
intellectual
.
But
Charleton
goes a s t e p
c o n t e m p o r a r i e s when, w i t h
a
farther
somewhat
42
atypical
j u d g e m e n t on
I refer
as you
he a d m i t s
candour,
the s u b j e c t ,
the matter
shall
h i s l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g and
" W h e r e f o r e h a v i n g c o n f e s s e d my
to your a r b i t r a t i o n ;
think
f i t , seriously
i n t e r i m contentedly suspending
me.
1
clues
thoughts
to e x p l a i n
century
setting
environment
During
a s much
t o c o n s i d e r t h e same; and
c u r i o s i t y , which
time
in the
hath o f t e n p e r p l e x e d
interpret
in the
he
and
the soul
and
High
these
thoughts
i n the
i n 1643
a religious
War,
orthodoxy.
his political
theological
non-conformists,
the d o c t r i n e s
Among t h e s e must
a
Overton
Mans M o r t a l 1 i t i e
' s o u l - s 1 e e p i n g ' , the
be
pamphleteer
publications,
tract entitled
r e v i v e d the d o c t r i n e of
less
seventeenth
and
a f r i e n d o f J o h n L i l b u r n e and
A s i d e from
important
1670s.
flourished, attacking
Church
hold
t h e s e s u b j e c t s by o t h e r
1 640s t o
free-thinkers
Richard Overton,
published
t a k e n on
the t r o u b l e d times o f the C i v i l
the L e v e l l e r s .
which
To
o f England
'Puritan'
counted
human p s y c h o l o g y
r e q u i r e s some g r a s p o f t h e p o l i t i c a l
s e c t a r i a n s , and
both
on
the p o s i t i o n s
forthright writers.
for
my
a l l o w i n g you
ignorance,
,,67
Charleton"s
of
suspends
in
'Arabian
error'
68
of
mortal
y e a r by
soul.
This
i s s u e had
first
r a i s e d i n the
69
previous
S i r Thomas Browne' s;-,Rel i g i o ' M e d i c i ' ( 1 6 4 2 ) .
Browne d e s c r i b e d m o r t a l ism and
saying
been
t h a t p h i l o s o p h y had
statement
was
rejected
i t on
grounds o f
not y e t d i s p r o v e d the d o c t r i n e . ^
i n p a r t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e renewed d e b a t e
controversy,^
and
Overton's
fire,
the
r e s p e c t a b l e p h y s i c i a n Browne was
although
more w o r t h y
of
response
faith,
than
publication
the
radical
added f u e l
Overton.
72
on
to the
t o be
This
an o l d
polemic
considered
Overton
whole-heartedly
43
propounded
very
He
his
s i m i l a r
saw
our
no
most
m o r t a l 1st
to
those
basic
noble
d o c t r i n e ,
of
Hobbes,
difference
and
producing
if
between
f a c u l t i e s
conclusions
antedating
animals
scattered
him
and
among
by
men:
which
eight
are
years.
" B r u t e s . . .
them,
though
in
73
have
an
74
i n f e r i o r
degree."
Proceeding
is
created
is
m a t e r i a l " ^ ,
of
soul
the
f a c u l t i e s
as
each
faculty
and
m o r t a 1 . ^
In
is
response
ordered
an
the
l e g i s l a t i o n
and
b l a s p h e m e r s . ^
Epicurean,
The
in
it
it
connection
man
and
of
passed
between
contemporary
assumption
A r i s t o t l e ' s
j o i n t l y
that
thus
the
as
the
such
r e l i g i o u s
and
(and
soul
by
his
rod
and
of
that
be
corporeal
of
such
Commons
In
heretics
i n t e n t i o n a l l y
contemporaries,
c r i t i c i s m
fixed
Gassendi's
that
pamphlets.
not
became
concept
showed
House
was
for
atheism
mind,
and
mortalist
tract
" a l l
Hobbes1)
must
the
suppression
lightning
atomism
the
of
Overton's
that
considered
controversy,
for
i d e n t i f i e d
"became
the
publishers
Although
was
Kargon,
the
was
took
mortal ism
investigation
1646
quote
of
corporeal
to
he
on
and
of
to
Epicureanism"
at
least
Epicurean
synthesis
79
came
his
under
attack.
revision
several
denying
properly
he
philosophy,
mortal ism and
was
of
understand
its
and
was
in
c r i t i c i z e d
the
confirming
in
the
1650s,
under
Overton
in
M o r a 1s,
s p e c i f i c a l l y
Apology
the
the
for
Charleton's
a t h e i s t i c
working
"An
himself
1650s h e
the
for
published
existence
of
an
s o u l . ^
philosophy
that
Charleton
Gassendi's
tracts
immortal
To
of
Thus
dark
previous
to
connotations
and
cloud
to
of
decade.
discuss
Epicurus",
avid
to
some
1656
these
defend
it
extent
c r i t i c i s m
In
attempts
is
to
necessary
in
Charleton
Epicurus
and
(and
to
1660s,
the
engendered
problems,
purify
by
men
Epicurean
remember
s t i l l
l i k e
pub 1 i s h e d , E p i c u r u s
in
thus
an
appended
Epicureans)
1
s
kk
from charges
of atheism,
To a d d t o t h e d e s i r e o f E p i c u r e a n
f o r a d i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h m o r t a l ism and h e r e s y ,
w i t h Thomas Hobbes a n d h i s much c r i t i c i z e d
materialism associated with Epicurus
and
t o many o b s e r v e r s
t h e r e was
philosophy.
that Charleton
philosphers
the connection
I t was t h e
had t o
excuse,
t h i s was e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e m a t e r i a l i s m o f
Hobbes.
Hobbes d e r i v e d h i s m o r t a l i s m i n two d i f f e r e n t w a y s , f i r s t
h i s n a t u r a l mechanical
by
scriptural
p h i l o s o p h y a s h a s been s h o w n , a n d
exegesis.
81
He d i d n o t d i f f e r
from
secondly
i n any i m p o r t a n t
way
82
from the views o f Overton,
after
1651,
M i l t o n , a n d Browne on m o r t a l i s m .
t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o r t a l i s m was
Hobbes was n o t , by h i s own a d m i s s i o n
accused
Hobbes o f r e s t a t i n g
Gassendi,
to p h y s i o l o g y ,
Hobbes
an E p i c u r e a n .
the sensation
and Digby, thus a t t e m p t i n g
theories of
to b e l i t t l e
i n d i g n a n t l y responded
was n o n s e n s e , a n d G a s s e n d i
t o be s e e n a s
Thus,
Hobbist.
When S e t h
Ward
Descartes,
Hobbes' c o n t r i b u t i o n
that Descartes'
and Digby h e l d t h e o p i n i o n
of
theory
Epicurus
8k
"which
i s very
Epicurean
different
from mine."
The m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n
t h e o r y and Hobbes' thought
c e n t r e on t h e e x i s t e n c e o f
vacuum a n d on Hobbes
later mediumistic
theory o f l i g h t
to t h e neo-Epicurean
emission
To most o b s e r v o r s , h o w e v e r ,
Hobbes a n d E p i c u r e a n s
mechanical
dogma.
and
w e r e , by d i n t o f t h e i r
common m a t e r i a l i s m a n d
corpuscular p h y s i c s , c o l l a b o r a t o r s in s i n g l e
T h u s C u d w o r t h a n d More t e n d e d
s c i e n t i s t s w i t h Hobbes
The a d m i s s i o n
all
theory.
as opposed
understand
remarkable
by W a l t e r
how an
given
in their
Charleton
immaterial
the continued
dangerous
t o i n c l u d e any E p i c u r e a n
glresponses to Leviathan.
i n 1675
t h a t he d i d n o t a f t e r
s o u l c o u l d f u n c t i o n was
anti-mortalist
philosoph
t h e more
c l i m a t e o f the 1670s.
45
His
by
skepticism
his
i n s i s t e n c e ,
social
necessity,
For
and,
of
other
l i k e
men
the
Royal
learning
in
expertise
there,
in
on
the
l i k e
Thomas
not
College
by
College
mostly
on
the
a
eyes
of
W i l l i s ,
member
of
d i s s i m i l a r
the
neuroanatomy.
mechanical
he
In
a l s o
his
and
c a r r i e d
work
De
s o u l .
the
question
W i l l i s
sought
medical
by
College
arose.
he
only
or
Royal
Society,
also
of
b e l i e f
the
a c t i v i t i e s :
seat
c r i t i c s
immaterial
of
Royal
dualism
the
and
Christian
immortal
the
proper
e x h i b i t i n g
members;
an
r e l i g i o u s
champion
Cartesian
was
of
sincere
existence
a l s o
two
in
through
ism.and
London
of
saved
whether
material
involved
that
be
Charleton,
Hobbes1
was
would
to
prove
research
and
iatrochemica1
out
Anima
his
own
studies
Brutorum,
W i l l i s
86
dealt
with
divided
soul
souls
and
t h i r d ,
are
in
through
involved
The
c l e a r
motion,
and
the
in
bodily
the
for
which
and
a
soul
is
the
s p i r i t s
soul
which
as
only
of
W i l l i s
The
the
degree
of
in
it
and
thought.
to
govern
digestion
brutes
power
s e n s i t i v e
nerves
postulated
such
present
men.
s o u l .
travel
is
functions
and
c e r t a i n
body-soul,
W i l l i s ,
animal
animals
rational
s p i r i t s
the
rational
of
and
sensation
s o u l ,
that
souls
soul
animal
autonomous
r e s p i r a t i o n .
is
of
s e n s i t i v e
subsidiary,
unconscious,
It
question
into
functions
brain
A
the
and
man.
consists
are
of
matter
chemical
87
p r i n c i p l e s .
composite,
This
is
s o u l ,
accorded
a
r e a l l y
a
limited
body
soul
and
r a t i o c i n a t i o n ,
s e n s i t i v e
s u f f i c i e n t
soul
to
explain
88
animal
functions
questions
which
was
he
and
W i l l i s
s a i d ,
somehow
actions.
separated
was
( W i l l i s
the
is
To
such
function
unclear
avoid
basic
of
as
an
to
d i f f i c u l t y
cognition
from
immaterial
p r e c i s e l y
with
higher
rational
in
what
theological
i n t e l l e c t i o n ,
soul
manner),
which
ke
connected
t o t h e body-sou 1 f o r i t s sensory
input.
89
This
solution
t o t h e d u a l i s t p r o b l e m was e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same a s t h a t o f f e r e d i n
the
same y e a r ,
Pardies,
Pardies
1 6 7 2 , by a F r e n c h J e s u i t w r i t e r , F a t h e r
in h i s Discours
de l a C o n n o i s s a n c e d e s b e s t s .
Ignace
Gaston
Like
Willis,
s a i d t h a t b e a s t s have a s e n s i t i v e k i n d o f c o g n i t i o n , b u t
90
not
an i n t e l l e c t u a l o n e .
W i l l i s was t h e p h y s i c i a n
this capacity
College
the
as well
and Royal
t o t h e A r c h b i s h o p o f C a n t e r b u r y and i n
as i n h i s r e s p o n s i b l e
Society,
he was c o n s t r a i n e d
facade o f t h e o l o g i c a l orthodoxy.
soul
was s u f f i c i e n t
to s a t i s f y
and
the r a t i o n a l soul
soul
illness.
at least
and y e t a l l o w e d
failed
terms.
Willis
The f r a n k l y
t o comment on was
The c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e body
i n man a l l o w e d
Willis
as i f i t were a p a r t o f t h e m a t e r i a l
i n t o mental
to maintain
in materialistic
m a t e r i a l i s t i c a s s e r t i o n which the church
reason.
i n the Royal
H i s compromise o f a b i p a r t i t e
his critics,
to t a l k about t h e mind and soul
that matter could
positions
Being very
soul
to treat the r a t i o n a l
body s o u l
i n h i s enquiry
much a w a r e o f t h e a t h e i s t i c
dangers
o f a m a t e r i a l i s t i c o r H o b b e s i a n d o c t r i n e , W i l l i s p r e f a c e d De An i ma
92
Brutorum w i t h the f o l l o w i n g statement:
I know n o t w h e t h e r i t w i l l be p l e a s i n g t o a l l t h a t i n s t i t u t i n g
the something p a r a d o x i c a l d o c t r i n e o f the animal s o u l , t h a t
I s h o u l d a s s i g n t o t h a t s o u l , by w h i c h t h e b r u t e s a s w e l l
a s men l i v e , f e e l , move, n o t o n l y e x t e n s i o n , b u t members,
and a s i t w e r e o r g a n i c a l p a r t s . . . . M o r e o v e r , t h a t t h e c o r p o r e a l
soul doth extend i t s s i c k n e s s e s not o n l y t o t h e body, but
to t h e mind o r r a t i o n a l s o u l , . . I t h i n k i s c l e a r enough.
i;
When he d e s c r i b e d
"divinae
as
the r a t i o n a l soul
particulam
a s "a p a r t i c l e o f a d i v i n e
a u r a e " , he was u s i n g
he h a d u s e d t o d e s c r i b e
p r e c i s e l y t h e same
the s u b t l e s t o f chemical
breath",
language
p r i n c i p l e s in
47
93
a prior
"It
discussion of fermentation.
seems t h a t W i l l i s
f o o t i n g when
Hansreudi
Isler
comments,
c o u l d n o t a l w a y s h o l d on t o h i s t h e o l o g i c a l
he was b e i n g c a r r i e d
away by t h e t r e n d s i n h e r e n t i n
94
his
theories."
This assessment
has
been shown t o e x i s t
nicely
sums up an a t t i t u d e
i n a number o f W i l l i s '
which
contemporaries
such
as C h a r l e t o n .
W i l l i s was a s c i e n t i s t who was s e r i o u s l y
physiological
psychology.
He w a n t e d t o e x p l a i n
i l l n e s s e s o f t h e mind and t h e most p o t e n t
was
the mechanical
to material
was
p h i l o s o p h y , which
entities.
interested
i n mechanical
t h e w o r k i n g s and
instrument at h i s disposal
i s o n l y e f f e c t i v e when
applied
By p r o c e e d i n g i n s u c h an e n q u i r y , W i l l i s
i n an i m p o r t a n t way a f o l l o w e r o f H o b b e s , b u t f o r o b v i o u s
could not admit
to this
influence.
o f Hobbes o r p h y s i o l o g i s t s who
acknowledge that
fact.
He t b u s . : t y p i f i e s
reasons
'followers'
t o o k Hobbes s e r i o u s l y y e t c o u l d n o t
48
FOOTNOTES
CHAPTER I !
HOBBES AND THE ENGLISH PHYSIOLOGISTS
1 , Thomas H o b b e s , E n g l i sh W o r k s , e d . S i r W. M o l e s w o r t h
J o h n B o h n , 1839) V o l . I , p.4072 . T h e o d o r e B r o w n , The M e c h a n i c a l
(Princeton:
Princeton University
(London:
P h i l o s o p h y and..the,Animal
P r e s s , 1969) p . 2 8 .
Oeconomy,
3- C h r i s t o p h e r H i l l , " W i l l i a m H a r v e y a n d t h e I d e a o f M o n a r c h y , "
P a s t a n d P r e s e n t (1963) X X V I I .
4 . "T. B r o w n , M e c h a n i c a l P h i l o s o p h y , p . 2 9 , p . 4 8 .
In t h e e a r l y p a r t o f
the c e n t u r y , o f c o u r s e , t h e r e d i d n ' t r e a l l y e x i s t a 'mechanical
p h i l o s o p h y ' f o r Harvey t o e i t h e r a c c e p t o r disavow.
5 . I b i d . , p.v. The ' a n i m a l oeconomy' was t h e s e v e n t e e n t h
term f o r p h y s i o l o g y .
6.
P r o f e s s o r o f M e d i c i n e a t Gresham C o l l e g e
7.
H. I s 1 e r , Thomas W i l l i s ,
century
p.13
8. H.M. S i n c l a i r , " O x f o r d M e d i c i n e " i n M e d i c i n e i n S e v e n t e e n t h
England (Los A n g e l e s :
U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a Press , 1974).
Century
9 . C. W a l l , H.C. Cameron, a n d E.A. U n d e r w o o d , A H i s t o r y o f t h e W o r s h i p f u l
S o c i e t y o f A p o t h e c a r i e s o f London,'(London:
O x f o r d , 1963) V o l . 1 , p . 4 1 .
10.
Nedham was t h e a u t h o r / e d i t o r o f M e r c u r i u s B r i t a n i c u s ( s i c . )
t h e most c o n t i n u o u s P a r l i a m e n t a r i a n n e w s - s h e e t d u r i n g t h e w a r .
11. l a t r o c h e m i s t r y i s t h e name g i v e n t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f c o r p u s c u l a r
mechanical theory t o medicine i n the l a t e seventeenth century.
12.
T. W i l l i s ,
Pharmacaetice
Rational i s ,
(1674).
13/ C'.'W; Bodemer, " M a t e r i a l i s t i c a n d N e p p l a t o n i c I n f l u e n c e s i n
E m b r y o l o g y " , i n A.G. D e b u s , M e d i c i n e i n S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y E n g l a n d ,
(Los A n g e l e s :
U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1974) p . 1 8 4 - 8 5 .
14. R. K a r g o n , A t o m i s m i n E n g l a n d
C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1966) p p . 7 2 - 7 3 15-
from H a r i o t t o Newton,
(Oxford:
Ibid.
1.6. The H e r m e t i c t r a d i t i o n was a t t a c k e d a s a t h r e a t t o r e l i g i o n
i n t h e l a t e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y by t h e J e s u i t d e l R i o a n d P r o t e s t a n t s
like Erastus.
In t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , M e r s e n n e h i m s e l f condemned
i t a s t h r e a t e n i n g t h e s t a t u s o f m i r a c l e s , a n d m o d e r a t e s i n t h e War
condemned i t w i t h t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g t h r e a t o f t h e s e c t a r i e s . S e e P.
R a t t o n s i , "The S o c i a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y S c i e n c e "
49
in
P. M a t h i a s e d , , S c i e n c e a n d S o c i e t y ,
17. R.T. P e t e r s s o n , S i r K e n e l m D i g b y ,
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1956) p . l 9 0 f f .
18.
19.
1600-1900,
(Cambridge:
p,30.
Harvard
Ibid.
K. D i g b y , Of B o d i e s , ( 1 6 4 4 ) p p . 3 5 7 - 3 6 2 .
2 0 . D i g b y h a d been i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e h e a r t a n d c i r c u l a t i o n s i n c e
h i s e a r l y days a t Gresham C o l l e g e ( 1 6 3 3 - 1 6 3 5 ) He t e s t e d a n d f i n a l l y
a g r e e d w i t h much o f H a r v e y ' s c i r c u l a t i o n t h e o r y .
21.
K. D i g b y , Of Man's S o u l
(1644)
p.51.
22. On M o r e ' s i n f l u e n c e on E n g l i s h C a r t e s i a n i s m s e e M. N i c o l s o n ,
"The E a r l y S t a g e s o f C a r t e s i a n i s m i n E n g l a n d " , S t u d i e s i n
P h i l o l o g y , XXVI ( 1 9 2 9 ) p p . 3 5 6 - 3 7 4 .
2 3 . L.D. C o h e n , " D e s c a r t e s a n d H e n r y More on t h e B e a s t
Ann, o f S c i . I ( 1 9 3 6 ) p . 4 9 .
Machine,"
2 4 . L e t t e r o f D e s c a r t e s t o M o r e , F e b r u a r y 5 , 1 6 4 9 , E;A. A d a m f a n d ..- •
P a u l T a n n e r y , e d s . , O e v r e s de D e s c a r t e s , ( P a r i s : J . V r i n , 1967)
V o l . V, l e t t e r 5 3 7 , p . 2 7 5 ; t r a n s . L. C o h e n , " D e s c a r t e s a n d H e n r y M o r e " ,
PP;51-.52.
25.
L. C o h e n , " D e s c a r t e s a n d H e n r y M o r e " , p . 5 9 -
2 6 . C.W. Bodemer, " M a t e r i a l i s t i c a n d N e o p l a t o n i c I n f l u e n c e s " , _i_n
A.G. D e b u s , M e d i c i n e i n S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y E n g l a n d , p . 2 0 1 .
2 7 . C. W e b s t e r , " H e n r y More a n d D e s c a r t e s : Some New S o u r c e s " ,
B r i t . Journal f o r t h e H i s t o r y o f S c i e n c e , 4(1969).p.360.
28.
The T r u e
29.
T. H o b b e s , E n g l i s h W o r k s , v o l . I V , p p . 6 6 - 7 1
Intellectual
System
3 0 . B a s i l W i l l e y , The S e v e n t e e n t h
C h a t t o a n d W i n d u s , 1967) p . 1 6 2 .
p.178.
o f t h e U n i v e r s e , I678,
Century Background,
(London:
31. G l a n v i l l e w a s
of Bath Abbey.
..Chapl a i n - i n - O r d i n a r y t o C h a r l e s II a n d R e c t o r
32.
Seventeenth
Basil
Willey,
Century Background,
33- J o s e p h , G l a n v i l l , The V a n i t y o f D o g m a t i z i n g ,
E v e r s d e n , 1661) p . 2 9 .
p.173
(London:
Henry
50
34.
J.'.-.iGl a n v i l 1 ,
35.
On
Not ion
More1s
o f
V a ni t y
idea
Sp i r i t
(1681).
o f
o f
Dogma t i z i n g ,
universal
p,22,
extension
(1671,
reprinted
Vanity
o f
f o r soul
in G l a n v i l l e ' s
JJiGlanvi11,
37-
T.
Hobbes,
38.
J .
G l a n v i l l ,
Vanity
o f
Dogmatizing,
p.38.
39-
J-
G l a n v i l l ,
Vanity
o f
Dogmatizing,
p.237-
is
Leviathan,
G l a n v i l l ' s
best
support
o u t l i n e d
and
Witchcraft
k].
R.S.
History
attempt
to a l l a y
a t h e i s t i c
a
o f
P.P.
f o r
J .
G l a n v i l l ,
46.
R.
Kargon,
Petty
rather
and
a
than
envious,
igion"!
48.
LXVI
and Religion
Ultra
R.
A
I b i d . ,
50.
Kenneth
Century
p.165-
Witches
o f
the r e l i g i o u s
o f
Sprat
Meric
t h e Same
Philosophia
in
1966)
expose
(1667)
Century
p.113-
1958)
t o be an u n o f f i c i a l
tendencies.
Letter
t r e a t i s e
supplement
the f i r s t
about
used
the
to
apologist
to
S o c i e t y ' s
Christopher
Wren
Casaubon
Church,
:
P . P .
Sc to
(Cambridge,
Peter
du
Moulin,
1669) •
(1 6 7 1 ) • P 3 3 •
P i a , p.109-
England
from
Hariotto
Newton,
(Oxford:
p.69.
with
that
to
with
Yale
p.31 ,
he f i n a l l y
points
the displeasure
o f
o f
Southwell,
c . f .
Westfal1,
Press,
Mechanical
chose
not
natural
r e l i g i o n
" t h e censorious
to
University
Petty's
P-65, Genesis
that
some
e t c . "Petty
Correspondence
" W i l l i a m
opinion
dealt
himself
the s c i o l u s ,
Kargon,
49-
and w i t c h c r a f t
Touching
Society.
(New H a v e n :
(1965)
miracles
in Seventeenth
Press,
Society,
o f
was so concerned
Petty-Southwel1
Re.l
Plus
Atomism
Press,
publish
s p i r i t s ,
University
t h e Royal
the
kS.
Clarendon
f f .
Considerations
G1 a n v i 1 1 . , ' P Hi i :1 o s o p h a a P i. a ,
kk. J .
to
Yale
and Prebendarie
47.
immaterial
the fears
CMi-.;Casaubon,
43-
o f
m a t e r i a l i s t i c
model
p.33
pp.88-89.
Science
meant
Sprat's,
as
Triumphatus
(1666T!
(New Haven:
Oldenburg
Dogmatizing,
in P h i l o s o p h i c a l
W e s t f a l l ,
England,
kl.
True
'
36.
kO.
see h i s
Sadducismus
August,
1677;
Science and
1958)
p.114.
Philosophy,"
Isis
1:27-
p.66.
0.
England,
Keele,
"Physiology"
(Los Angeles;
A . G .
University
Debus,
o f
Medicine
in
Cali forn ia Press,
Seventeenth
1974)
51
51,
Kargon
52,
An
R,
?
e a r l y
messages
Atomism,
.p , 9 5
manuscript,
-'These
w
papers
0f
t h e Atom r e a l
a r e without
f a i l
Phi losophy'
1
bears
to be burned,1'
R,
t h e
Kargon,
A t o m i sm p . 9 6 .
53-
R-
Kargon,
54.
The major
the
study
opinion
Ibid. ,
d i r e c t
o f
a i r .
i n such
Hobbes
p.95,
confrontation
Boyle
f e l t
matters,
had attacked
between
that
eschewing
Hobbes
and Boyle
Hobbes
had l i t t l e
right
a c t i v e
experimentation
was
over
t o an
as he d i d .
Boyle's
views
on vacuum
in Dialogus
Physicus
The Golden
Lands
o f
Hobbes,
(Detroit:
Hobbes'
P o l i t i c a l
(1661)
55.
Miriam
State
56.
Reik,
University
Q.
Skinner,
H i s t o r i c a l
57-
M.
58.
in
men.
59-
Boyle
On B o y l e ' s
acceptance
61.
Charleton,:
Royal
P h y s i c i a n
to Charles.
w a s common
t o nearly
Dual
membership
f i f t y
other
these.
o f
Charleton's
doctrine
s e e R.
Kargon,
P h y s i o l o g i a Ep i e u r o - G a s s e n d - C h a r i t o n i a n a ,
(London,
Natural
1674),
I b i d . ,
p.82.
63.
I b i d . ,
p.84;
Hobbes,
(London:
c . f .
Elements
Frank
64.
Charleton
nor
p a i n ,
admits
good
Hobbes,
o f
Cass
o f
t h e Passions,
a
65-
Ibid.,
66.
I b i d , ,
Ibid. ,
p.90
pp.14-15,29p.66
t h i r d
category
but n e u t r a l ;
upon
Works,
(London,
V o l . I,
and P o l i t i c ,
L t d . , 1969)
n o t good
a l l h e r power
performed."
English
Law N a t u r a l
& Co.
nor e v i l
f o r h e r o b j e c t ,
converts
History
prefatory.
62.
both
Thought,"
p.126.
e p i s t l e
T.
o f
.'p.97ff •
Charleton,
1654)
Context
pp.217-239-
and t h e College
w a s n o t among
Wayne
p.l80ff.
was p r e v i o u s l y
the Society
Atomism,
60.
Lands,
Thomas
p.167-
(1969)
X I I.
Golden
Charleton
1977)
"The Ideological
Journal
Reik,
both
Press,
o r e v i l ,
t h e brain
p.407 a n d
e d . Ferdinand
Tonnies,
p.28.
o f
s e n s e - - n e i t h e r
" i f t h e soul
but only
alone,
a t
pleasure
that
time,
knowledge...she
wherein
a l l sense
i s
52
67.
I b i d , ,
68.
The
animal
T.
Arabian
error
a n d human
Burns,
Harvard
o r
soul,
T h n e t o p s y c h i sm d o e s
and holds
that
C h r i s t i a n . M o r t a 1 i sm f r o m
University
This
69.
p,67,
popular
Press,
book
both
not
d i e
Tyndale
to
d i f f e r e n t i a t e
with
the
Mi 1t o n ,
between
body,
Norman
(Cambridge:
pp.16-18.
1972)
saw e i g h t
e d i t i o n s
by
a n d made
1646
Browne
famous.
S i r
70.
Bell
Thomas
wri tten
G.
71.
of
Browne,
Works,
1901 - 1 9 1 0 ) ,
c.1635-
& Sons,
Williamson,
Chicago
S.
W i l k i n .
pp.329-30.
II
Seventeenth
1969)
Press,
Ed.
V o l .
Century
pp.148-149
v o l .
3
Contexts,
c . f .
N.
(London:
R e l i g i o
Medici
George
was
Chicago:
Burns,
University
Chri s t i a n
Mortal ism
p.148.
Overton
72.
Mans
Mr.
chided
M o r t a l 1i t i e ,
Persecution
h i s adversaries
(London,
to
defend
himself,
N.
Burns,
C h r i s t i a n
him
unworthy
73-
Hobbes
74.
a
Overton,
76.
I b i d . ,
77-
Kargon,
more
d i d
The
,
response
Alexander
Ross
p.
f a i l e d
a c t i v i t i e s
considered
Century
thought
1675).
of
Overton
Leveller
Seventeenth
(London,
to
Araignment
respond,
h i s m o r t a l i s t
1
of
pressing
pp.155-156.
i W h o .1 l : y , M o r t a
Mans
Overton,
they
Williamson,
stated
in
Contexts
Leviathan.
17-
This
was
Morta11i t i e .
Man W h o l l y
R.,
was
Atomi sm,
out
Mortal,
R.,
even
79-
Holland,
80.
These
p.80.
sixteen
Atomi sm,
i d e n t i f i e d
and
1652)
G.
in
lack
p.21.
p.5ff.
Kargon,
which
Man
of
R.,
singled
1646)
Mortali sm,
t h e i r
R.
When
involved
e x p l i c i t l y
R. ,
e d i t i o n
75.
being
response.
f i r s t
Overton,
l a t e r
78.
of
in
1675)
1645).
(London,
f o r
Thomas
separate
p.81.
with
For
Epicurus,
Edwards!
heretical
Kargon,
e . g .
Gangraena
(London,
s e c t s .
Epicureanism
Gassendi,
i s
any
Charleton,
thought
Hobbes,
Boyle.
and
81.
Hobbes,
82.
Burns,
83.
Ward,
G.,
t r a c t s
The
include
Immortality
T.,
N.,
S.
Grand
of
Charleton,
the
and W i l k i n s ,
Human
of
W.,
Darkness
(London,
38,44.
Mortal ism,
p.185•
J . ,
Human
Soul,
chapters
Levi athan,
C h r i s t i a n
Prerogative
V i n d i c i a e
Nature,
of
(London,
Atheism
1953)
(London;
1657)•
Academiarum
(Oxford,
1654),
p.
53
84.
T.
Hobbes,
Engli sh Works,
Si x
Lessons,
Lesson
VI
''Of
?
Manners",
.
p.34tV4l .
Lady
85.
on
Margaret
Epicurean
CavendishKs
philosphy
c i r c l e
was intimately
86.
W i l l i s ,
T.
Physick,
trans.
Being
best
Anatomy,
I s l e r ,
Brutorum",
88.
Ibid.,
p.158.
89.
Thomas
W i l l i s
agreed
allowed h i m .
90.
H.
I s l e r ,
91.
The passive
Thomas
T.
W i l l i s ,
93-
H.
Isler,
94.
Ibid,
Hobbes
W i l l i s ,
acceptance
s e t the precedent
92.
the
Epicureanism
in Dr.
This
See F . J .
in
W i l l i s ' s
t h e Renowned
1684) .
work.
Wi11 i s ,
with
senses
l a t e r ,
o f
m a t e r i a l i s t i c
Thus
work
Cole,
England,
P r a c t i c e
a n d Famous
a l s o
A
essays
Newcastle
contains
History
of
P h y s i c i a n ,
o f
some
o f
Comparative
p.221ff.
H.
decades
with
Works
(London,
nugatory
the furor.
t h e Whole
87.
have
involved
anatomical
1944,
somewhat
to
"De Anima
S~i P o r d a g e ,
W i l l i s '
added
T.
"De Anima
p.157,
that
man c o u l d
Dr.
the church
Wi11is's
Brutorum",
Wi11 i s ,
know
only
what
h i s
p.153-
f o r acceptance
W i l l i s ,
Thomas
by
p.156.
p.157-
o f
of
this
Locke's
P r a c t i c e ,
preface
_i_n
Hobbesian
s i m i l a r
idea may
ideas
some
p.154.
Dr.
W i l l i s ' s
Practi c e .
5k
CHAPTER
HOBBES'
ROLE
IN
THE
I I I
DEVELOPMENT
OF
PHYSIOLOGY
to
One
must
be
cautious
the
development
and
reputation
to
which
power
h i s
attempt
in
the
this
be
the
a
broad
as
or
the
as
Hobbes
h a s much
any
be almost
of
a l l
and the
to
least
C i v i l
radical
to
immaterial
of
the
a
a
substance
d i d to
was
moderate
term
into
of
of
1930s
s c i e n c e
in
' P u r i t a n " .
' P u r i t a n ' ,
part
leanings
Puritan
these
involved
of
must
f i g h t i n g
people,
in
makes
they
p o l i t i c a l
the
s u b s t a n t i a l
Puritan
Hobbes;
the
encountered
category,
part
Puritans
A
be
degree
In
rise
p h i l o s o p h i c a l
only
f a i l u r e .
to
the
War devolves
that
and on
and the
meaningless;
of
the
orthodoxy.
d e f i n i n g
between
acceptance
do w i t h
problem
sense,
sorts
show
that
major
in
to
The
orthodoxy
" P u r i t a n i s m '
One
make
of
r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e l i e f s .
r e l i g i o u s
d i f f i c u l t y
to
some
r e l i g i o u s
connect
to
s i m i l a r l y
an
l i k e
century.'
attempt
moderate
doomed
to
P u r i t a n ,
Any
and
representatives
population
l a b e l l e d
sense
the
i s
tryingAshow
challenges
connection
so
Puritan.
man
w a s made
English
most
a
seventeenth
such
must
is
by
endeavour
For
be
of
science
thought
wielded
an
o f
when
a r e
the
science
as
much
c o n t r a d i c t i o n s
2
in
terms.
in
Science
the
To
least
s c i e n t i f i c
neither
sensus
It
was
the
to
that
say
P u r i t a n .
Church
It
is
t h i s
much
more
was a f f e c t e d
nor
against
somewhat
and s c i e n t i s t s
seventeenth
moderate
t h e most
Laudians
orthodoxy
from
t h e most
that
development
High
o f
c l e r i c s
i s
say
century
s c i e n t i f i c a l l y
had to
that
gain
most
o r i e n t e d
and useful
by
of
a
group
but who
s c i e n t i f i c
amorphous
a l i k e ,
were
meaningful
P u r i t a n ,
which
Puritans
the
body
o f
approval.
to
must
who
that
were
a
con-
be
gauged.""
included
philosophers
Royal
were
say
represented
men t h a t
The
men
moderates
doctrine
s c i e n t i f i c
involved
of
Society
55
and
the Royal
upon
Royal
College
support
to
the
o b j e c t i v e s
amateurs
to
any p u b l i c
m a t e r i a l i s t s
1660s
the
England
o f
these
themselves
who were
1670s,
and
that
with
and were
over
e i t h e r
from
ways
thus
published
body,
was as
their
p a r t i c u l a r l y
f a r as
p o s s i b l e
to
the
Greek
forebears.
body
to
o f
s c i e n t i f i c
own t r u e
was equivalent
One
many
attached
increasing
dependent
d o c t r i n e .
and o f
the stigma
was an
t h e new s c i e n c e
i n s t i t u t i o n a l l y
i n s t i t u t i o n s
i n many
there
were
o p i n i o n ,
c r i t i c i s m
not associated
d i s s o c i a t e
Physicians
and p u b l i c
s e n s i t i v e
prime
of
o f
In
opinion
m a t e r i a l i s m
in
which
k
was
in
turn
involved
His
in
this
rather
atheism.^
and
was even
because
pher,
did
o f
enough
The
much
both
to
to
a
l i n k
such
r e s u l t
o f
a
of
in
between
Since
t h i s ,
of
by
was a t o m i s t i c ,
published
Hobbes
both
by
o f
quite
Hobbes
This
and
to
be
accused
h i s free
t h i n k i n g
hedonism.^
Epicurean
p h i l o s o -
P l a t o n i s t s
were
small
reasonable.
England
as
Overton
f o r
and l i b e r t i n e
an
incontestable.
' l i b e r t i n i s m , '
the d i f f e r e n c e s
incursion
Although
o f
spate
being
Restoration
Cartesian
the heels
the Cambridge
way, and indeed
he only
a
intimately
i s
and c r i t i c i s m
Epicureanism
p a r t i c u l a r l y
in
on
was
opinion
caused
brought
denial
Hobbes
t h i s
1640s,
the
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n seem
any
work
o f
followed
sponsoring
philosophy
o f
Thomas
h i s philosophy
and Gassendi.
h i s early
consequences.
work
Hobbes'own
sponsored
mechanical
Descartes
stand,
the
see him that
make
Leviathan
the Restoration
accused
That
and persistence
in
parts
despite
opinion
tend
atheism.
invidious
When
Furthermore,
so
thought
and f o r other
Hobbes
to
the formation
m o r t a l i s t
Browne's
of
equivalent
was perhaps
the o f f s p r i n g
later
early
adopted
atomism
h i s p l e n i s t
o f
a
had
thought
not
in
p l e n i s t
several
1655
56
in
De
most
Corporej
heated
seems
was
the
this
is
to
had
early
not
the
to
s i m i l a r ;
no
a l l
things
of
that
the
purpose
in
terms
the
as
Charleton,
not
but
was
a
d i f f e r e n c e
W i l l i s
a
formidable
mechanism,
and
m a t e r i a l i s m
it
of
Epicurean
due
to
proponents
denial
task,
of
of
for
that
any
the
system
same
of
Royal
in
t h i s
task
the
c e r t a i n
and
the
task
ancient
as
to
w e l l .
explain
mechanism
f a i l e d
the
philosophy
from
had
explain
corpuscular
a
Thus
connection
Hobbes
two
of
mechanistic
Society
ancient
the
had
problem.
Society
This
would
o r i g i n s ,
philosophy
Hobbist
and
whereas
sort
"ll
very
of
which
Charitonian-Gassendist-Epicurean
and
f o r ,
podge
doctrine
pagan
this
had,
s t r u c t u r a l l y
philosophy
i t s
thought
have
noticed
hodge
the
of
that
Nevertheless
and
exacerbated
other
a
time
Epicureanism.
were
Epicurean
the
otherwise
most
variegated
at
matters,
Gassendi's
motion.^
The
right
might
was
creation
p u r i f i c a t i o n
complete
between
the
only
and
a
modern
to
i t
philosophies
is
matter
attached
the
resembled
parts.
Hobbes
only
Hobbes
a
b a s i c
integral
with
as
than
of
same
atheism
that
two
and
r e l i g i o u s
than
Syntagma
together
and
impact
work
suggest
connection
atheism
less
most
a
L e y i, a t h a n
p o l i t i c a l
that
had
mechanism
Hobbtst
much
after
work
less
systems
This
over
a t o m i s t i c
melded
had
became
years
Gassendi's
thought
of
debate
have
was
odour
four
to
the
the
and
extent
g
that
they
It
were
to
was
in
were
shown
fact
Hobbes'
s i m i l a r
too
in
attacked
the
f o l l o w i n g
philosophy,
mechanical
as
a t h e i s t i c
m a t e r i a l i s t s .
previous
s e c t i o n
paths
physiology
but
terms.
in
drawing
Samuel
the
that
of
the
vi
rtuosi
and
psychology
very
close
at
e x p l a i n i n g
soul
in
l i n e
Mintz,
many
in
The
Hunting
of
Leviathan,
i
said
that
Hobbist
i t
was
monism
this
that
d i f f e r e n c e
would
help
us
between
define
Cartesian
the
dualism
Cartesian
and
and
the
Hobbist
57
q
spheres o f
influence.
The c o n c l u s i o n based upon the f i n d i n g s o f
t h i s paper must be that Mintz was making a fundamental m i s t a k e .
monism is used as a c r i t e r i o n
o f Hobbes to be found w i l l
be r e l i g i o u s and p o l i t i c a l
O v e r t o n , and the o c c a s i o n a l
some minor p o i n t
particularly
f o r Hobbism then the only
clouded view o f Hobbes'
Hobbes to mechanical
supporters
radicals
like
person who openly agreed w i t h Hobbes on
l i k e Henry S t u b b e . ^
f a c t Mintz does p a i n t j u s t
If
This situation
reception
such a p i c t u r e .
results
in a
in E n g l a n d , and in
The t r u e
relationship of
p h i l o s o p h y is f a r more s u b t l e than the
role
of a mere f i g u r e h e a d o f atheism a g a i n s t which h i s opponents were
f o r c e d to f o r m u l a t e and o r g a n i z e o t h e r
Kargon s a i d that "The b a t t l e
t h e o r i e s would al
lowJ-
When
f o r atomism was begun in the shadow o f
12
Hobbes," he was o n l y p a r t i a l l y
o f mechanical
stating
the t r u t h .
The development
p h i l o s o p h y p r o g r e s s e d in p a r t because o f Hobbes encourage-
ment and d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f that p h i l o s o p h y to h i s f r i e n d s
and h i s
i n f l u e n c e and r e p u t a t i o n as a s e r i o u s
Hobbes had a small
but real
i c a l ism, i n f l u e n c i n g h i s peers
of
their
theories.
hypothesis
its
As e a r l y
part
in the trend to E n g l i s h
ever
as the
hypothetcontent
1636, Hobbes had a d e f i n i t i o n o f
in mind, had given the method o f t e s t i n g
inability
Charleton,
scientist.
in the method as w e l l
as
like
to be more than p r o b a b l e .
it,
and had noted
For Hobbes, the world
c o n s i s t e d o f t h i n g s which were demonstrable, that
i s geometry and
mathematics, and t h i n g s not demonstrable "as depending upon the motion
14
o f bodies so s u b t i l e as they are
invisible."
Of the t h i n g s which
are not demonstrable, he s a i d t h a t " t h e most that can be
unto is to have such o p i n i o n s , as no c e r t a i n
and from which can be deduced by lawful
atteyned
e x p e r i e n c e can
confute
argumentation no a b s u r d i t y . " ^
58
This
was
the
very
face
f
from
of
Robert
with
Boyle
a
Descartes
that
terms,
and
can
man
those
science
world
Some
held
l i k e
Boyle
Henry
to
that
who
tool
Power
which,
see
a
the
of
a
universal
workings
we
but
was
offered
of
world
which
are
c l o c k ,
hidden
t h e i r
c r i t i c i z e d
and
some
given
corpuscles
in
physics.
that
the
of
mechanisms
and
any
clock-work
general
England
in
the
to
the
are
in
they
theory
p r i n c i p l e
move.
h y p o t h e t i c a l i s m
manner
truth
or
proper
of
the
another.
knowledge,
apparent
unwillingness
and
Newton
One
avid
that
mathematics
m i c r o s c o p i s t ,
microscope
break
that
in
the
technique,
shared
i s ,
drawn
that
to
his
Petty
the
This
how
to
He
idea
against
one
path
for
elaboration
t h e i r
and
opinion
the
l i k e
suggested
for
objects
reaction
Hobbes
explain
enough
and
was
the
in
was
small
fathomed
thought
popular
parts
contrary
be
G l a n v i l l
however,
general
had
(1623-1688)
was
metaphor
knowledge.'^
mechanism
i n s e n s i b l y
a
clock
mechanisms.
which
the
would
l i k e
true
the
and
p o s s i b l e
see
indeed
of
science
experimentation
which
use
Hobbes,
involving
could
experiment,
ment
only
theory
there
which
of
demonstrate
could
1660s
the
the
but
s c e p t i c s
century.
things
demonstrable,
was
English
cannot
that
to
view
involve
seventeenth
natural
see
idea
Descartes'
theihypothetical
In
Descartes'
can
adapted
late
in
we
hypothetical
hypothesis
and
which
to
16
us.
j u s t i f y
s i m i l a r
was
would
into
the
allow
the
i n s t r u men
works
of
18
Descartes'
physics,
Hooke,
to
l i k e
the
declined
The
world-clock..
Boyle,
or
to
r e v i s i o n i s t s
with
the
end
hypotheticalism
t h e i r
Whether
p h i l o s o p h i e s .
replace
it
t h e i r
way,
had
of
the
of
wished
with
and
to
renovate
c e r t a i n t y
English
l i k e
hypothetical
Newton
hypothetical
and
ism
century.
both
For
they
Descartes
both
men
and
natural
Gassendi
was
philosophy
e s s e n t i a l
had
to
remain
59
c o n j e c t u r a l .
Of
the
three
philosophy
in
England,
mechanisms
in
nature.
Boyle
in
the
that
trend
trend
Hobbes'
had
c r e d i t
his
and
to
that
of
how
that
with
a c t i v e
was
the
to
greatest
a
l i n k
in
Newton's
i t s
of
the
f o r e t o l d
time,
the
mechanical
p o s s i b i l i t y
more
even
of
demonstrable
accurately
if
i t
for
is In
his
of
men
mind
the
than
a c t i v e
part
an
and
was
to
which
every
Hobbes
given
s i n c e
soul
strange
Descartes,
and
and
Geulinex
God
least
addressed
immaterial
Arnold
in
that
mechanist
resorted
One
mechanical
this
Hobbes
every
problem.
and
of
p a r a d o x i c a l l y
Occasionalism,
body
l o g i c
contemporaries.
Some
the
c a l l e d
and
existence
body.
the
and
e x i s t e d
the
away
between
of
extreme,
his
which
material
creed
Hobbes
statement
by
explain
explain
a
admitted
this
s i g n i f i c a n c e
problem
to
Hobbes
variants
small.
c a r r i e d
a
to
proposed
In
reputation
himself
devices
only
science
was
monism
philosophers
has
of
important
r e c o n c i l e
elaborate
(1625 1669)
-
Himself
communication
was
the
between
19
them
the
required
problem
united
to
miraculous
was
t h i s
beyond
Clod
is
divine
human
a
intervention.
knowledge.
knot
too
hard
"How
for
Others
the
f a l l e n
admitted
purer
s p i r i t
Humanity
that
is
to
u n t y . . .
20
to
han«j
S t i l l
the
weights
others
on
the
ignored
perplexity
i n d e f i n i t e l y ,
of
wings
the
many
of
the
problem,
when
conveniently
he
winde
and
s a i d
seems
Walter
that
"suspending
my
he
far
more
Charleton.
would
i n t e l l i g i b l e . "
a r t i c u l a t e d
shelve
c u r i o s i t y ,
the
which
matter
hath
too
21
often
perplexed
Even
though
me."
they
might
this
matter,
with
Hobbes
in
sion
was
strong
c r e d i t
so
from
being
as
made.
to
c o n s c i o u s l y
the
social
prevent
These
or
any
same
subconsciously
pressure
such
against
admission
pressures
caused
or
tend
any
to
agree
such
admis-
a l l o c a t i o n
many
books
of
to
60
be
published
The
men
who
reasonable
ical
anonymously
rail
against
nature
it
would
not
who
see
merit
in
his
scheme
The
an
of
'How',
I
smoake
be
dangerous
for
Algebra
his
matter
saying:
Hobbs1
Divinity
Thus
w h i l e
separate
denial
the
and,
seriously
the
ideas
cannot
The
of
his
d e c l i n e
of
of
was
a
more
and
furthermore
an
was
the
is
c r e d i t
not
Dr.
W a l l i s
him
too
even
for
he
outdoe
sedate,
we
are
present
The
man
a
those
c l o s e l y
summed
up
three
smoaking,
such
nonsens-
Hobbes.
between
what
our
to
admirably
imitate
the
Even
f a i r l y
by
men:
23
then
'I
would
v a r l e t
k i c k
has
his
at
Plaine
d i s t i n g u i s h e d
not
uppon
had
p a r t s ,
tho
and
his
phi1osophy,
others
were
thought
from
the
necessity
semi-private
s i t u a t i o n ,
the
proud
obstreperous
mechanist.
the
was
waning
yet
a l s o
was
number
and
of
a
r e l i g i o u s
due
men
to
its
orthodoxy.
p u b l i c a t i o n
in
was
the
respected
rather
of
Cartesian
Hobbes
consistent
( p a r t i a l l y
with
give
follow
a
Cartesianism
a t t r a c t i v e
who
in
who
increasing
reconcilable
England
to
dualism
or
of
p l a i n l y
least
Hobbes,
1690s
in
at
of
be
Cartesian
was
another,
Logic.
Hobbes
for
due
because
u n g r a t e f u l . '
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
held
so
said
more
his
do
22
hidden.
repudiation.
renounce
'Nay'
and
was
remain
interchange
sooner
did
but
content
i t ,
an
to
theory
of
openly
'Gentlemen,
deplored
of
The
t h i r d
perhaps
many
not
than
eares,
the
worthy
Hobbes.'
Why
Mr.
and
a
Hobbes
physiology
would
Logician!
monism
contemporaries
rather
But
proud
of
'I
Rayling?'
if
d e s c r i b i n g
that
ever
his
nor
could
Hobbes'
one,
about
his
manuscripts
for
monism;
of
l e t t e r
follow
done--He
to
that
of
a
sayd
would
Hobbes
psychology
from
other
of
parts
a t t i t u d e s
exerpt
and
1694
due
that
to
the
smaller
The
of
only
of
discuss
a f t e r
more
the
physics
mechanical
of
c r i t i c
philosopher.
Newtonian
swan-song
Le
England
outspoken
compass)
Antoine
p u b l i c
in
opinions
newer
formulation
to
doctrine
s c i e n t i f i c
the
for
able
philosophy
e a s i l y
Cartesianism
Grand's
Enti
re
61
Body
Des
of
Cartes,
much
of
Philosophy
as
this
work
was
two
formed
soul
and
of
of
had
do
If
one
d i f f e r e n t
in
this
be
shows
explained
d i s t i n g u i s h
Hobbesian
souls.
Le
But
Hobbes1
and
this
go
then
from
that
course
I
I
the
reaction
Hobbes
hear
producing
a
of
due
the
men
involves
should
the
man,
Mr.
of
too
one
are
one
in
d i r e c t l y ,
Hobbes
have
one
then
c o g i t a t i o n ,
part
of
continuation
is
led
c l e a r
is
p l a i n
the
out,
an
since
that
problems
Faced
man
has
with
animals,
an
immaterial
poses
then
even
they
If
on
by
a
logical
are
no
the
other
animals
can
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
to
the
logical
without
to
and
immaterial
heresy.
2k
that
there
immaterial
motion
matter
against
of
said
the
automatism.
and
no
saying:
to
animal
man
automatons
crying
recourse
or
heaven.
find
section
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
performed
can
large
of
saw
souls
Renate
Cartesianism
A
s i t u a t i o n
to
and
it
end
that
have
w i l l
of
o b j e c t i o n s .
showing
animals
Famous
issue
soul
beings,
mechanically,
methinks
countered
of
functions
answered
least
very
the
for
Hobbes1
a l l
its
I r o n i c a l l y ,
man,
very
c r i t i c ,
of
E i t h e r
e f f e c t
He
that
the
to
of
the
renovation
animal
s e n s i b l e
that
from
conclusion
necessity
at
admits
of
of
Epicureanism.
to
outspoken
tasks
not.
animals
Grand
that
basis
dual
a
Gassendi's
Descartes,
the
P r i n c i p l e s
devoted
apparently
animals
one
revised
logical
the
attempted
Cartesianism
the
dilemma.
hand
Grand
d u a l i sm.' s : . : m o s t
categories
Cartesians
to
n e c e s s a r i l y
and
supporters
which
Le
had
was
Hobbes
Hobbes
the
which
Charleton
between
If
in
According
it
the
is
s e l f ,
other,
reaction
no
p r i n c i p l e
can
or
or
as
well
same.
by
account
simply
would
s t a t i n g
be
that
c o r r e c t ,
i f
but
only
that
matter
since
and
that
motion
b a s i c
e x i s t e d ,
premise
25
is
wrong,
again
one
the
of
argument
a
lack
of
is
meaningless.
comprehension.
The
Le
problem
Grand
cannot
here
is
once
conceive
of
62
m a t t e r , which
is d e f i n e d as an u n t h i n k i n g s u b s t a n c e , a s e v e r , even
in
26
any s o p h i s t i c a t e d arrangement,
There a l l
too e a s i l y
thinking.
may be a tendency
to view H o b b e s - t h e - p s y c h o l o g i s t
in the same manner as Hobbes the p o l i t i c a l
characterized,
theorist
has been o f t e n
as a t h i n k e r somehow i s o l a t e d from h i s
t i m e , o r ahead
27
of his
time.
thought than
He might seem even more i s o l a t e d
in h i s p o l i t i c a l
thought,
in h i s
psychological
f o r no one but f a n a t i c s
r a d i c a l s openly agreed with him in the former a r e a , whereas at
and
least
28
a few men agreed w i t h p o r t i o n s at
l e a s t o f the
latter.
This
study
has attempted to show that such a c o n c l u s i o n would be erroneous and
detrimental
to the understanding o f Hobbes and h i s p h i l o s o p h y .
was not a lone f i g u r e mooting an unpopular d o c t r i n e to a
audience.
He was s t a t i n g a l o g i c a l
Hobbes
hostile
c o n c l u s i o n that o t h e r s
could:not
o r would not admit to yet which many had come to r e a l i z e
for
the mechanical
postulation
c o n c e p t i o n o f n a t u r e does not r e q u i r e
o f an immaterial
is
implicit
soul.
in t h e i r
the
That many men knew the t r u t h o f t h i s
p a i n s t a k i n g avoidance o f
belief,
is
that a l l
soul.
o f these men, whether through
religious
i n c l u d e d in t h e i r work
the
Hobbes a l o n e d i d not do t h i s .
When Brown a t t r i b u t e d
mechanical
philosophy,
e x p l a n a t i o n o f the world and o f man.
o r from simple prudent e t i q u e t t e ,
immaterial
it.
C h a r l e t o n and
W i l l i s and a number o f o t h e r p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f the mechanical
The d i f f e r e n c e
conclusion
the p u b l i c a t i o n o f
Hobbes r e p r e s e n t e d the c o n s c i o u s thought o f men l i k e
who were engaged in the mechanical
themselves;
to Hobbes a n e g a t i v e
role
in the spread o f
p h i l o s o p h y in England he was d e s c r i b i n g the
apparent case a g a i n s t
Hobbes.
There
is however,
superficially
much more to
the
63
r e l a t i o n s h i p between Hobbes and contemporary p h y s i o l o g i s t s
Brown's
s u g g e s t i o n would lead one to e x p e c t .
here that
Hobbes was not working
in
isolation
theory but r a t h e r was f u n c t i o n i n g very
It
has been
in terms o f
than
indicated
physiological
much in the mainstream of
contemporary thought. While p u b l i c a c c l a m a t i o n o f Hobbes' work was o b v i o u s l y
impossible,
private
acknowledgement was c e r t a i n l y
permissible.
the more s i g n i f i c a n t examples o f such c o v e r t approval
in a l e t t e r
from Thomas Sprat
to C h r i s t o p h e r Wren.
One o f
may be found
Sprat was
author of H i s t o r y o f the Royal
Society
intended to excuse the S o c i e t y
from a c c u s a t i o n s o f m a t e r i a l i s m and
atheism.
29
Sprat,
writing
o f London, <an o f f i c i a l
the
history
*
30
about S o r b i e r e ' s o p i n i o n o f Hobbes s a i d :
He feorb i e r e j wounds him [Hobbes] in the most dangerous
p l a c e , h i s P h i l o s o p h y , and h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
He
very k i n d l y r e p o r t s o f him, that he i s too dogmatical
in h i s O p i n i o n . . . B u t however, to comfort Mr. Hobbs
f o r t h i s a f f r o n t , I dare a s s u r e him that as f o r Monsieur
de S o r b i e r e ' s p a r t , he understands not h i s P h i l o s o p h y .
Of t h i s I w i l l g i v e an unanswerable t e s t i m o n y , and that
is the resemblance that he makes o f him, to the Lord
V e r u l a m : . . . I s c a r c e know two men in the W o r l d , that
have more d i f f e r e n t c o l o r s o f s p e e c h , then these two
great W i t t s :
The Lord Bacon s h o r t , a l l u s i v e , and abounding
w i t h Metaphors:
Mr. Hobbs round, c l o s e , s p a r i n g o f
similitudes:
but ever e x t r a o r d i n a r y decent in them.
The o n e ' s way o f r e a s ' n i n g proceeds on p a r t i c u l a r s ,
and p l e a s a n t images, o n l y s u g g e s t i n g new ways o f
experimenting....
The o t h e r ' s b o l d , r e s o l v ' d , s e t l e d
upon general c o n c l u s i o n s . . .
Sprat
had read Hobbes and o b v i o u s l y was w i l l i n g
to g i v e h i s
ideas
serious consideration.
It i s. estab 1 i shed f a c t
that men l i k e
C h a r l e t o n and W i l l i s
and even corresponded w i t h Hobbes and the other members o f
Newcastle
circle
in the years when the mechanical
being i n t r o d u c e d from the C o n t i n e n t .
the
p h i l o s o p h y was
To c o n c l u s i v e l y
the works o f such p h y s i o l o g i s t s borrowed d i r e c t l y
knew
prove
that
from Hobbes, o r
64
to; s u b s t a n t i a t e a w i d e l y
would
i fprivately
r e q u i r e both extensive
unavailable to this w r i t e r .
and
that
t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s and p r i m a r y
That such a c o n c l u s i o n
i t c a n be s u p p o r t e d
The
indicated.
sources
i s at least plausible
by some a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e h a s been
causes f o r the p r o b l e m a t i c
a l s o been
h e l d g o o d o p i n i o n o f Hobbes
nature
o f such a quest
In a t i m e when H o b b i s t
f o l l o w e r s o f t h e new m e c h a n i c a l
philosophy
shown.
have
meant a t h e i s t , t h e
such as Charleton
were
31
labelled
publicAy
for
their
Thus, f o r t h e r e
p u r s u i t o f mechanical
was f o r c e d
nurtured
Hobbist.
explanations
to dissociate himself
mechanistic
philosophy
against materialism.
Meric
t o be a n y f u t u r e
o f nature,
even
f r o m H o b b e s , who may w e l l
i n him, and even t o
j o i n
Charleton
have
the attack
Casaubon, d i s c e r n i n g t h e t r e n d o f
E n g l i s h s c i e n c e a n d t h e e n d s t o w h i c h men
it,
l i k e Hobbes m i g h t l e a d
32
p u b l i s h e d a l e t t e r i n 1669 i n r e s p o n s e :
Now I c r a v e l e a v e t o t e l l y o u t h a t i t £experimental
p h i l o s o p h y j i s v e r y a p t t o be a b u s e d a n d t o d e g e n e r a t e
into Atheism.
Men t h a t a r much f i x e d upon m a t t e r a n d
s e c o n d a r y c a u s e s a n d s e n s u a l o b j e c t s , i f g r e a t c a r e be
n o t t a k e n , may i n t i m e ( t h e r e b e many e x a m p l e s ) a n d by
d e g r e e f o r g e t t h a t t h e r e be s u c h t h i n g s i n t h e w o r l d
as S p i r i t s . . . f o r g e t I s a y , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y
discredit
supernatural operations:
and a t l a s t , t h a t t h e r e i s a
God, a n d t h a t t h e i r s o u l s a r e i m m o r t a l .
C a s a u b o n was w r i t i n g t o c h a s t i s e J o s e p h G l a n v i l l
the second and u n o f f i c i a l
h i s t o r y o f t h e Royal
f o r h i s Plus
Society
intended
Henry O l d e n b u r g , P r e s i d e n t o f t h e S o c i e t y , t o r e v i s e S p r a t ' s
efforts
on b e h a l f o f t h e S o c i e t y .
Hobbes,
i s essentially
the m e c h a n i c a l
telling
philosophy
m a t e r i a l i s t i c conclusions
will
Ultra,
by
apologist
C a s a u b o n , t h o u g h he d o e s n o t name
Glanvill
that
i f he i s n o t c a r e f u l ,
l e a d h i m t o t h e same s o r t o f h e r e t i c a l
as those
r e a c h e d by H o b b e s .
65
Hobbes
mechanical
same
as
not
may
be
L a M e t t r i e a n d
fore
in
for
l i t t l e
the
the
physiology,
s t r a i n
spokesman
as
was
seen
David
these
of
nor
in
of
c e r t a i n l y
the
next
Hartley.
ideas,
appreciated
h i s t o r y
progenitor
and
place
p o l i t i c a l
the
was
in
he
century
Hobbes
as
m o n i s t i c
such
the
theory
i t s
in
version
only
the
he
has
history
of
the
an
of
the
adherent.
works
was, however,
of
an
of
men
such
outstanding
important
if
physiology
as
seventeenth
This
heretowell
century.
66
FOOTNOTES
CHAPTER
HOBBES1
ROLE
1.
The
by
Robert
K.
Merton
those
of
more
and
connection
Barbara
1969),
Press,
this
2.
Puritan
r e l i g i o n
than
3.
On
4.
5.
Miriam
Hobbes
vein
suggested
t h e i r
may b e
a r t i c l e s
found
University
more
The
recent
in
o f
C a l i f o r n i a
proponent
term
was used
i s
a
radical
by
views
( e . g . someone
contemon
who
attended
the speaker d i d ) .
'moderate'
d e f i n i t i o n
v o l . I,
Lands
1977),
p.l8l.
l i f e
(perhaps
f o r
see
Shapiro,
of
of
Thomas
John
out of
A.
to
(Detroit:
unnecessarily)
the
and
,ln-English "Works,
e d . S i r .
L t d . ,
were
burn
1839),
a l s o
Hobbes
IV.
important
natural
(Oxford:
Vol .
as
The
a
points
philosophy.
h e r e t i c ,
Clarendon
see
P r e s s ,
was c e r t a i n l y
links
with
(Cambridge:
f a r
more
l i b e r t i n e s ,
Cambridge
a s c e t i c
see Mintz,
U n i v e r s i t y
than
S . J . ,
P r e s s ,
many
o f
The
Hunting
was f o r
t h i s
c r i t i c i z e d
See'-.:footnote
S . J .
h i s
1962),
V I I .
very
universal
a s p i r a t i o n
o f
Hobbes1
system
Mintz,
10.
Stubbe
and
because
43,
chapter
11.
S . J .
The Hunting
published
o f
Mintz,
that
him.
II.
See a l s o
M.
Reik,
Golden
Lands,
p.184.
9.
wrote
Loyalty,
Hobbes1
Clark,
Hobbes,
Reputation,
& Co.
controversy
wanted
e d .
upon
Hobbes,
Bohn
d i r e c t l y
Lives,
Thomas
p.339-
the
Leviathan,
h i s
f r e e - w i l l
personally
On
Golden
P r e s s ,
the bishops
B r i e f
Hobbes
that
than
new
,(London:
a r i s i n g
one point,
8.
i s a
o f
f o r one who had s t r i c t e r
and Considerations
and the
Aubrey,
Boyle
feared
and R e l i g i o n
c r i t i c s .
a
The
Heresy
c r i t i c i s m
It
H i l l
was f i r s t
l i s t
same
d e f i n i t i o n .
label
often
f o r
Reik,
J.
7.
the
A
pp.5_11.
Molesworth,
chapter
p r e c i s e
U n i v e r s i t y
At
of
PHYSIOLOGY
(Los Angeles:
Christopher
no
more
l a t e r
Sadducism
6.
in
OF
and science
Stimson.
w r i t e r s
the speaker,
M.
State
1898),
Puritanism
Wi1 k i n s ,
p e j o r a t i v e
the argument
Manners,
of
a
s e r v i c e
Concerning
W.
John
p-253-
Wi1 k i n s ,
Wayne
DEVELOPMENT
and Dorothy
recent
allows
as
John
THE
theory.
poraries
church
between
S h a p i r o ' s ,
of
IN
III
t h i s
The
a
book
of
Leviathan,
defending
was himself
Hunting
o f
p.10-1
points
of
I.
Hobbes1
c r i t i c i z e d .
Leviathan,
p.l49ff.
grammar
67
R.
12.
Kargon,
Clarendon
The
Atomism
Press"
statements
genera
13-
he
E.
Madden,
ington
Press,
Hobbes'
English
from
Kargon
apply
Hobbes
S c i e n t i f i c
I960)
R.
p.116.
to
V o l .
Descartes,
J.
L.
Science
V r i n ,
to
and
R a t i o n a l i s t i c
the
Method,
This
de
1967),
v o l .
"The
(1966),
atomism.
mechanistic philosophy
in
(Seattle:
essay
I d e a l , "
University
o u t l i n e s
j_n_ R .
of
M.
Wash-
Hobbes'
development
July
1636,
in
Portland
Manuscripts,
Clock
Descartes,
B.
Windus,
W i l l e y ,
20.
J.
The
Metaphor
Seventeenth
1967),
G l a n v i l l ,
W.
22.
R.S.
Vanity
(New
and
of
Le
Le
view,
of
Grand
a l l
26.
A.
Watson,
Entire
Tannery
e d s . ,
Annals
of
he
acts
of
Grand,
p.x.
Chatto
Body
of
Vol
my
Cartes,
III,
p.232.
Hobbes,
constructed
were
there
Body,
Eversden,
Century
p.113-114.
1676-1687,
,
ed.
p.311.
According
(London:
to
the
Johnson
o b j e c t i n g
that
in
answered
that
o b j e c t i o n
had
objects
so
could
"nothing
d i s c o u r s e . "
Entire
Philosophy
c e r t a i n l y
sense
1958),
1928)
Des
that
beings)
Seventeenth
Correspondence
Hobbes
were
in
Constable,
Renate
Henry
H i s t o r y - o f -„ t h e ; P a s s i o n s ,
P r e s s ,
sense.
said
they
of
(London:
p.67.
R e l i g i o n
m i s i n t e r p r e t e d
animate
subject
Le
P.
(London:
Natural
University
1972),
could
unless
and
(London:
Famous
a l s o
when
(e.g.
individual
the
An
the
matter
but
motion
is
of
Background,
Dogmatizing,
Petty-Southwell
Corporation,
Corpore
sense
The
Yale
Lansdown,
Grand,
P r i n c i p l e s
Reprint
Probabalism,"
Century
History,
Science
Haven"!
Petty,
A.
Natural
Westfal1,
England,
W.
and
pp.85-86.
The
Charleton,
Marquis
Adam
p.8lff.
1661), p . 2 0 s e e a l s o W. C h a r l e t o n ,
( l o n d o n ; M 6 7 4 ) , ' , p ; 6 6 . . ". . \
21.
E.A.
p.322.
IX,
;:p-.ri:ooff.
19«
De
(Oxford:
stresses
p.128.
Oeuvres
XXI I
and
25.
Newton,
equally
Newcastle,
II,
Laudon,
18; - . . i b i d .
24.
to
overly
physics.
l e t t e r
Works
(Paris:
23.
Hariot
perhaps
Ibid.
16.
17.
of
hypothetical
15.
England
p.62.
makes
"Thomas
Theories
14.
,
1.
Blake,
in
in
1966)
as
be
to
English
introduction
had
to
no
do
basic
retain
memory
with
Works,
to
a
1972
in
of
sensible
that
sense
I
Hobbist
sort
the
and
that
v o l .
a
such
which
p.393-
r e p r i n t ,
ed.
R.
68
27-
This
view
o f Hobbes
as an
intellectual outcast
b y Q.. S k i n n e r ,
"The Ideological Context
H i s t o r i c a l J o u r n a l 9 (1966) p p . 2 8 6 - 3 1 7 .
28.
of
Hobbes1
is
discussed
Political
Thought,"
Ibid.
29- To t h i s e n d S p r a t e m p h a s i z e d e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n i n v o l v e d w i t h m a n ' s
body a n d d e - e m p h a s i z e d e n q u i r y i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f man's
soul--the
q u e s t i o n w h i c h w a s c a u s i n g t h e S o c i e t y s o much t r o u b l e , A . G .
Debus,
Medicine in Seventeenth Century England,
(Los Angeles:
University
o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1974), p.163.
30. C i t e d . : i n R. " I b n n i e s , S t u d i e n z u r P h i l o s o p h i e u n d G e s e l 1 s c h a f t s l e h r e
i m 17. J a h r h u n d e r t , ( S t u t t g a r t :
Frommann-Holzboog,
1975), p . 4 8 .
31.
R.
Kargon,
Atomi sm, p . 8 4 .
32. M . C a s a u b o n , A L e t t e r o f M e r i c C a s a u b o n D P . & c t o P e t e r d u M o u l i n ,
P . P . a n d P r e b e n d a r i e o f t h e Same C h u r c h :
Concerning Natural
Experimental
P h i l o s o p h i e a n d Some B o o k s L a t e l y S e t O u t A b o u t I t , ( C a m b r i d g e ,
1669)
p.30.
69
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