KIVA, Vol.55, No. 1, 1989
THE SEMIOTICS OF GENDERON ZUNIKACHINAS
WILL ROSCOE
P.O.Box11622
CA94115
SanFrancisco,
ABSTRACT
usea widevariety
ofcostume
elements.
A statistical
is
Zunikachinas
analysis
onfemale
as compared
tomale
toevaluate
theuseofthese
elements
employed
a conceptualization
ofgender
distinct
from
theWestern
kachinas,
revealing
modelofcomplementary
Femalekachinas
often
incorporate
predoopposites.
never
maleelements,
butmalekachinas
usestatistically
female
eleminantly
- thatfemales
ments.
ofgender
both
Theresulting
interpretation
encompass
- parallelsothergendera specialization
whereasmalesreflect
genders,
atZuniandclarifies
thenature
oftheberdache
which
kachina,
specific
practices
female
wholeness
andmalespecialization.
bridges
is ofgrowing
interest.
The studyofgenderrolesinAmericanIndiancultures
Examination
ofnativerolesrevealssocial,economic,andreligiouspractices
that
fromthoseof Westernsocieties.Whenthecase of North
are sharplydivergent
theextentof thisdistinction
Americanberdachesis considered,
reallyemerges.
ofboth
The berdacherole,occupiedbymenandwomenwhocombinedactivities
to no existingEuropeancategory.As a result,berdaches
genders,corresponds
to witha bewildering
havebeenreferred
arrayofterms,from"hermaphrodites"
and"transsexuto "sodomites,"
"homosexuals,"
"men-women,"
"transvestites,"
have
settled
on
the
use
of
als." For convenience,
"berdache,"a
anthropologists
The ZuniwordforsuchinditermfirstappliedbyFrenchandSpanishexplorers.
vidualsis ihamana.Scholarsrecently
have begunto arguethatmaleberdaches
a
third
status
and
female
berdachesa fourth
(Jacobs1983;Rosrepresent
gender
coe 1987;Blackwood1988).Butthisbegsthequestion:How do American
Indian
societiesdefinegender?
nativegenderroles,andberdachesin particular,
havedrawn
Unfortunately,
thedual forcesof elimination
and assimilation
thathave disrupted
all facetsof
roleshavenotlapsedentirely,
AmericanIndianlife.Wheretraditional
theyhave
areableorwillingtointerpret
radicalchange.Few nativeexperts
these
undergone
andreligiousunderpinfacetsoftraditional
culture,
especiallytheirphilosophical
truein theSouthwestern
UnitedStates,wherenewinnings.Thisis particularly
on Puebloreligionis unlikely
to be forthcoming
unlessPueblosthemformation
it.
selveschoosetooffer
Scholarsin fieldssuchas ancientand classicalhistory
havedevelopedherto advancetheirinquiries,
meneutical
methods
them
toextract
neweviallowing
dencefroma finiteset of data. Religiousand mythological
data are especially
methodsbecausetheyreflectsystematic
amenableto hermeneutical
ideologies.
49
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50
ROSCOE
theelementsandrulesthatguidetheir
To theextentthatthesesystems,
including
be
deduced
it
is
to
from
theknowntotheunknown.
can
use,
possible project
Over 100 Zunikachinas,a supernatural
pantheon
portrayed
bymaskeddanintheethnographic
literature.
Theircostuming
is figurative
cers,aredocumented
a systemof signsthatZunisare able to "read"for
and purposive;it constitutes
revealthepatterns
analysisofcostumeelements
meaning.Coulda systematic
by
Andwhatwoulda comparison
ofthecostuming
whichgenderis symbolized?
of
theZuniberdachekachinawiththatofmaleandfemalekachinasrevealaboutthe
philosophybehindsuch a "thirdgender"status?To answerthesequestions,a
thepossibility
ofmoving
statistical
approachwas adopted.Suchananalysisoffers
of kachinacostuming,
to the unfromthe known,a documentedinventory
Zuniphilosophy
ofgender.
known- thetraditional
ZUNIKACHINASANDCEREMONIES
with
itsnatural
and
human
existence
istoharmonize
ThegoalofZunireligion
toZuniidealsofethicalbehavior
conform
Whenindividuals
socialenvironment.
and
with
nature
a
correct
establish
society.Whencombinedwith
relationship
they
wins
the
aid
of
this
ritual
correct
beingswhomediateon
supernatural
technique,
with
the
forces
oftheuniverse.The
behalfof theindividualandthecommunity
Above
with
natural
actions
human
phenomena.
synchronizes
harmony
generated
nature
and
the
all, thismeansthattheseedspeopleplant
yieldsresult
precipitation
Bunzel
fortheneedsofthecommunity
sufficient
inharvests
1932a;Benedict
(see
1959;Ladd 1983;Tedlock1979).
ofgodswhoarethedeZunikachinas,orkokko,aremaskedrepresentations
the
ceased ancestorsof theZunis. (Zuni termshavebeentranscribed
following
in Ortiz[ed.
orthography
guidelinesin Newman[1958] and thenontechnical
vowels,
1979:xi],withtheexceptionofthecolon[:], usedtoindicatelengthened
and "h" insteadof Newman's"j.") The kokkolive at SacredLake, a lagoon
ofZuni
oftheZuniandLittleColoradoriverssouthwest
formed
bytheconfluence
Pueblo.Theyare nottheonlygods theZunisrecognize,northeonlyonesporhowever,
bytheirspecialidenbymaskeddancers.Theyaredistinguished,
trayed
as theirhuman
as
much
kokko
the
rain.
Because
with
tification
enjoydancing
and
travelto Zuni
into
rain
clouds
themselves
supplicants,theytransform
withrain
the
kokko
of
kachinadancesareheldthere.The identification
whenever
is so completethatthetermsfor"ancestors,"
"rain,"and "kachinas"are interchangeable.As Ladd (1963:26-28)notes,"Whena Zuni sees raincloudsaprainbythe
referto theapproaching
theZunivalley,he willgenerally
proaching
term'uwanam'a:wiya... 'The rainis coming.'Thisterm... is usedsometimes
as rain.Botharecorrect.
translated
andsometimes
totheancestors
...
torefer
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Semiotics
ofGenderonZuniKachinas
51
of different
of thetotal
spiritualmanifestations
They are onlyrepresentations
pattern."
Zunikachinascan be dividedintoindividualfiguresandgroupdancersand
Individual
kachinasinclude:
assignedtosixcategories.
Priestkachinas.
Theserepresent
individual
maleandfemale
godswithdistinct
personalities.
rituals.
for
Theymaydance,buttheyalsoperform
specific
Theyappear
themost
onfixed
datesoftheceremonial
calendar
(Bunzel1932a:521-525).
part
kachinas.
Thesemalekachinas
arelessindividualized.
Some,likethesix
Whipping
coloredSalimopiya,
comein sets.Asidefrom
their
pairsofdifferently
dancing,
ritual
is toadminister
function
withbunches
ofyuccablades,
whippings,
usually
initiation
ritesandwhenever
exorcism
andpurification
aredesired
during
(Bunzel
1932b:872-873,
988-1002).
Scarekachinas.
Theseareogresand"bogey"figures
whosometimes
dancewith
butcanalsoappearatanytimeforthepurpose
ofdisciplining
and
kachinas,
group
children
andadults
(Bunzel1932b:906,
frightening
935-941).
wayward
Humorous
kachinas.
Theseareindividual
kachinas
whoprimarily
entertain
and
amuse.Theyhavenoformal
ritual
functions
1077(Bunzel1932b:986,
1017-1018,
1080).
Groupkachinasinclude:
Raindancers.
Thesemalekachinas
andtheir
female
(kachina
maidens)
counterparts
costumed
dancers
forthepurpose
ofinvoking
rain.
appearin setsof identically
Kokk'okshi
themostfrequently
raindancer,
is consi("GoodKachina"),
portrayed
deredtheoldestandmostsacredofall kachinas
(Bunzel1932b:888,
1012-1014,
1016).
setsofkachinas
include
thetwoCha'kwen
Groupdancers.Other
(hunters
groups
andwarriors),
theMixedDance(composed
ofa variety
ofkachinas),
Hemushikwe,
andothers
(Bunzel1932b:888,
906-907).
Kachinadancesarepresented
bythesix kivagroupsofthekachinasociety,
thereligiousorganization
towhichall Zunimenbelong.Menportray
femaleand
male kachinas,a conventional
practicethathas no associationwithberdache
status,whichis symbolized
byothermeans.On majoroccasions,thekachinasois
other
intheproduction
ofelaboratefesticiety joinedby
religiousorganizations
vals incorporating
ritual,drama,music,and visualarts.ThisperiodiccoordinationofthediversefacetsofZunisocietyis a keymechanism
ofsocialintegration
Kroeber
(Bunzel1932a:507-509;
1917:183).
The summer
andwintersolsticesmarkthefundamental
divisionin theZuni
calendar.Bothsolsticesarereferred
toas 'itiwa,themiddle(thevillageitself,'itiobservedon
wan'a, is theMiddlePlace) (Bunzel 1932b:534).The ceremonies
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52
ROSCOE
theseoccasionsmirror
each other.Sincekachinasandtheirdancespromote
preand precipitation
is desiredthroughout
theyear,whether
as snowor
cipitation,
danceseriescontinues
into
rain,kachinadancesfollowbothsolstices.The winter
the spring,and a thirdseriesoccursduringthe fall Sha'lako festival.Thus,
kachinadancesareperformed
year-round.
inZuniceremonies.
In thesumseasonaldifferences
Yet, thereareimportant
rain
dances
and
between
June
and
the
mer,
dominate,
September priesthoods
maintain
a constant
Inthewinter
retreat
toprayforrainfall.
ceremonies,
however,
kachinasappear.
andentertaining
and duringthefallSha'lako,hunter,
warrior,
outsiderssuch as Apaches,
Some groupdances,especiallythosethatportray
andconflict,
ofwarfare
areperComanches,andNavajosandhaveconnotations
formed
onlyinwinter.
The successof hunting
is theparticular
concernof theseveralmedicineor
intercession
fromthebeast
societies.
These
societies
seek
curing
supernatural
of
hunters.
for
the
increase
of
animals
and
the
fortune
Alongwiththe
gods
game
their
ritual
are
limited
towinter,
the
warrior
or
bow
activities
society,
priesthood,
seasonofhunting.
kachina
who
oversee
specificrituals,
appear
Similarly,
priests,
at the annualSha'lako, the wintersolsticeobservances,and the quadrennial
forboys, but notin summerwhentheemphasisis on group
springinitiation
is restrained
forthesake
dances.Individualism,
eveninthecase ofsupernaturals,
of harmony
andunityofpurposeduringthismostcriticalperiodofthegrowing
season(Bunzel1932b:529,519).
THE STUDY
andDishta
Theprimary
sourcesforthisstudyareBunzel(1932b)andWright
Rio
Grande
the
The
of
1984
Press,includes
(1985).
reprint Bunzel,publishedby
and
Parsons
color
illustrations.
Stevenson
(1917,
(1904)
unpublished
previously
andRoediger(1961) was
documentation,
1922, 1930, 1933)providedadditional
An IBM personalcomputhecostumeelementinventory.
consultedin designing
software
wereusedto compiledataandcalculate
terandLotus 123 spreadsheet
statistics.
andpatterns
of
The studywas designedtodetermine
whichcostumeelements
would
areusedto signify
genderon Zunikachinas.A nullhypothesis
costuming
onmaleand
distribution
ofoccurrence
ofcostumeelements
predicta symmetrical
femalekachinas.That is, elementswould occurequallyon male and female
on maleor femalekachinas,or,mostlikely,someelekachinas,or exclusively
mentswouldoccuronlyon malesandothersonlyon females,witha thirdsetocon both.In all thesecases, however,the
withrelatively
equal frequency
curring
thedifference
be
would
distribution
beingthe
symmetrical,
frequency
resulting
and
from
no
to
two
of
number modes,
(Used here,
three,respectively.
mode,
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Semiotics
ofGenderonZuniKachinas
53
mode refersto any value at whichthefrequency
densityis at a peak or local
maximum).
The firststepin theanalysiswas to createan inventory
ofthepopulation
of
costumeelements
all
kachinas
for
which
costume
complete
byreviewing
descripofcostumeeletionswereavailable.Thiswas definedas positivedocumentation
masktype,maskcolor,maskdesigns,
mentsin eachofthefollowing
categories:
ofbodypaint,painteddesigns,clothcollar
color
maskfeatures,
feathers,
type,
outofthe115kachinaslistedin
ing,accessories,andkachinatype.Thirty-seven
These include28 males,8 females,
Bunzel (1932b:905-908)metthiscriterion.
andKolhamana,theberdachekachina("KachinaBerdache,"kofromkokko,
plus
ratiois representative
ofthelargerpopulation
of
ihamana).Thismale-to-female
ineachcase wastoreviewBunzel'skachinadescriptions
kachinas.Theprocedure
and thenconsultthe supplemental
sourceslistedabove forconfirmation
and
clarification.
These37 kachinasarealso thosethatZunisconsiderthemostsymas indicated
significant,
bolicallyandmythologically
bytheirregularappearance
intheceremonial
in
and
such
comments
Bunzel's
(1932b:908,931, 962,
cycle by
1010, 1012) reportas, "He is a valuabledancer"(Pautiwa);"She looksdangerous" (Cha'kwen'Oka); "He bringslonglife"(Sayatasha);"He comestobringall
and"Theycomeall thetime,sumkindsofthingsforthepeople"(Yamuhakto);
merandwinter"
(Kokk'okshi).
inthelistof 115costumeelements
Thisprocedure
resulted
thatappearsinthe
fortheseelements
werealso idenAppendix.In mostcases,nativelanguageterms
tified.Thesecostumeelementsare symbolicas well as representational.
Colors
areassociatedwithcardinaldirections
andseasons;designssymbolize
plants,innatural
and
feathers
indicate
status
and
ratsects,animals,
forms;
temperament;
tohunting,
tles,bowsandarrows,bunchesofspruce,earsofcorn,andseedsrefer
andothereconomicactivities.
Therattles
carriedbyraindancers,for
agriculture,
are
made
of
dried
that
contain
seeds
whiletheratexample,
gourds
(agriculture),
tlescarriedby thefallSha'lako kachinasare madeof deerbones(hunting)
(see
Bunzel1932b:844-874).
The secondstepoftheanalysiswas to assigna "genderrating"to thesecostumeelements.Thiswas donebytallying
theoccurrence
ofeachelementon the
kachinasand subtotaling
occurrences
on male and
populationof documented
femalekachinas.Sincethegenderstatusoftheberdachekachinawas inquestion,
thisfigureand thetwocostumeelementsspecificto it werenotincludedat this
of occurrence
for113 elestageof thestudy.Table 1 summarizes
frequencies
mentsfoundon36 kachinas(all butKolhamana).
ofmaleandfemaleoccurrences,
Based on subtotals
relative
were
frequencies
calculatedas percentages.
The relativemalefrequency
ofeachcostumeelement
was thenroundedofftoa singledigiton a scaleof0 to 10,todevelopthefollowing"genderindex."
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54
ROSCOE
Male Occurrence
(in%)
0.0-4.9
5.0-14.9
15.0-24.9
25.0-34.9
35.0-44.9
45.0-54.9
55.0-64.9
65.0-74.9
75.0-84.9
85.0-94.9
95.0-100
GenderRating
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
The thirdstepof theanalysisinvolvedentering
thegenderratingsof each
kachina'scostumeelementsontoa secondspreadsheet
andcalculating
thetotal,
average,and standarddeviationof ratingsforeach kachina.(Because two of
areunique,no rating
couldbe assignedtothem.ThegenKolhamana'selements
der ratingforKolhamana,therefore,
was based on 15 of thatfigure's17 eleand ratingsof Kolhamana'scostumeelements
ments.)Finally,thedistribution
werecompared
tomaleandfemaleaveragesandtostatistically
similarkachinas.
RESULTS
More costumeelementsoccuron male thanon femalekachinas(Table 1).
ofthegreater
number
ofmalesinthesamThisis not,however,simplya function
make
of
the
78
kachinas,
up percent
theyaccountfor83 perthey
ple. Although
ofeleofcostumeelements.
the
centofall occurrences
Similarly, averagenumber
mentson malekachinasis 19, comparedto 14 forfemales(see Table 2). Statistically,malekachinasaremorevariedandspecializedthanfemalekachinas.They
a greater
notonlyincorporate
number
ofelements,
butdrawfroma morediverse
thatoccurexsetofelements.As Figure1 shows,thereare68 costumeelements
clusivelyon malekachinas,comparedto 7 thatoccuronlyon femalekachinas.
offemalesis moreuniform
Thecostuming
fromkachinatokachina.
forkachinasareskewedtoward
As a result,averagecostumeelement
ratings
themalesideofthegenderindex.As Table2 shows,theaveragegenderrating
for
is 8.1 - a ratingsignificantly
than
the
5.0
thesamplepopulation
higher
predicted
of symmetrical
Male kachinasas a population
are
distribution.
bythehypothesis
while
the
5.3
for
female
with
an
of
8.9,
average
averagerating
"verymale,"
kachinasactuallymakesthemslightly
more"male"thanfemale.As Figure2 illuselementswithhigh
oftenincorporates
trates,thisis becausefemalecostuming
ofratingsforfemale
male genderratings.This also resultsin thehighvariation
In otherwords,female
kachinas.Ratingson malekachinasaremoreconsistent.
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Semiotics
of GenderonZuniKachinas
55
681
2018116Sz
14S
12LM
.
2-
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PERCENT
(FEMALE) RELATIVEMALE FREQUENCY (MALE)
Note: Based
on 113 elements
element
maleoccurrence.
Figure1.Costume
frequencies
grouped
byrelative
kachinasare less gender-differentiated
thanmalekachinas.In statistical
terms,
as ambisexual.
theycanbe characterized
The"mostmale,""mostfemale"and"leastdifferentiated"
kachinasarelisted
inTable 3. The highest
ratedmalekachinasareall exorcising
orhunter
kachinas.
masksandcarrybunchesofyuccaorswitches
forwhipTheywearhelmet-shaped
bows
and
and
of
animal
rattles
made
bones
all
elements
with
arrows,
ping,
high
maleratings.Indeed,thedegreeofmaledifferentiation
represented
bythewhipbeliefthatthemeresightof these
pingkachinasis suggestedby thetraditional
kachinascouldcause a pregnant
womanto miscarry
(Stevenson1904:296).The
kachina
is
female"
Kachina
Komokashshik'i
"most
("Old
Woman"),who is the
motherof all kachinas.Nextis a humorouskachina,followedby twokachina
maidens.Buteventhese"mostfemale"kachinashaveratings
nearertheambisexual thanthefemalenodeoftheindex.
The "leastdifferentiated"
kachinasarethosewhoseratings
fallnearthemid-
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56
ROSCOE
109z
8-
-j
05w4-
0
(FEMALE)
1
2
3
5
4
6
GENDER RATING
7
8
9
10
(MALE)
ElFEMALES
rI BERDACHE
I MALES
formale,female,
andberdache
costume
element
frequencies
Figure2. Average
kachinas
byrating.
Kolhamanaappearsexactlybetweenthehighest
pointof thegendercontinuum.
ratedfemalekachinaand lowestratedmale. The "least male" kachinasare
Kokk'okshi,
Hay'nawi,and 'Upik'ayap'ona("DownyFeathersHanging").They
weartheshoyanne,orhalfmask,withlonghorse-hair
beards,carryspruce,and
- elementsfoundon bothmale and femalekachinas.The rain
dance barefoot
and 'Upik'ayap'ona,unlikeotherkachinas,havea female
dancers,Kokk'okshi
rolesof
thecomplementary
Kokkwe'le("KachinaGirl"),reflecting
counterpart,
and distributing
men and womenin growing,storing,preparing,
agricultural
products.
ofratings
theaveragedistribution
ratings,
Usingthedataoncostumeelement
ofratings
ontheberdache
forfemalesandmaleswas comparedtothedistribution
and
kachina,andthekachinasmostlikeKolhamanaintermsofcostumeelements
"How
is
the
addressed
of
the
This
identified.
statistics
were
question,
study
phase
Elements.
ofCostume
ofOccurrence
Table1.Frequency
Male Kachinas FemaleKachinas
occurrences
Costumeelement
Maximumoccurrence/element
Averageoccurrence/element
Relativefrequency
(%)
523
22
5
82.8
109
8
1
17.2
Note:Basedona totalof 113costumeelements.
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Total
632
26
6
100
Semiotics
ofGenderonZuniKachinas
57
ofKachina
Statistics.
Table2. Summary
Number
ofkachinas
Maximum
elements/kachina
Minimum
elements/kachina
elements/kachina
Average
(0-10)
rating
Average
deviation
ofratings
Average
Male
Female
Both
28
23
10
19
8.9
1.4
8
17
8
14
5.3
2.9
36
23
8
17
8.1
1.7
of36kachinas.
Note:Basedona total
berdache
status
DoesKolhamana's
bothmaleand
signified?"
costuming
employ
femalecostume
ambisexual
or
neither
elements,
elements,
(thatis, berdacheelements)?
specific
Stevenson
theappearance
oftheberdache
kachina
in
(1904:219)describes
thequadrennial
Kan'a:kweceremony:
He wearsthewoman's
dressofblack,embroidered
indarkblue,andcaught
atthewaist
a redwoven
with
belt.A white
sashpassesfrom
embroidered
theleftsideofthewaisttothe
itistied,theembroidered
where
endsfalling.
A pieceofwhite
commercial
shoulder,
right
cotton
overtheback.Theneckandarms,
which
areexposed,
arepainted
the
white;
hangs
hairisparted
theforehead
from
downthebackofthehead,andonesideisdoneupovera
wooden
whiletheother
sideistiedwith
redandblueyarn
andleft
Themask
form,
hanging.
covers
ofdeerscapulae
iscarried
intheright
earsof
hand,andthree
onlytheface.A rattle
withyuccaribbons
andte'likinawe
arecarried
inthe
corn,tiedtogether
sticks],
[prayer
left.
Kachina
Costume
Element
Table3.Average
Ratings.
MostMale"
'A'hute
Na'wisho
'Upo'yona
Lhe'lashoktip'ona
Yamuhakto
Sayalhi"a
Hu:tutu
Average Least
Rating Differentiated"
9.5
9.5
9.5
9.2
9.2
9.1
9.1
Beredache
4.1
4.3
4.6
5.3
Kokk'okshi
Hay'nawi
'Upik'ayap'ona
MostFemaleb
Komokashshik'i
'Ahe'a
Kokkwe'le'Oken'ona
Kokkwe'le
Female
Nahalish'oka
Suyuki
Cha'kwen'oka
Kolhamana
Average
Rating
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.7
Male
7.9
8.1
8.3
a. Ratings
abovemaleaverage.
b. Ratings
belowfemale
average.
from
c. Kachinas
within
onestandard
deviation
theaverage
fortheir
towards
thesample
rating
gender
mean(8.1).
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58
ROSCOE
Theblue-green
halfmaskofthemaleraindancer
Figure3. MaskofKolhamana.
is wornwith
thecharacteristic
Kokk'okshi
oftheberdache
kachina:
one
hairstyle
oftheNational
onesidedowninthemalestyle.
sideupinthefemale
style,
Courtesy
No.89-13720
Smithsonian
Institution.
Archives,
(StevenNegative
Anthropological
son1904:Plate
XLIV).
halfmaskis the
As Bunzel(1932b:1011)pointsout,Kolhamana'sblue-green
The hairis wornhalfup inthe
sameas thatofthemaleraindancer,Kokk'okshi.
toStevenson,
women'sstyle,halfdowninthemen'sstyle(Figure3). According
of
corn
a
arrows
instead
bow
and
carries
sometimes
Kolhamana
(see Figure4;
Bunzel 1932b:Plate33c). The whitearms,however,are typicalof female
as a "sash," Bunzel (1932b:
kachinas.WhatStevenson(1904:219) identifies
thekiltwornbythe
ontheleftshoulder,
1011)describesas a "dancekilt"fastened
witha Zuniinformant).
thisidentification
maleKokk'okshi
So, in
(I haveverified
of bothgenders,Kolhamanawearstheclothesof both.
additionto thehairstyle
areuniquetotheberdache
Thishairstyleandthedancekiltwornon theshoulder
kachina.
As Figure2 shows, thesecostumeelementsfall into all threepossible
elements.
categories.Therearetwoall-maleelementsas well as twoall-female
in
the
of
and
both
males
from
stands
out
however,
females,
Kolhamana
frequency
at
7.
rated
elements
less
differentiated
relatively
totheirtypiarecategorized
WhenKolhamana'scostumeelements
according
arecharacelements
cal associations,anotherinteresting
appears.Eight
pattern
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Semiotics
ofGenderonZuniKachinas
59
ofmaleandfemaleraindancers(whitearms,women'sdress,downyeagle
teristic
halfmask,rectangular
feather,
eyes,beard,andcorncarriedas an acblue-green
of the rain dancers'seasonalopposites,the
cessory).Four are characteristic
Sha'lako priestkachinas(deer rattle,leggings,bow and arrows,and many
notonlygenderbuteconomicdivisionsas
necklaces).Thus,Kolhamanamediates
well- specifically,agriculture
(summerrain dancer)and hunting(fall priest
is
reinforced
whenKolhamanais comparedto statisticonclusion
This
kachina).
incommonwith
withthemostelements
The
two
kachinas
kachinas.
callysimilar
andbow
Kolhamana(9 outof 17) areSayatasha("LongHorn"),a kachinahunter
thesummer
raindancer.
priestwhoappearsinthefallSha'lako,andKokk'okshi,
Hu:tutuandPayatamushareeighttraitswithKolhamana,andtheycan be simidancercategories
andsummer-rain
respectively.
larlyassignedtofall-hunter
INTERPRETATIONOF RESULTS
of costumeelementsacrossmaleand
distribution
Insteadof a symmetrical
distribution
skewedtowardmaleoccurrences
femalekachinas,an asymmetrical
areeitherall female,all male,ormostlymale(that
was found.Costumeelements
is, withonlyoccasionalfemaleoccurrences).
Only2 of the115 elementsin the
populationare "mostlyfemale,"withoccasionalmale occurrences.Although
male costumeelements,male
femalekachinasoftenincorporate
predominantly
kachinasalmostneverdrawfromthefemalesideofthecontinuum.
male and female
This asymmetry
suggeststhatZunisdo notconceptualize
two
different
are
as
Rather,
principles
polaropposites.
genders complementary
is
a
of
male
kachinas
function
of
the
the
"maleness"
Statistically,
variety
apparent.
is inclusiveofmaleness.The
whereas"femaleness"
oftheirelements,
andnumber
ormale,and"undifbetweengendersthatemergesis "differentiated,"
distinction
in
this
female
or
female.
ferentiated,"
representational
systemactually
Being
meansbeingbothmale and female,occupyingthecenterof thegendercontinuum.Itmightbe saidthatthereis onlyone genderinthissystem:
female,with
to
use
another
set
of
orspecialization.
malesas an offshoot
terms,maleis the
Or,
markedcategoryamongtheZunisandfemaleis theunmarked
category.Thisis
insuchEnas
reflected
of
theoppositeoftheAnglo-American
conception gender
toencompassbothmaleand
as usingtheterm"mankind"
glishlanguagepractices
female.
are also theoppositeof Ortiz's(1969:36, 146-147)concluThese findings
a
theTewa. He notes,forexample,thata Tewa manundertaking
sionsregarding
to"be a woman,be a man,"whereasa womanis simtaskis exhorted
demanding
plyencouragedto "be a woman."He concludesthat"qualitiesofbothsexesare
that
believedpresentin men,whilewomenare onlywomen"and, therefore,
the
Tewa.
Zuni
and
Tewa
"male" is theunmarked
conceptsof
categoryamong
mato
the
matrilineal,
gendermayindeeddiverge,in whichcase we mightlook
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60
ROSCOE
wearsa blackwoman's
dresswith
a maledancekilt
overthe
Figure4. Kolhamana
madeofdeerboneinonehandanda bow(with
andcarries
a rattle
a
shoulder
intheother.
Threeearsofcornaresometimes
ofarrows
overtheshoulder)
quiver
ArofNational
carried
instead
ofthebowandarrows.
Courtesy
Anthropological
No.89-13269
Smithsonian
Institution.
1932b:Plate
chives,
(Bunzel
33c).
Negative
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Semiotics
ofGenderonZuniKachinas
61
trilocalsocialorganization
oftheZuniscomparedto thebilateralpracticesofthe
Tewa. As Ortizreports
elsewhere(1979:284),however,theTewa stillmaintain
betweenthese
"an implicitmatrilineal
ideology."This and othersimilarities
societieswouldlead us to expectmorecompatibility
in theirgendersystems.
to"be a woman"reflects
thebeliefthatwomenareinherPerhapstheexhortation
to be bothbecausemalenessaloneis
entlycomplete,whereasmenareexhorted
notenough.This wouldparalleltheZuni explanation
of whymenmustbe initiatedintothekachinasociety:theyrequireadditionalsocialization
thatwomen
do notneed.
oftheberdachekachina,twostrategies
ofgender
Leavingasideconsideration
mediationcan be identified,
one employedby females,the otherby males.
Femalekachinasapproachthemiddleofthecontinuum
femaleand
byjuxtaposing
maleelements,
whereasthosemalekachinaswhoseratings
areclosesttothismedianuse lowerrated,lessdifferentiated
costumeelements,
thussynthesizing
male
andfemalegenders.
Confirmation
of theseconclusionscan be foundin a varietyof genderat
to as the"flesh"of the
specificpractices Zuni. Forexample,cornis referred
EarthMother.A perfect
earofcornis placednexttonewborn
andthisbeinfants,
comesa life-long,
Male
infants
a
receive
ear
personalsymbol.
single of yellow
a
a
a doubleearofwhite
corn, yapota.Females,however,receive mi'k'appanne,
an appropriate
corn,theresultoftwoearsgrowing
together;
symboloftheinherentcompletenessor wholenessof females(Stevenson1904:299; Cushing
betweenthesesymbols,
likethedistribution
of
1974:167-168).Butthedistinction
elements
onmaleandfemalekachinas,is asymmetrical.
Zunisbelievethat"femalesaretehya(valuable,protected),
to a degree,by
theirverynature,butall boysmustbe initiated
intothekotikanne
[kachinasociety]. . . to 'save them'or 'makethemvaluable'" (Tedlock1979:502).In other
words, males requiremore socializationthanfemales.Indeed, Stevenson's
toldherthata malefetusrequires
a ten-month
but
(1904:296)informants
gestation
a femaleonlynine.Thesebeliefsfollowfroma modelthatpositsfemaleas priandmaleas a derivation
fromthisuniversal
maryandundifferentiated,
ground.
Male differentiation
is dramatized
in twoinitiation
rites.The firstof these
andthesocialandworkrolesassociatedwiththatmodeof
emphasizesagriculture
the
second
andwarfare
(Stevenson1904:94-107;
production;
emphasizeshunting
Bunzel 1932b:975-1001).As the costumeanalysisreveals,the kachinasassociatedwithagriculture,
suchas Kokk'okshi,
aretheleastdifferentiated
males,
whereasthe figuresassociatedwithhuntingand warfare,such as the four
at thesecondmaleinitiaSayalhi'"a("Blue Horn"),who administer
whippings
to considerthe
tion,are amongthe"mostmale"kachinas.Hereit is interesting
Zuni description
of Kokk'okshi:"[He] nevermakespeoplefrightened
or angry.
He is alwayshappyandgentle,andhe dancestomaketheworldgreen. They
come all thetime,summerandwinter.. . . DuringthewarwiththeKan'a:kwe
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62
ROSCOE
weretheonlyoneswhodidnotfight"
1012).Hisnamecomes
(Bunzel1932b:
they
beattractive"
which
means"begood,beobedient,
from
thewordk'okshi,
(Newthat
malegender
differentiaman1958:23).Thus,itis intherealmofagriculture
Inthefirst
thisis symbolized
maleinitiation,
tionis mediated.
objects
byfemale
of
a
for
to
the
Mother,
bowl,
presented boys, example,pottery symbolic theEarth
relative
madebya female
1974:24).
(Cushing
kachina.
totheberdache
is notlimited
mediation
AtZuni,gender
Women,
whereas
becauseoftheirinherent
men,despite
bridgegenders,
completeness,
oflifethrough
with
canretain
thefemale
contact
their
symorigins
specialization,
roleoffarming.
thelessgender-differentiated
bolsandthrough
Indeed,gender
modulated
the
is seasonally
thecommunity
differentiation
through
throughout
onagriculture
withitsemphasis
calendar
ceremonial
roles,and
(anditssymbols,
andhunting
insummer
roles,andbe(withitssymbols,
behaviors)
appropriate
is a balanceof maleand
The overriding
ideal,however,
haviors)in winter.
andthisisa potential
ofallindividuals.
female,
mediation
moreinteresting.
ofKolhamana's
Allthismakesthenature
gender
male
female
and
male
both
In fact,Kolhamana
strategies:
juxtaposing
employs
ambisexual
eleas wellas synthesizing
andfemaleelements
gender
byusing
in the
norandrogynous,
is neither
ments.Kolhamana
half-man/half-woman,
is a whole-man/wholekachina
theberdache
senseofblending
Rather,
genders.
a personification
ofthe
inonephysical
as iftwoindividuals
existed
form;
woman,
doubled
of
the
the
female
ear
wholeness
and
social
corn,
by
symbolized
psychic
alsoincorpois present
becauseKolhamana
Buta third
principle
mi'k'appanne.
as ocis indeedbestcharacterized
Thisfigure
elements.
ratesberdache-specific
a
third
cupying
gender.
Theberdache
intheZuniorigin
is described
Thebirth
ofKolhamana
myth.
to
union.According
brother-sister
an incestuous
from
kachinais thefirst-born
the
seed
in
one
comes
of
too
much
"From
the
kind,
(1896:401),
mingling
Cushing
onekind,'hldmon
two-fold
1958:27)],beingmanand
(Newman
[cf.lhajmana
- evenas from
anear
a kernel
ofcornwithtwohearts,
woman
combined
ripens
"twohearts"
Theearofcornwith
butboth!"
onekindnortheother,
thatisneither
anundifferenInrepresenting
female
thegeneral
is themi'k'appanne,
symbol.
this
females
than
tiatedstate,Kolhamana
whorepresent
is, infact,nodifferent
becauseitis
kachinastandsout,however,
in general.
Theberdache
principle
itretains
female
"two-fold
onekind."Thatis,although
Kolhamana
universality,
Inthecaseofthe
hasacquired
malespecialization,
bymaleelements.
symbolized
co-exist.
exclusive
thesenormally
berdache,
principles
exbestows
status
male-and-female
Thisboth-and-neither
uponKolhamana
the
Zuni
of
in
a
as
revealed
key
origin
episode
potency,
traordinary
supernatural
as farmers,
ofSacredLake,whoareportrayed
thekachinas
Inthisaccount,
myth.
The
whoaregreathunters.
a warwitha setofgodscalledtheKan'a:kwe,
start
Kan'a:kwecaptureKolhamanaandtwootherZunikachinas,andtheirleader,the
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Semiotics
ofGenderonZuniKachinas
63
Cha'kwen'Oka,requires
toweara dressand
Kolhamana
woman,
giantwarrior
themerger
ofthetwopeoplethatfolsymbolizes
appearina dance.Thisincident
seasonaldivision
lowsandtheresulting
oflabor.WhentheKan'a:kwe
kachinas
four
visitZunievery
killed
and
corn
yearsbearing
freshly game receiving andproduceinreturn,
the
"two-fold
onekind,"
intheir
Kolhamana,
midst,
appears
carryof
the
the
central
the
ofmaleandfemale,
drama,
symbols
ing
unifying opposites
andgrowing
1904:36-39,
217-226;Parsons1923:142;Be(Stevenson
hunting
Levi-Strauss
nedict
1935:6-8,
262-263;
1958:95-103).
SUMMARY
Zunisdonotconceptualize
maleandfemale
as opposites
orcomplegenders
Women
arebelieved
ments.
tobeinherently
bothfemale
complete,
incorporating
andmalequalities,
whereas
malestatus
as a result
ofdifferentiation
from
emerges
theberdache
thefemale.
is nottwohalf-beings
kachina
buttwowhole
Similarly,
intoone.ThismakesKolhamana,
andbyimplication
theacpersonalities
forged
a specialrepresentation
tualihamanaorberdache,
ofwholeness,
abletobridge
themostfundamental
economic
andsocialdivisions
ofZunisociety.
APPENDIX
ofCostumeElements
Inventory
Genderratings
arebasedon relativefrequency
ofoccurrence
onmalekachinasona scaleof0 to 10. A
dash (-) underthe frequency
and ratingheadingsindicatesthatthecostumeelementappearson
Kolhamanaonly.
CostumeElement
Frequency
Ratinga Notes
Mask Type
1. Helmetmask 'ulinne
26
8
coverswholehead
2. Halfmask
10
6
Mask Color
3. Blue-green 'akwalhi
coversupperpart
offaceonly
14
4. Pink
1
10 "bluestone,"
themalecolor
10 pinkclay
shoyanne
hekk'achona
5. White
hek'ohakwa
6. Multicolor k'uchuna
11
1
7. Black
8
michapi:we;
hekw'itola
8. Yellow
lhupz'ina
Mask Designs
9. Hepakinne hepakinne
1
3
Sources
Bunzel1932b:857;
Parsons1922:200;
Newman1958:16
Bunzel1932b:857-858;
Stevenson1904:148
Bunzel1932b:861,1011;
Ladd 1963:33
Bunzel1932b:996;
Newman1958:20
5 whiteclay,kaolin
Bunzel1932b:859
10 masksinsetsof
Newman1958:24
sixcolors(Salimopiya)
8 madefromburned Bunzel1932b:859,860
corncobs;madefrom
cornfungus
10 e.g., 'A'hute
Newman1958:29
10 circular
designfor
colored
"differently
lightning"
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Bunzel1932b:923
64
ROSCOE
APPENDIX, continued
Frequency
Ratinga Notes
CostumeElement
10. MilkyWay 'upialhanne
kushoktapa
4
11. Spots
3
12. Stars
moyachunne
1
13. Dragonfly shumak'olo:wa
1
14. Butterfly lahashoma
1
MaskFeatures
10 "MilkyWaystriped
mark,"checkered
bandaroundface
0 oncheeks,refers
to
menstruation
10 stardesign"for
finenights"
10 onKan'a:kwe,"to
makethecorngrow
fast"
10 sacredbutterfly,
"a lovecharm"
15. Rectangle
eyes
16. Roundeyes
17. Ball eyes
13
6
8
5
8
8
18. Cloudeyes lomuloktanne
tunapa
19. Crescent
eyes
20. Raineyes
3
21. Tadpole
mu:tuli'ka
eyes
22. Zigzagnose noz'inanpaninne
23. Teeth
shizitonne
24. Round
mouth
25. Snout
3
3
1
5
6
10
'otonne;
'otonzikonne
9
26. Bigears
lashokti:we
4
27. Squash
blossom
'ateyanne
2
28. Horns
saya:we
4
29. Horse-hair huponninne
beard
9
30. Blackhair 'uzhialanne
31. Whitehair lohayaye
32. Goathair
9
5
3
e.g., Kokk'okshi
Sources
Bunzel1932b:862,990;
Parsons1922:174
Bunzel1932b:1014,
1032
Parsons1922:199;
Bunzel1932b:1007
Bunzel1932b:1009;
Cook 1974:83
Bunzel1932b:871;
Newman1958:25
Bunzel1932b:858;
Roediger1961:223
Bunzel1932b:858,958
Bunzel1932b:858,936
e.g., Yamuhakto
onscarekachinas,
"tosee better"
10 "cloudoblongeyed" Bunzel1932b:908,991
10 "thenewmoonwith Bunzel1932b:1021
thehornsdown"
10 "linesundereyes
Bunzel1932b:980
... areraindrops"
10 onKan'a:kwe
Bunzel1932b:1009;
Cook 1974:82
10 represents
Parsons1922:186;
Bunzel1932b:1078
lightning
8 "teethtogether
Bunzel1932b:858,1021
onscare
mouth,"
kachinas
8 e.g., Shula:wizi
Bunzel1932b:958
Bunzel1932b:908,1009,
10 onKan'a:kwe"to
makethecloudscome 1065
quickly"
10 onPautiwa"so that Bunzel1932b:908;
Newman1958:26
hecanheareverything
hispeopleaskfor"
ofmelons Parsons1922:212;
10 for"plenty
andsquashes"
Bunzel1932b:991;
Newman1958:10
Newman1958:36;
10 oneormorehorns
Bunzel1932b:859,962
Bunzel1932b:1021;
7 coverslowerface
onhalfmasks
Roediger1961:161;
Newman1958:22;
Cook 1974:72
aroundface Bunzel1932b:1065
10 blackruff
Bunzel1932b:1070
4 whitehair
Bunzel1932b:1011;
7 fringe
orwool
overforehead
Roediger1961:224
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65
Semiotics
ofGenderonZuniKachinas
APPENDIX,continued
Ratinga Notes
Frequency
CostumeElement
3
0
34. Hairdown
6
8
35. Hairup
anddown
-
-
25
7
16
9
6
10
5
8
33. Hairup
Feathers
mazikwa:we
36. Downy
eagle
'u'kahana
lashowan
lhupz'ina
38. Eagletail k'ak'ali
k'ate:we;
laz'umme:we
39. Macawtail lapapowanne
37. Macaw
40. Great
feather
lashowan
ihana
5
8
41. Hawk
zililik'o;pippi
5
10
42. Duck
'eya;netonne
6
10
43. Crane
k'o:lokta
1
10
44. Owl
muhukwi
lahashiponne
2
10
45. Turkey
tonalashiponne
46. Downyred 'u'kahana
feather
5
4
8
8
47. Bluejay
4
10
48. Summer
birds
2
10
49. Spruce
9
9
50. Elk/wool
3
10
51. Crowfeather
3
10
52. Coyoteskin
53. Fox skin
3
3
10
10
maya;
ihazitonne
CollarType
Sources
"theancientheaddressParsons1922:184;
ofZunimaidens"
Bunzel1932b:867
Bunzel1932b:867
longhairworn
down(male)
onKolhamana
Bunzel1932b:867
theeagle"travelsfar Parsons1933:94;
inall directions
andso Bunzel1932b:863
hewillsurelybring
us therains"
Bunzel1932b:908,863;
"tobringtherains
ofthesouth"
Ladd 1963:16
eagletailfeathers; Newman1958:22,23;
feathers," Parsons1922:214;
"strong
"fortheclouds"
Bunzel1932b:1065
macawtailfeathers Bunzel1932b:908,1032
onstick
Bunzel1932b:864,936
eagleandduck
feathers
fastened
toreeds,"dangerous"
hawk
Bunzel1932b:993,
sparrow
"fortherain"; 1006,1009,1065;
feathers
hawk
Cook 1974:81;
red-tailed
Newman1958:34
duck's Newman1958:12;
duck;stuffed
Bunzel1932b:920,981;
head
Ladd 1963:31
sandhillcrane,used Ladd 1963:15
inlapapowa
Newman1958:24
bunchofowl
Bunzel1932b:919,1041;
"tobring
Newman1958:32
feathers,
therain"
diskofturkey
feathersBunzel1932b:1057
red-stained
feather, Parsons1922:173;
Bunzel1932b:863
"badgeofsociety
membership"
ofthe
"feather
Bunzel1932b:864,980,
991; Newman1958:30
priests";
bluejay
feather
onstick
ofsummer Bunzel1932b:962
feathers
birds
"itsymbolizes
all the Bunzel1932b:862
greengrowing
things"
"elkskinstuffed
Bunzel1932b:962
withwool"
the
"tofrighten
Bunzel1932b:988
children... crows
bringbadluck"
Bunzel1932b:919,1006
Bunzel1932b:908,1017
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ROSCOE
66
APPENDIX, continued
Ratinga Notes
Frequency
CostumeElement
54. Cloth
55. Fawnskin
56. Kilt
BodyPaint
57. Black
58. Pink
59. Red
hekwitola
kok'a:wan
hekk'achona
'ahok'ona
1
1
2
10 onKoyemshi
Bunzel1932b:862
0
Bunzel1932b:936
0 onKomokashshik'i Bunzel1932b:862,1014
"tohideherface...
becausesheis
ashamed"
6
6
10 e.g., TowaCha'kwen Bunzel1932b:920,1018
10 "katcina'sclay"from Bunzel1932b:860;
SacredLake
Newman1958:20
10 "forthered-breastedBunzel1932b:861,862;
Newman1958:7
birds,"redochre
10 "forthesun"
Bunzel1932b:862,993
4
2
61. Yellow
hekshina
k'ohanna
he:lhupz'ikwa
62. Purple
k'e:kw'ina
1
60. White
1
63. Yellowarms
11
64. White
forearms
65. Whitelegs
66. Yellowlegs
67. Redknees
68. Yellow
calves
69. Pinkcalves
5
Designs
70. Dots
6
1
3
9
1
pi'lawapana
73. Yellow
bows
6
1
1
71. Crescents
72. Spots
1
pi'lha:we
Clothing
Sources
74. Dancekilt pilhanne
13
75. Buckskin
kilt
76. Salimopiya
kilt
77. Breechclout
pilha ihi"ana
5
5
3
10 "fortheyellowBunzel1932b:860,862;
birdsand
Newman1958:115
breasted
and
fortheflowers
andall the
butterflies
beautiful
things"
10 "fortheblackearth Bunzel1932b:861,1065;
Newman1958:23
... wetfromrain"
10 "fortheyellowflowersBunzel1932b:868,1016
andthecornpollen"
0 onkachinamaidens Bunzel1932b:1013
10 "forthesun"
10
10 "forspeed"
9 "fortheyellow
birdsofsummer"
10
Bunzel1932b:868
Bunzel1932b:868
Bunzel1932b:868
Bunzel1932b:871,990
Bunzel1932b:991
10 yellowspotsonarms Bunzel1932b:868,1021
andchestforthe
rainbow
Bunzel1932b:920
10 e.g., Sayalhi"a
10 multicolored
spots,forBunzel1932b:862,868
raindrops
10 on TowaCha'kwen Bunzel1932b:1018
10 embroidered
panels Bunzel1932b:869;
Parsons1930:13;
"rain,
symbolize
Cook 1974:101
clouds,andlife"
10 "associatedwithwar Bunzel1932b:870
orhunting"
with
10 embroidered
Bunzel1932b:989
butterflies
andflowers
10 madewithdarkblue Bunzel1932b:869,1077
nativeclothor
sash
embroidered
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Semiotics
onZuniKachinas
ofGender
67
APPENDIX, continued
Ratinga Notes
Frequency
CostumeElement
78. Robe
1
miha
79. Shawlkilt zi'pa "inne
80. Dress
yatonanne;'eha
1
8
4
81. Buckskin na'le kemme
shirt
miha
82. Blanket
10
83. Buckskin kalhe
2
84. Kilt-sash
-
85. Pitonne
pitonne
1
86. Fox skin
ihanak'owe'le
16
87. Sash
'ikkwinne
13
88. Wovenbelt mo'lipon
'ikkwinne
89. Leggings kechi'alla:we
25
90. Barefoot
6
Accessories
91. Gourdrattlechi'monne
5
8
92. Turtleshell lheyakkwinne;
'okkolonanne
rattle
10
93. Deerrattle sakolhokona:we
6
94. Bells
musilili
95. Bandoleer kepatonanne
7
3
96. Fawnskin
bag
97. Bow and pi'lhanne;
showe
arrow
98. Yucca
hoz'ana
blades
99. Spruce
k'alhaz'i:we
4
6
8
10
Sources
Bunzel1932b:1009
10 wornas a robeby
Kan'a:kwe
10 onHehe'a, "fringed Bunzel1932b:1017;
girl'sshawlas kilt" Newman1958:33;
Cook 1974:101
0 blackwoman'sdress Parsons1922:195,212;
Newman1958:47,11
fastened
onright
blanket
shoulder;
dress,manta
10 buckskin
shirt
Bunzel1932b:1003;
Roediger1961:121
5 onimportant
kachinas,Bunzel1932b:870,908,
withcloud,flower, 1017
andbutterfly
designs
10 buckskin
wornover Parsons1917:177;
Bunzel1932b:967
shoulder
- onKolhamana,dance Bunzel1932b:1011
kiltonleftshoulder
0 brightly
coloredsilk Bunzel1932b:871
wornovershoulders
10 "a relicoftheearliest Bunzel1932b:870,1003;
Parsons1922:202;
days... while
was still
mankind
Cook 1974:78
tailedandhorned"
10 fringe
symbolizes Bunzel1932b:870;
oftherain" Roediger1961:135;
"falling
Cook 1974:100
9 "hangdowninknots Bunzel1932b:1003;
Parsons1922:175
belt"
hoseor
Parsons1930:13;
8 knitted
buckskin
leggings Bunzel1932b:870
Bunzel1932b:870,989
5 oftenwithspruce
anklets(zileakwi:we')
8
soundslikerain
Bunzel1932b:872;
Newman1958:18
10 wornonright
Parsons1922:175
leg
Bunzel1932b:870,1009;
Newman1958:28
7 rattle
ofdeer
Parsons1922:205;
Bunzel1932b:872
scapulae
Bunzel1932b:870,998
10 sleighbellsonleg
10 "buckskin
around," Bunzel1932b:871,1002;
kachinas Parsons1922:204
onwarrior
Bunzel1932b:958,1014
8 usedtocarryseeds
10 hunting
bow;arrows Newman1958:33,39;
Bunzel1932b:872
10 carried
bywarrior Newman1958:21;
kachinasBunzel1932b:872
andwhipping
Parsons1922:174;
ofspruce
6 circlets
"tomake Bunzel1932b:872-873;
onwrists,
Cook 1974:87
theworldgreen"
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ROSCOE
68
APPENDIX,continued
Costume
Element
Sources
Frequency
Ratinga Notes
11
7
ear
of
Bunzel
1032
100.Seed/corn
corn,
1932b:873,
mi'k'appanne
perfect
seeds
18
9 indicates
Newman
101.Necklacestaku:we
1958:40;
importance,
worn
closetothe
Bunzel1932b:871,
1003
forsociety
throat
membership
1
10 feathered
sticks
Bunzel1932b:993
102.Sticks
4
8 "feathered
wands
or Bunzel1932b:873,
103.Staff
telna
telnanne;
with
1032,1042,1065
lashowapa;
longstaves
ofrain
crook
taz'ik'ana
feathers";
zilhzikona
priests
104.Willow pila
3
10 usedasa whip
105.Torch
'opzina
numnunanne
106.Bull-roarer
2
1
10
10
107.Chili
k'ol'owe:we
peppers
108.Antlers saya:we
1
10 e.g.,Hehe'a
1
10 symbolizes
trees
knife
hana
109.Stone
'achiyal
2
Kachina Typeb
110.Priest
Il1. Group
112.Raindancer
113. Whipping
114.Scare
115.Humorous
5 carried
byscare
kachinas
15
4
5
7
3
2
8
8
6
10
7
5
switch
Bunzel1932b:990;
Cook 1974:87;
Newman
1958:106
Parsons
1917:214
Bunzel1932b:
1063;
Newman
1958:32
Bunzel1932b:
1077;
Newman
1958:23
Bunzel1932b:968,
1041;
Newman
1958:36
Bunzel1932b:873,
1003;
Newman
1958:7
Bunzel1932b:521
Bunzel1932b:888
Bunzel1932b:888
Bunzel1932b:872-873
Bunzel1932b:935-941
Bunzel1932b:986,
1017,1077
ofgender
a. Seep.00forexplanation
rating.
thisheading
wasnotassigned
a kachina
thefrequencies
listed
under
total
36
b. Kolhamana
typesothat
instead
of37kachinas.
ThanksareduetoBradleyRose,JohnBurnside,
CarolQueen,andSue-Ellen
Acknowledgments.
fortheir
Jacobs
comments
andtotheVanWaveren
Foundation
foritsgenerous
financial
support.
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