Table of Contents
Sections
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
Introduction …………………….....……………………………….…
Basic Theory ……………………………………………………….…
Experimental Apparatus and Method ………………………….….
Results and Discussion …………………………………………..…
Conclusion ………………………………………………………....
References ……………………………………………………….…
2
3
5
6
8
8
Appendices
A
Microhardness Test ……..………………………………………….
10
1
1.0
Introduction
Hardness is the ability of a solid substance to resist surface deformation or
abrasion. Various interpretations, depending on the usage, are applied to
the term. In mineralogy, hardness is defined as the resistance of the
smooth surface of a mineral to scratching. A soft surface is scratched
more easily than a hard surface; thus a hard mineral, such as diamond,
will scratch a soft mineral, such as graphite, and the hard mineral will not
be scratched by the soft. The relative hardness of minerals is determined
according to the Mohs scale of hardness. In the Mohs scale, named for
the German mineralogist Friedrich Mohs who devised it, ten common
minerals are arranged in order of increasing hardness and are assigned
numbers: 1, talc; 2, gypsum; 3, calcite; 4, fluorite; 5, apatite; 6, orthoclase
(feldspar); 7, quartz; 8, topaz; 9, corundum; and 10, diamond. The
hardness of a mineral specimen is obtained by determining which mineral
in the Mohs scale will
scratch the specimen.
Thus, galena, which has
a hardness of 2.5, can
scratch gypsum and can
be scratched by calcite.
The hardness of a
mineral largely
determines its durability.
In metallurgy and
engineering, hardness is
determined by impressing
a small ball or cone of a
hard material on the
surface to be tested and
measuring the size of the
indentation. Hard metals
are indented less than
soft metals. This test to
Figure 1: Mohs Hardness Scale
determine the hardness
The hardness of a mineral determines how
of metal surfaces is
durable it will be. The Mohs scale is used to
known as the Brinell test,
rate the relative hardness of a material by
performing scratch tests on it.
named after the Swedish
engineer Johann Brinell,
2
who invented the Brinell machine for measuring the hardness of metals
and alloys.
Hardness is related to the strength, durability, and toughness of solid
substances, and in common usage the term is often extended to include
those properties.
Measurement of Hardness:
Hardness is not an intrinsic material property dictated by precise
definitions in terms of fundamental units of mass, length and time. A
hardness property value is the result of a defined measurement
procedure.
Hardness of materials has probably long been assessed by resistance to
scratching or cutting. An example would be material B scratches material
C, but not material A. Alternatively, material A scratches material B slightly
and scratches material C heavily. Relative hardness of minerals can be
assessed by reference to the Moh's Scale that ranks the ability of
materials to resist scratching by another material. Similar methods of
relative hardness assessment are still commonly used today. An example
is the file test where a file tempered to a desired hardness is rubbed on
the test material surface. If the file slides without biting or marking the
surface, the test material would be considered harder than the file. If the
file bites or marks the surface, the test material would be considered softer
than the file.
The above relative hardness tests are limited in practical use and do not
provide accurate numeric data or scales particularly for modern day
metals and materials. The usual method to achieve a hardness value is to
measure the depth or area of an indentation left by an indenter of a
specific shape, with a specific force applied for a specific time. There are
three principal standard test methods for expressing the relationship
between hardness and the size of the impression, these being Brinell,
Vickers, and Rockwell. For practical and calibration reasons, each of
these methods is divided into a range of scales, defined by a combination
of applied load and indenter geometry.
3
2.0
Basic Theory
2.1 Brinell Test
The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material
with a 10 mm diameter hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load
of 3000 kg. For softer materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500
kg to avoid excessive indentation. The full load is normally applied for 10
to 15 seconds in the case of iron and steel and for at least 30 seconds in
the case of other metals. The diameter of the indentation left in the test
material is measured with a low powered microscope. The Brinell harness
number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area of
the indentation.
Figure 2: Brinell Test
The diameter of the impression is the average of two readings at right
angles and the use of a Brinell hardness number table can simplify the
determination of the Brinell hardness. A well structured Brinell hardness
number reveals the test conditions, and looks like this, "75 HB 10/500/30"
which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained using a 10mm
diameter hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for a period of
30 seconds. On tests of extremely hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is
substituted for the steel ball. Compared to the other hardness test
methods, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so the
test averages the hardness over a wider amount of material, which will
more accurately account for multiple grain structures and any irregularities
in the uniformity of the material. This method is the best for achieving the
bulk or macro-hardness of a material, particularly those materials with
heterogeneous structures.
4
2.2 Vickers Test
The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material
with a diamond indenter, in the form of a right pyramid with a square base
and an angle of 136 degrees between opposite faces subjected to a load
of 1 to 100 kgf. The full load is normally applied for10 to 15 seconds. The
two diagonals of the indentation left in the surface of the material after
removal of the load are measured using a microscope and their average
calculated. The area of the sloping surface of the indentation is calculated.
The Vickers hardness is the quotient obtained by dividing the kgf load by
the square mm area of indentation.
Figure 3: Vickers Test
F= Load in kgf
d = Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm
HV = Vickers hardness
5
When the mean diagonal of the indentation has been determined the
Vickers hardness may be calculated from the formula, but is more
convenient to use conversion tables. The Vickers hardness should be
reported like 800 HV/10, which means a Vickers hardness of 800, was
obtained using a 10 kgf force. Several different loading settings give
practically identical hardness numbers on uniform material, which is much
better than the arbitrary changing of scale with the other hardness testing
methods. The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are that extremely
accurate readings can be taken, and just one type of indenter is used for
all types of metals and surface treatments. Although thoroughly adaptable
and very precise for testing the softest and hardest of materials, under
varying loads, the Vickers machine is a floor standing unit that is more
expensive than the Brinell or Rockwell machines.
2.3 Rockwell Test
The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material
with a diamond cone or hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is
forced into the test material under a preliminary minor load F0 (Fig. 4A)
usually 10 kgf. When equilibrium has been reached, an indicating device,
which follows the movements of the indenter and so responds to changes
in depth of penetration of the indenter is set to a datum position. While the
preliminary minor load is still applied an additional major load is applied
with resulting increase in penetration (Fig. 4B). When equilibrium has
again been reach, the additional major load is removed but the preliminary
minor load is still maintained. Removal of the additional major load allows
a partial recovery, so reducing the depth of penetration (Fig. 4C). The
permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting from the application
and removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell
hardness number.
HR = E - e
F0 = preliminary minor load in kgf
F1 = additional major load in kgf
F = total load in kgf
e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load F1
measured in units of 0.002 mm
E = a constant depending on form of indenter: 100 units for diamond
indenter, 130 units for steel ball indenter
6
HR = Rockwell hardness number
D = diameter of steel ball
Figure 4: Rockwell Principle
Rockwell Hardness Scales
Scale Indenter
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
K
L
M
P
R
S
V
Diamond cone
1/16" steel ball
Diamond cone
Diamond cone
1/8" steel ball
1/16" steel ball
1/16" steel ball
1/8" steel ball
1/8" steel ball
1/4" steel ball
1/4" steel ball
1/4" steel ball
1/2" steel ball
1/2" steel ball
1/2" steel ball
Minor Load
F0
kgf
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Major Load
F1
kgf
50
90
140
90
90
50
140
50
140
50
90
140
50
90
140
Total Load
F
kgf
60
100
150
100
100
60
150
60
150
60
100
150
60
100
150
Value of
E
100
130
100
100
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
Typical Application of Rockwell Hardness Scales
HRA . . . . Cemented carbides, thin steel and shallow case hardened steel
HRB . . . . Copper alloys, soft steels, aluminum alloys, malleable irons, etc
HRC . . . . Steel, hard cast irons, case hardened steel and other materials
harder than 100 HRB
HRD . . . . Thin steel and medium case hardened steel and pearlitic
malleable iron
HRE . . . . Cast iron, aluminum and magnesium alloys, bearing metals
7
HRF . . . . Annealed copper alloys, thin soft sheet metals
HRG . . . . Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, malleable irons HRH . . . .
Aluminum, zinc, lead
HRK . . . . Soft bearing metals, plastics and other very soft materials
HRL . . . . Soft bearing metals, plastics and other very soft materials
HRM . …. Soft bearing metals, plastics and other very soft materials
HRP . . . . Soft bearing metals, plastics and other very soft materials
HRR . . . . Soft bearing metals, plastics and other very soft materials
HRS . . . . Soft bearing metals, plastics and other very soft materials
HRV . . . . Soft bearing metals, plastics and other very soft materials
Advantages of the Rockwell hardness method include the direct Rockwell
hardness number readout and rapid testing time. Disadvantages include
many arbitrary non-related scales and possible effects from the specimen
support anvil (try putting a cigarette paper under a test block and take note
of the effect on the hardness reading! Vickers and Brinell methods don't
suffer from this effect).
Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test:
The principle of this test is the same as that of the ordinary Rockwell
method but lighter loads are used so that thinner specimen may be tested.
It is worth mentioning that a statistical analysis of the measured values of
hardness are necessary because more than four readings should be taken
and different places should be considered for testing to see the variability
of these readings. The statistical analysis comprises the calculation of the
mean and standard deviation of the readings.
8
3.0
Experimental Apparatus and Methods
3.1 Material

Steel and aluminum samples of different thickness and different
treatments.
3.2 Equipment



The Brinell testing machine.
The Rockwell testing machine.
Vickers or microhardness testing machine.
3.3 Procedure










Place a specimen on anvil (ground face up), use V-shape anvil for
joining a specimen.
Gently rotate the capstan wheel clockwise until small dial indicator
coincides with the red spot.
Adjust the large dial indicator on the double zero on the black scale.
Gently move the lever to position b. watch the indicator movement until
it stops.
Return the lever to initial position gently and slow, (avoid jerks; these
give wrong readings and cause damage to the tester.)
Read the hardness value on the red scale.
Rotate capstan wheel anticlockwise to shift or remove the specimen.
Repeat steps above and record your readings.
For the jominy specimen make markings with pencil at 5mm spacing,
take the hardness value on each marking.
Take note of scale being used.
9
4.0
Results and Discussion
The collected data for the 15 specimens taken from the carburizing
experiment was:
No.
Time
(Hour)
Depth of
Case (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
3
6
9
16
24
0.008
0.018
0.072
0.084
0.104
6
7
8
9
10
3
6
9
16
24
0.02
0.04
0.08
0.128
0.16
11
12
13
14
15
3
6
9
16
24
0.044
0.088
0.124
0.168
0.22
2
4
Temperature 875°C
16.1
14.2
19.8
16.9
20.4
16.9
29.2
17.8
34.1
17.6
Temperature 925°C
20.1
19.8
22.6
22.3
21.2
20
30.0
21.1
46.1
30.1
Temperature 950°C
22.1
21.2
23.2
22.1
28.1
23.1
44
32
50
43
6
8
Surface
(0)
13.1
16.1
16.2
14.9
16.6
12.2
16
16
13
12.6
26.6
30.4
39.8
48.2
50.4
17.3
21.2
19.1
19
19.1
13
13.2
14.2
14.2
14.2
32
34
57.3
60
62
18.2
19
20
20
32
14.3
14.2
16.2
16.2
16.2
49.2
55
59
62
63
What is the effect of thickness on the results?
Find the limits of the hardness value using statistical tools:
10
5.0
Conclusion
6.0
References
1. Dr. Issam Jalham, Experimental Laboratory Manual in Materials
Science and Engineering, University of Jordan, Deanship of
Academic Research 2002.
2. Microsoft® Encarta® Reference Library 2003. © 1993-2002
Microsoft Corporation.
3. http://gordonengland.co.uk/hardness/
11
Appendix A
Microhardness Test
The term microhardness test usually refers to static indentations made
with loads not exceeding 1 kgf. The indenter is either the Vickers diamond
pyramid or the Knoop elongated diamond pyramid. The procedure for
testing is very similar to that of the standard Vickers hardness test, except
that it is done on a microscopic scale with higher precision instruments.
The surface being tested generally requires a metallographic finish; the
smaller the load used, the higher the surface finish required. Precision
microscopes are used to measure the indentations; these usually have a
magnification of around X500 and measure to an accuracy of +0.5
micrometres. Also with the same observer differences of +0.2 micrometres
can usually be resolved. It should, however, be added that considerable
care and experience are necessary to obtain this accuracy.
Knoop Hardness Indenter Indentation
The Knoop hardness number KHN is the ratio of the load applied to the
indenter, P (kgf) to the unrecovered projected area A (mm2)
KHN = F/A = P/CL2
Where:
F = applied load in kgf
A = the unrecovered projected area of the indentation in mm 2
L = measured length of long diagonal of indentation in mm
12
C = 0.07028 = Constant of indenter relating projected area of the
indentation to the square of the length of the long diagonal.
The Knoop indenter is a diamond ground to pyramidal form that produces
a diamond shaped indentation having approximate ratio between long and
short diagonals of 7:1. The depth of indentation is about 1/30 of its length.
When measuring the Knoop hardness, only the longest diagonal of the
indentation is measured and this is used in the above formula with the
load used to calculate KHN. Tables of these values are usually a more
convenient way to look-up KHN values from the measurements.
Vickers Pyramid Diamond Indenter Indentation
The Vickers Diamond Pyramid harness number is the applied load (kgf)
divided by the surface area of the indentation (mm 2)
Where:
F= Load in kgf
d = Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm
HV = Vickers hardness
The Vickers Diamond Pyramid indenter is ground in the form of a squared
pyramid with an angle of 136obetween faces. The depth of indentation is
about 1/7 of the diagonal length. When calculating the Vickers Diamond
Pyramid hardness number, both diagonals of the indentation are
measured and the mean of these values is used in the above formula with
the load used to determine the value of HV. Tables of these values are
usually a more convenient way to look-up HV values from the
measurements.
13
Knoop vs. Vickers
Comparing the indentations made with Knoop and Vickers Diamond
Pyramid indenters for a given load and test material:
 Vickers indenter penetrates about twice as deep as Knoop indenter
 Vickers indentation diagonal about 1/3 of the length of Knoop major
diagonal
 Vickers test is less sensitive to surface conditions than Knoop test
 Vickers test is more sensitive to measurement errors than knoop test
 Vickers test best for small rounded areas
 Knoop test best for small elongated areas
 Knoop test good for very hard brittle materials and very thin sections
14