Excavation of Tomb M54 at Huayuanzhuang
in Anyang, Henan
Anyang Work Station, Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
Keywords: Henan
Anyang
Shang
Situated to the northwest of the modern city of Anyang
安阳, Huayuanzhuang 花园庄 is an important locus of
Yinxu 殷墟, the ruins of the last Shang capital. Tomb
M54, located east of the Huayuanzhuang Village, was
excavated from the 17th of December 2000 to the 16th of
February 2001 as a salvage excavation due to a contemporary construction project. This tomb is relatively large
in size, well preserved, and richly furnished; however,
most recovered bronzes are broken, and their repairs
require additional time.
I. Tomb Location and Stratigraphy
To the east of the Huayuanzhuang Village, M54 lies
about 100 m west of the Huan River 洹河, 50 m south of
the defensive ditch of the Yinxu’s palace-temple complex,
50 m northwest of the oracle bone pit H3 excavated in
1991, 390 m south of the large-scale rectangle-shaped
compound with an open end, and approximately 500 m
southeast of Fuhao’s 妇好 tomb (Fig. 1).
The stratigraphy above the opening of M54 is composed of three layers: (1) plowed zone, 0.22–0.32 m in
thickness; (2) the Tang-Song level, 0.22–0.32 m thick,
yielding porcelain and pottery fragments; and (3) the
Shang level, 0.3–0.4 m in thickness, containing pottery
fragments of li-tripods, gui-tureens, pen-basins, etc.,
dating to Phase IV of the Yinxu period. Beneath the third
level is the pounded platform foundation of building F1
that is rectangular in shape and partially cut by an ash pit
of the Shang period. Building F1 contains a small amount
of pottery shards dating to late Phase II of the Yinxu
period, and it directly overlies the opening of tomb M54.
II. Tomb Structure
Tomb M54 is a rectangular, vertical pit aligned north to
south. The tomb opening, 1.1 m below modern ground,
is smaller than the bottom. It measures 5.04 m long and
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tomb
3.23–3.3 m wide at the opening, 6.03 m long and 4.15–
4.4 m wide at the bottom, and 7.3 m deep. The tomb infill
is composed of reddish brown earth with yellowish white
mottles (wuhuatu 五花土). There is a second-ledge
platform (ercengtai 二层台) made of pounded nonsterile earth, measuring 0.8 m as an average width, 1.87
m high in the south, and 1.65 m high in the north. Slightly
east of the bottom’s center is a rectangular waist pit
(yaokeng 腰坑) that measures 1.08 by 0.62 m and 0.7–0.
85 m deep.
The tomb is furnished with a wooden chamber and a
coffin, which are visible from the traces and imprints of
decayed wood fragments. The wooden chamber is 3.82
m in length, 2.20 m in width, and 1.65–1.87 m in height.
The chamber lid is composed of 21 boards oriented eastwest, each of which measures 0.16–0.26 m in width, and
about 0.05 m in thickness. Sideboards of the chamber are
joined together at four corners using dovetails consisting
of interlocking tenons and mortises. The chamber lid is
coated mainly with black lacquer, along with some red
and yellow lacquer. The bottom side of the chamber
consists of 11 north-south aligned boards, which is
supported by an east-west oriented wooden tie at both
ends. The wooden coffin sits slightly east of the center
within the chamber; it measures 2.45 m long, 0.7 m wide
in the south, 0.85 m wide in the north, and its height
remains uncertain. The coffin lid is coated with red
lacquer and delicately decorated with the dominant pattern of kui-dragons and fishes. The outer edge of the
coffin lid is adorned with gold foil. Under the coffin is a
level of cinnabar.
The skeleton, identified as a male, faces north, and is
prone with extended limbs and both hands beneath the
abdomen. The skeleton has been largely decayed and
became pulverized; and only the skull, limbs, and pelvis
bones are partially preserved.
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River
N
Huan
Sipanmo
palace area
Fuhao’s tomb
Anyang
station
Xiaotun
Xiaozhuang
M54
oracle bone pit
defensive trench
Wangyukou
0
300 m
Fig. 1 Illustration of location of Tomb M54
The tomb contains fifteen sacrificial human victims.
Three of them are found underneath the east ercengtai,
one underneath the west ercengtai, and two between
outer chamber and inner coffin for each side in the east,
west, and south. In addition, two skulls are unearthed
from the tomb infill, and three skulls are found inside the
ercengtai. There are also fifteen sacrificial dogs, nine of
them from the tomb infill, five inside the ercengtai, and
one in the waist pit.
III. Grave Goods
The tomb M54 is supplied with lavish grave goods,
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consisting of bronzes, jades, stones, bones, shells,
bamboo, ivories, gold foil, cowries, etc. The inventory
includes 570 pieces in total, not counting bronze paohemispheres and arrowheads. Bronze ritual vessels are
placed at both the south and north ends within the
chamber; while bronze weapons are mostly laid on both
the east and west sides within the chamber. Most jades
are found inside the coffin. Among them are the bi-discs
and qi-notched axes placed on both sides of the upper
body, as well as four dragon-shaped ornaments laid on
the back of the skeleton almost along a straight line. Jade
beads are mostly arrayed in the shape of an arc on the
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thorat and abdomen. Pottery helmet-shaped jiangjunkui
and lei-vessels are found at the north end inside the
coffin, and other pottery vessels are unearthed from the
tomb infill and the ercengtai earth. Cowries are placed
underneath the dead (Figs. 2 and 3).
1. Pottery
There are twenty-one pottery vessels, including types
of li-tripod, gui-tureen, lei-vessel, dou-stemmed plate,
helmet-shaped vessel (jiangjunhui), gu-goblet, jue-cup,
etc.
Li-tripod. One (M54:8). The li-tripod is made of sandtempered gray clay. It is characterized by a flared mouth,
a constricted neck, and low crotch with pointed feet. The
whole vessel is decorated with cord marks. The li is 18.6
cm tall with the mouth 18.1 cm in diameter (Fig. 4:1).
Gui-tureen. One (M54:42). The gui-tureen is of gray
clay. It has a flared mouth with a rounded lip. The rim is
slightly concave; one line encircles the area below the
mouth. The gui is characterized by a slightly constricting
lower belly, a relatively high ring foot, and bands of lines
on the belly. The gui is 16.5 cm tall with the mouth
measuring 25.3 cm in diameter and the ring foot 13.9 cm
in diameter (Fig. 4:6).
Dou-stemmed plate. One. The dou-plate is made of
gray clay. It is characterized by a constricted mouth, a
deep bowl, a short ring foot, and one line around the
upper part of the belly. The dou is 9.8 cm tall with the
mouth 14.7 cm in diameter (Fig. 4:4).
Lei-vessels. Fifteen. The lei-vessels with lids are
made of gray clay. They are characterized by a straight
mouth, a wide shoulder, an obliquely convex belly, a flat
base, and double handles on the shoulder. The neck is
encircled with one line and the belly is incised with a
triangular pattern surrounded by one line on the top and
another on the bottom. The lid is cap-shaped with a
mushroom-shaped button, and decorated with one line.
The lei (M54:164) measures 21.8 cm in height with the
mouth 8.4 cm in diameter (Fig. 4:2).
Jiangjunkui-helmet-shaped vessel. One (M54:238).
This helmet-shaped vessel is made of sand-tempered red
clay. It has a flared mouth and an oblique belly, the lower
part of which is constricted. The base is shaped in a
slender tube with a relatively thick wall. The area below
the mouth is decorated with line, the belly with trellis
patterns, and the lower belly and base with fine cordmarks. Soot is visible on the lower belly and base. The
helmet-shaped vessel is 29.2 cm tall with the mouth 29
cm in diameter (Fig. 4:5).
Jue-cup. One (M54:25). The jue-cup is made of gray
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clay; its legs are broken. It is characterized by a flared
mouth with a short spout, a constricted neck, a slight
drum-shaped belly, a handle, and a foot base with pointed
feet. Two lines encircle the waist area. The jue-cup
measures 14.8 cm in height with the mouth 9.4 cm in
diameter (Fig. 4:3).
Gu-goblet. One (M54:22). The gu-goblet is of gray
clay, and only a fragment of its lower belly is found.
2. Bronzes
There are two hundreds of bronze objects, including
ritual vessels, musical instruments, weapons, implements,
horse-chariot objects, etc.
1) Ritual vessels and musical instruments
There are forty three pieces in this category, including
the following types: round ding, square ding, yan, gui,
square zun, cow-shaped zun, square jia, square yi, lei, yu,
guan, gu, jue, shao-ladle, dou-funnel, nao-bell, etc.
Round ding. Two. The round ding (M54:240) has
straight and upright handles, an everted rim, a slightly
constricted mouth, a round belly, a hemispherical base,
and hollow post feet. The band below the mouth is
decorated by a taotie design made up of two kui-dragons
with a flange nose; the upper foot is decorated with a taotie
motif. It has flanges on the upper belly and the upper part
of the foot. “Ya Chang 亚长” is inscribed on the inside of
the vessel. The round ding is 36.5 cm in diameter and 48.
6 cm in height; it weighs 16.35 kg (Fig. 5).
Crotched round ding. Four. The ding (M54:166) is
characterized by straight and upright handles, everted
rim, round belly, and crotched post feet. The band below
the mouth is decorated with a cicada design against the
cloud-thunder background; the belly with three groups
of taotie (with a flange nose) alternating with single kuidragon motifs. “Ya Chang 亚长 ” is inscribed on the
inside of the vessel. Its mouth is 41.2 cm in diameter, and
79.5 cm tall. It weighs 2 kg (Fig. 6).
Yan. One. M54:154 is a round yan with joint body
characterized by straight and upright handles, everted
rim, deep belly, constricted waist (neck), and crotched
post feet. The upper belly is decorated with a band of
three groups of simplified taotie motifs. The upper part
of the foot is also decorated with a taotie design. The
inside of the vessel is inscribed with “Ya Chang 亚长.”
The yan is 79.5 cm tall with the mouth 41.2 cm in
diameter; it weighs 37.4 kg (Fig. 7).
Square zun. One. M54:84 has a squared and flared
mouth, constricted neck, inclined shoulder, inclined belly,
flat base, and tall and raised ring feet. The decoration
around the neck is a banana leaf design made up of kui61
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1m
Fig. 2 Illustration of burial objects of Tomb M54
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Fig. 3 Tomb M54 (photo from east to west)
1
3
5
4
0
2
10 cm
6
Fig. 4 Ceramic objects of Tomb M54
1. li-tripod (M54:8) 2. lei-vessel (M54:164) 3. jue-tripod (M54:25) 4. dou-stemmed plate (M54:19) 5. helmet-shaped vessel (M54:
238) 6. gui-tureen (M54:42)
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Fig. 5 Bronze ding-tripod (M54:240)
Fig. 6 Bronze ding-tripod (M54:166)
Fig. 7 Bronze yan-steamer (M54:154)
Fig. 8 Bronze zun-vessel (M54:84)
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dragons. Four mythical animals are cast on the four
corners of the shoulder. The belly area is decorated with
cicada, kui-dragon, and taotie motifs. The middle of each
side of the vessel is pieced with a cross-shaped opening.
Each foot is also decorated with taotie and kui-dragon
motifs. The square zun is 51.9 cm tall and its mouth is
33.9–36.6 cm wide. It weighs 27.3 kg (Fig. 8).
Square jia. One. M54:43 has a squared and flared
mouth. On the rim are four pyramidal posts. It is also
characterized by a deep and straight belly, flat base, four
triangular feet, and an animal head handle. Flanges run
along four corners of the vessel body as well as the outer
edges of the four feet. The decor consists of a triangular
design made up of kui-dragons on the area below the
mouth, a kui-dragon design on the neck, a taotie design
on the belly, and a kui-dragon design on the foot. “Ya
Chang 亚长 ” is inscribed inside of the vessel. The
vessel’s mouth measures 26.5–28.2 cm wide, and 66.6
cm tall. It weighs 22.15 kg (Fig. 9).
Gu. Nine. Nine gu-goblets are characterized by a
trumpet-shaped mouth, slender neck and belly, flat base,
and raised ring foot; they can be classified into two
varieties.
The first variety includes four pieces that are relatively tall. It has four flanges aligning the neck, belly, and
foot. The upper part of the foot is pieced with a crossshaped hole. The vessel is decorated with a banana leaf
design made up of taotie motifs on the neck below that
is a cicada design, a taotie design with a flange nose on
the belly, and taotie and cicada motifs on the foot. Gu
(M54:120) has an inscription of “Ya Chang 亚长” on the
inner face of its ring foot; it is 35.4 cm tall with the mouth
19.7 cm in diameter (Fig. 10).
The second variety consists of five gu-goblets that are
relatively short with four flanges running the belly and
foot only. The neck is decorated with a banana leaf
design composed of taotie motifs on the top and a bird
design on the bottom. The decoration is a taotie motif on
the belly, a cicada motif on the upper foot, and a taotie on
the lower foot. Gu (M54:192) measures 28.8 cm tall and
its mouth is 16.8 cm in diameter (Fig. 11).
Jue. Nine. Nine jue-cups are classified into two
varieties.
The first variety has a narrow spout, pointed tail,
umbrella-shaped posts on the rim, flat bottom, a semicircular animal-shaped handle, and relatively high triangular feet. Flanges align the spout, tail, and belly. The
area below the mouth, spout, and tail is ornamented with
a banana leaf design composed of cicada motifs, and the
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Fig. 9 Bronze jia-vessel (M54:43)
belly with a taotie design. The caps of the umbrellashaped posts are decorated with triangular cicada motifs.
Jue (M54:138) has “Chang 长 ” inscribed on the outer
face of the belly underneath the handle. The vessel is 29.
6 cm tall, and its foot is 14.1 cm tall (Fig. 12).
The second variety consists of five pieces that are
characterized by mushroom-shaped posts on the rim,
deep belly, egg-shaped bottom, and semi-circular handle.
The post caps are decorated with round whorls, the area
below the mouth, spout, and tail with a banana design
made up of cicada motifs, and the belly with a taotie
design. Jue (M54:184) is inscribed with “Chang 长” on
the outer side of the belly underneath the handle. The
vessel is 21.1 cm tall, and its foot is 8.6 cm tall (Fig. 13).
Nao-bells. One set of three pieces. Ordered by size,
the three graduated nao-bells are similar in shape and
inscription. The nao-bell has a flat bucket shape (zheng)
with a round tubular handle (yong). The mouth is wider
than the upper edge, the middle of which is connected
with the hollow handle. The two faces of the bell are
decorated with taotie motifs. The inner side of the bell is
inscribed with “Ya Chang 亚长.” The mouth is 14.2 cm
in diameter for M54:119, 11.8 cm for M54:108, and 9.6
cm for M54:199.
2) Weapons
There are about 170 pieces of weapons, including yue65
Fig. 10 Bronze gu-goblet (M54:120)
Fig. 11 Bronze gu-goblet (M54:192)
Fig. 12 Bronze jue-cup (M54:138)
Fig. 13 Bronze jue-cup (M54:184)
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3
1
4
2
5
Fig. 14 Bronze objects
1. style III yue-axe (M54:92) 2. hand-shaped object (M54:392) 3. style I yue-axe (M54:86) 4. chopper (M54:87) 5. bow-shaped
object (M54:286) (scales: 1, 2. c.2/5; the rest c.1/5)
large flat axes, point-curved choppers, ge-dagger axes,
mao-spear points, arrow points, etc.
Yue-large flat axe. Seven. They are axe-shaped, with
a flat shoulder and curved blade. Three varieties can be
distinguished.
The first variety includes only one specimen (M54:
86). Oblong in shape, it has a rectangular tang slightly off
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the center. There is a round aperture on the low part of the
tang, and a slit on each side of the shoulder. Both sides of
the butt (the upper portion of the tang) are decorated with
symmetrical double kui-dragons, and the band below the
shoulder with double-coiled dragons surrounded by an
animal motif on each end. The middle portion of the axe
is ornamented with a large dragon mouth facing
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Fig. 15 Bronze yue-axe (M54:86)
downward, inside of which is a kui-dragon motif. On
each side of the dragon mouth is a kui-dragon inside of
which is a small dragon motif. “Ya Chang 亚长 ” is
inscribed in the middle of the butt. The yue-axe is 40.5
cm long with the blade’s edge measuring 29.8 cm wide;
it weighs 5.95 kg (Figs. 14:3; 15).
The second variety also has only one specimen. The
blade’s edge is slightly broken. Yue (M54:89) is shaped
in the form of a short axe with a nearly square tang right
in the middle. A slit is cast on the lower tang; two grooves
border the butt edge. Near each end of the shoulder is a slit,
and in the middle a raised ridge. In the center of the blade
is a large round aperture. The yue-axe measures 20.5 cm
in length with the broken blade’s edge 18.7 cm wide; it
weighs 0.75 kg.
Five other yue-large flat axes comprise the third
variety. Yue (M54:92) has a rectangular tang slightly off
the center, and a small round aperture in the lower part of
the shaft. The butt is ornamented with a taotie motif
inlaid with pieces of turquoise and the upper part of the
blade with a triangular design composed of cicada and
nipple-shaped dot patterns. The yue-axe is 20.5 cm long;
it weighs 0.67 kg (Fig. 14:1).
Dao-chopper with curved point. Three. The dao68
chopper of this type has a long blade with pointed end
bent backwards like a hook. The cutting edge of the blade
is straight. The dao has a short handle and a thin upper
ridge that is perforated with three slits. On the upper part
of the blade is a wide band of decoration consisting of
seven kui-dragons and cloud-and-thunder patterns. “Ya
Chang 亚长 ” is cast on the blade near the handle. Dao
(M54:87) measures 44.4 cm in length (Fig. 14:4).
Ge-dagger axes. Seventy One. They are classified into
three varieties.
Nine pieces comprise the first variety of ge-dagger
axes; amongst them two sub-varieties can be identified.
Seven specimens fall within the first sub-variety. Shaped
in the form of an elongated triangle, they are thicker in
the middle and thinner on the edge. Ge (M54:223) has a
round aperture in the front part of the rectangular tang, a
rounded butt spurred at the lower edge, and upper and
lower lan-trunnions. Around the edge of the butt is a
groove that might have been inlaid with turquoise. It
measures 23.6 cm in length. The second sub-variety
includes two ge-dagger axes that have a long hu (hu
refers to the extended lower blade edge shaped liked the
flap of muscle drooping from the neck of an ox) perforated with three slits. The rounded butt, spurred at its
lower edge, is decorated with inlaid turquoise around its
edge and has a round rise in the middle. The ge-dagger
axe is 23.6 cm long.
The second variety of ge-dagger axe includes 20
pieces that have a thin blade and curved tang. The blade
is shaped as an elongated triangle with a median ridge and
upper and lower lan-trunnions. The curved butt is decorated with a bird motif. Ge (M54:47) measures 28.5 cm
long; a trace of a wooden shaft is visible on the tang near
the lan-trunnions.
A total of 42 pieces of ge-dagger axes are grouped into
the third variety. They are characterized by a socketed
tang. Ge (M54:249) has a blade shaped in the form of an
elongated triangle with a median ridge, a rectangular
tang with an ovoid socket and several linear ridges on the
butt. Fragments of a wooden shaft cling to the inside of
the socket. A wooden wedge is inserted into the upper
end of the remaining shaft; cord traces are found on the
lower end of the shaft. The ge is 25.2 cm long.
Mao-spear points. Seventy-Six. Two varieties are
identified.
The first variety includes 55 pieces characterized by a
triangular blade. Mao (M54:113) has a rise in the middle of
the blade. On the end of the blade is a nearly tubular socket
with double semi-circular loops between which is a cast
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inscription “Ya Chang 亚长.” Inside the socket are fragments of a wooden shaft. The mao measures 23.7 cm long.
There are 21 pieces of mao-spear points belonging to
the second variety that is characterized by a nearly
kidney-shaped blade and median ridge. Mao (M54:37)
has double apertures at the end of the blade, and an ovoid
socket. Between double apertures is an inscription “Ya
Chang 亚长 ”. It is 27.9 cm long.
3) Others
There are about 140 other class of objects made of
bronze, including tools (adzes, chisels, spades, squared
awls, etc.), chariot-horse implements (bow-shaped
objects, whip-handles, pao-hemispheres, etc.), and miscellaneous objects (hand-shaped object, bells, animalheads, etc.).
Bow-shaped objects. Six. M54:286 is relatively long
and moderately bent in the middle with two arc-shaped
arms whose ends are shaped in the form of an ox’s head.
The object is completely decorated with pieces of
turquoise; it measures 37.2 cm long (Fig. 14:5).
Hand-shaped object. M54:392 is likely a right hand
with five slightly stretching fingers. The hollow palm
forms a socket that contains fragments of a wooden shaft.
The back of the hand is decorated with an animal motif.
The broken hand is 13.2 cm long, and weighs 0.1 kg (Fig.
15:2).
3. Jades
Some two hundred pieces of jade are found including
ritual objects, weapons, tools, ornaments, etc. Among
them are ornament beads that account for about three
fourths of the jade inventory.
Ritual objects consist of 9 pieces including gui-tablets,
bi-discs, cong-tubes, huan-rings, and jue-slit rings.
Weapons number 29, including qi-notched axes, yuelarge flat axes, dao-choppers, ge-dagger axes, maospear points, ge-dagger axes with jade blade and bronze
tang, mao-spear points with jade blades and bronze
sockets, and arrow points (Figs. 16–19).
Fig. 16 Jade chopper (M54:382)
Fig. 17 Jade ge-dagger axe (M54:319)
Fig. 18 Jade qi-notched axe (M54:359)
Fig. 19 Jade spear point (M54:463)
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Ornaments amount to some 160 pieces of dragons,
gooses, parrots, beads, etc.
IV. Conclusions
Our ceramic analysis suggests that Tomb M54 may be
dated to the late Phase II of the Yinxu period. The
specimens dou (M54:019), lei (M54:164), and jue (M54:
025) are basically similar to type I dou (M410:3), type AI
lei (M366:4) and type II jue (M410:1) from the west
section Yinxu, respectively. The latter three specimens
are typical of late Phase II of the Yinxu period.
Tomb M54 belongs to the category of large rectangular,
vertical pit graves at Yinxu; the size of the pit is close to
that of Fuhao’s tomb. M54 is furnished with fifteen
sacrificial victims, fifteen sacrificial dogs, bronzes including several large vessels and nine sets of gu-goblets
and jue-cups, and a large number of delicately carved
jades (only second to the tomb of Fuhao), strongly
suggesting that the occupant was an aristocrat.
Seven pieces of bronze yue-large flat axes are found in
M54, which is rare among the burial finds at Yinxu. One
of them is as large as the large yue found at the tomb of
Fuhao. Furthermore, there are many bronze weapons
such as large dao-choppers with curved points, gedagger axes, mao-spear points etc., possibly indicating
that the deceased was a military officer with a high rank.
This is also manifested by the inscriptions, mostly “Ya
Chang 亚长 ”, cast on bronzes. “Ya 亚 ” is generally
interpreted as a military title of the Shang period, while
“Chang 长 ” is also seen in oracle bone inscriptions. It
may be inferred that the occupant of M54 might be a
chief of the lineage called “Chang 长.” Tomb Changzikou
长子口 found at Taiqinggong 太清宫 in Luoyi 鹿邑
County, Henan 河南 Province, is a large grave dating to
the end of the Shang and the beginning of the Zhou
period; it yields bronze vessels mostly inscribed with
“Chang Zi Kou 长子口” of which the character “Chang”
is basically identical to that cast on the M54 bronzes. We
may speculate that the occupants of both M54 and
Changzikou tombs might have come from the same
lineage group. The “Chang” lineage group lasted from
early Yinxu period through the beginning of the Western
Zhou period and it was highly regarded by the Shang
royal house. The occupant of M54 was likely an aristocrat with military power.
References
1. Henan Sheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 河南省文
物考古研究所, Zhoukou Shi Wenhuaju 周口市文化局
(2000). Luoyi Taiqinggong Changzikou Mu 鹿邑太清
宫长子口墓 (The Changzikou’s Tomb at Taiqinggong
in Luyi). Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Guji Chubanshe 中州
古籍出版社.
2. Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo
Anyang Gongzuodui 中国社会科学院考古研究所安
阳工作队 (1979). “1969–1977 nian Yinxu Xiqu Muzang
Fajue Baogao 1969 — 1977 年殷墟西区墓葬发掘报
告 ” (Excavation Report on the Burials in the West
Section of Yinxu in 1969–1977). Kaogu Xuebao 考古
学报 1979.1.
Notes: The original report, published in Kaogu 考古 2004.1: 7–19 with 14 illustrations and 5 pages of plates, is
written by Xu Guangde 徐广德 and He Yuling 何毓灵. The summary is prepared by Xu Guangde, English-translated
by Zhichun Jing 荆志淳 and revised by Patricia Telford.
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