Southern Gulf of St Lawrence Coalition on Sustainability
Traditional Ecological Knowledge Working Group
Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two
Migmag communities of New Brunswick
March 2008
Authors:
Chantal Gagnon,
Gagnon, SGSLCS
Adela Levi and Franklin Levi, Elsipogtog First Nation
Colleen Gauvin and Nora LaBillois, Ugpiganjig First Nation
Funded by: Natural Resources Canada: Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation
Program (CCIAP)
Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Table of Contents
Table of Contents....................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... 4
Summary.................................................................................................................................... 5
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Participating Communities ................................................................................................. 8
1.1.1. Elsipogtog................................................................................................................................. 8
1.1.1.1. Location............................................................................................................................................ 8
1.1.1.2. History .............................................................................................................................................. 8
1.1.1.3. Demographics................................................................................................................................... 8
1.1.1.4. Habitat .............................................................................................................................................. 8
1.1.1.5. Resources.......................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1.2. Ugpiganjig................................................................................................................................ 9
1.1.2.1. Location............................................................................................................................................ 9
1.1.2.2. History .............................................................................................................................................. 9
1.1.2.3. Demographics................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1.2.4. Habitat ............................................................................................................................................ 10
1.1.2.5. Resources........................................................................................................................................ 10
2. Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 11
2.1. Investigators ............................................................................................................................. 11
2.1.1. Relations ............................................................................................................................................ 11
2.1.2. Visits.................................................................................................................................................. 11
2.2. Questionnaires and Gatherings .............................................................................................. 11
2.2.1. 1st Questionnaire ................................................................................................................................ 12
2.2.2. 2nd Questionnaire ............................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.3. 1st Gathering ...................................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.4. 2nd Gathering...................................................................................................................................... 13
2.3. Project Approach ..................................................................................................................... 14
2.4. Project Participants ................................................................................................................. 15
2.4.1. Elsipogtog.......................................................................................................................................... 15
2.4.2. Ugpiganjig ......................................................................................................................................... 16
2.5 Project Challenges..................................................................................................................... 17
2.6. Lessons Learned....................................................................................................................... 18
3. Project Results ..................................................................................................................... 18
3.1. Climate Change Impacts .................................................................................................. 18
3.1.1. Projected Impacts ................................................................................................................. 19
3.1.2. Results on climate change impacts ...................................................................................... 20
3.1.2.1. Observations ................................................................................................................................... 20
3.1.2.2. Areas of concern............................................................................................................................. 22
3.1.2.3. Specific habitats and species of concern......................................................................................... 23
3.1.2.4. Specific climate change impacts of concern................................................................................... 24
3.1.2.5. Capacity.......................................................................................................................................... 25
3.1.2.6. Impressions..................................................................................................................................... 26
3.2. Climate Change Adaptation............................................................................................. 28
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
3.2.1. Results on climate change adaptation ................................................................................. 29
3.2.1.1. Obstacles......................................................................................................................................... 29
3.2.1.2. Strong points................................................................................................................................... 32
3.2.1.3. Adaptive capacity ........................................................................................................................... 34
3.2.1.4. Potential Adaptation Actions .......................................................................................................... 35
3.2.1.5. Immediate changes ......................................................................................................................... 36
4. Adaptation Strategies .......................................................................................................... 37
4.1. Aboriginal Heritage Gardens.................................................................................................. 38
4.1.1. Participants’ perspective.................................................................................................................... 40
4.2. Protected habitat ...................................................................................................................... 42
4.2.1. Participants’ perspective.................................................................................................................... 43
5. Next Steps ............................................................................................................................ 45
5.1. Solutions.................................................................................................................................... 46
5.2. Recommendations .................................................................................................................... 47
5.3. Challenges................................................................................................................................. 48
5.4. Individual paths ....................................................................................................................... 48
6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 49
References................................................................................................................................ 51
Appendix 1 ............................................................................................................................... 53
Climate Change Impacts Questionnaire, September 2007 .......................................................................... 53
Appendix 2 ............................................................................................................................... 54
Climate Change Adaptation Questionnaire, October 2007.......................................................................... 54
Appendix 3 ............................................................................................................................... 55
Map of Elsipogtog ....................................................................................................................................... 55
Appendix 4 ............................................................................................................................... 56
Ugpiganjig Map........................................................................................................................................... 56
Table of Figure
Figure 1: Four Seasons Adaptation wheel
43
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge all our participants from Elsipogtog and Ugpiganjig for
sharing their time and knowledge on this project. We thank you for trusting us and believing
that this issue is important enough to merit your energy and support.
We would like to thank the Chiefs of Elsipogtog and Ugpiganjig who have given our project
team and the participants support and resources. Thank you for welcoming us with open arms
into your communities.
We send a special thank you to the caterers from both communities who provided us with
great food during our gatherings.
Thank you to Gordon LaBillois and Mario Lapointe for contributing their experience and
knowledge of the Aboriginal Heritage Garden to our project.
Thank you to our funders, the Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation program of Natural
Resources Canada for believing in our project and providing us with the means to make it a
success and a wonderful experience for all.
We acknowledge the support and contribution of the Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence Coalition
on Sustainability (Coalition-SGSL) Traditional Ecological Knowledge working group:
Allister, Willi, Nadine and Lacia.
Finally thanks to the secondary investigators, Adela and Franklin Levi of Elsipogtog and
Colleen Gauvin and Nora LaBillois of Ugpiganjig, for taking on this project, trusting the
SGSLC with this initiative, and contributing your time, talents, energy and hearts to the never
ending task of improving the wellbeing of our communities.
Oelaliog1,
Chantal Gagnon2
Primary Investigator
Coalition-SGSLC, TEK Working Group
1
There are many different spelling options in the Migmag language. This report chooses to use the spelling as
directed by the secondary investigators and the location of the project. Thus the spelling used is that mostly of
New Brunswick and specifically in Elsipogtog First Nation. Other spellings are possible (Mi’kmaq, Mikmag,
Miigmag, Micmac) and no offence is meant by the use of this spelling.
2
Cover Picture: Sunset at Ugpiganjig; source: Franklin Levi, Elsipogtog)
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Summary
The Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) working group of the Southern Gulf of StLawrence Coalition on Sustainability (SGSLC), with funding from the Canadian Climate
Change Impacts and Adaptation Program (CCIAP) of Natural Resources Canada, executed a
project from July 2007 to March 2008. This project considered two Migmag medicine
gathering approaches as climate change adaptation strategies. The two communities involved
were Elsipogtog (Big Cove) and Ugpiganjig (Eel River Bar)3 in eastern New Brunswick.
Through interviews and gatherings, two groups of participants expressed their observations,
knowledge and concerns about climate change impact and for adaptation. The project
considered the Aboriginal Heritage Garden (AHG) and protection of habitat as adaptation
strategies that would increase the adaptive capacity of the medicine, medicine gatherers4 and
their greater communities.
The participants’ main observations are that medicine is being affected as much from climate
changes and land use practices, as from cultural changes and lifestyles. The challenges the
medicine gatherers face include old age and lack of interest from the youth5. Their strength is
their strong spiritual connection to medicine and the desire to share their knowledge with
those who will listen and learn.
The participants’ primary adaptation need is support from political institutions in all
government jurisdictions to protect the habitat of the medicine and encourage the sharing of
traditional knowledge. Some solutions put forth include practical investments like individual
green houses to learning from observations of certain species as they adapt. Other solutions
involve collaboration with neighbouring communities for coastal planning and access to
productive medicine habitat, be it on private or public lands. All solutions require
understanding and respect of the place Aboriginal people can play in the future of the region.
The Aboriginal Heritage Garden and protection of habitat are individually good adaptation
strategies for medicine and medicine gatherers. However, under an overall approach to
sustainability of the medicine and the knowledge of the medicine gatherers, the two strategies
combined are certain to increase the adaptive capacity in the region. Slight modifications to
the mandate and management of the AHG and more holistic and integrated land use
management in the region are both needed to ensure medicine and its knowledge is still
present in seven generations6.
3
To respect the identity of the communities involved in this project, they are always referred herein with their
Migmag names: Elsipogtog and Ugpiganjig.
4
Medicine gatherer is the closest term we know to describe as a group the various peoples who hold the
knowledge of traditional medicine, where to find it, how to get it, use it and pass the knowledge along.
5
Youth signifies a general grouping of those people between the ages of 13 to 30. This term is used in this report
to be faithful to the expressions used by the participants in the project and how they refer to certain groups
within and outside their communities.
6
Seven Generations is a concept of Aboriginal people and is used in this report out of respect for their approach
to making decisions and managing their societies.
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
1. Introduction
“This had been through our own negligence. Human kind has been the cause of all this with their technology
and not thinking how to respect Mother Earth”
(Elder, Elsipogtog, Interview 1).
Human beings have, in all cultures, developed means of healing themselves by observing
other species and by learning how to use plants, animals and minerals. This knowledge
eventually led to the basis of what is known in modern society as medication. In North
America, medication is produced by pharmaceutical companies and requires access to
conventional doctors and monetary resources. Luckily, there are Aboriginal peoples and
traditional knowledge holders around the world who still have direct contact with the plants,
animals and minerals and know how to approach, prepare and use them for medicinal
purposes.
Before the advent of the pharmaceutical era, we cured our ailments through traditional
knowledge passed on from one generation to the next, from mother to daughter, father to son,
and Elder7 to youth. The cure for many ailments was not only found in the plants, animals and
minerals that surrounded communities, but also in physical, spiritual, emotional, and mental
wellbeing that came from interactions with family, friends, community members and other
creatures (Elders, Elsipogtog, 1st gathering).
Today, doctors, nurses and pharmacists assist in an individual’s healing and medicinal needs.
However, often the modern process lacks the holistic aspects of healing, as modern society
and the medicinal field is disconnected from Mother Earth8 and community. This lack of
connection is the same that has created the global crisis of climate change we are all facing.
In the fight against climate change, there are two sides that must be considered: mitigation
and adaptation (Warren: 2004; IPCC, 2001). Mitigation is necessary to curb the worst effects
of climate change, but adaptation is mandatory if current and future generations are going to
diminish the severity of the impacts and their associated costs to life.
Climate change is caused in great part by the emissions generated by burning fossil fuels
(IPCC, 2001). Industrial processes and our current way of life in developed society have
become dependent on the burning of fossil fuels. Anthropogenic factors are the true cause of
climate change. It is our way of life that needs to be altered if climate change is to be
mitigated. If we are to adapt to climate change, we need to adopt a different way of life and
find solutions that are sustainable, i.e. to meet the needs of seven generations.
Climate adaptation research indicates that the most vulnerable people are those who have a
diminished political, economic, social and technical presence within a community, region or
7
Elder is a term of respect used by Aboriginal people. They are usually elderly people who are sought out by
others for their knowledge and wisdom. This term is used in this report to be faithful to the expressions used by
the participants in the project and how they refer to certain groups within and outside their communities.
8
Mother Earth is a term used by Aboriginal people to signify the planet earth. This term is used in this report to
be faithful to the expressions used by the participants in the project and to show respect for their beliefs.
6
Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
nation (Verheyen, 2003; Smith 2003). Within Canada, Aboriginal peoples are considered
highly vulnerable because of these reasons (Warren, 2004).
Due to rapid changes to the climate and the potential for severe impacts to modern society and
conventional healing, it is important to know how the traditional medicine and those that
know it are being impacted, and what is needed to adapt. The potential for healing physical,
emotional, mental and spiritual wounds and illnesses, in the present as in the future, may very
well reside on those individuals who have kept a close relationship to Mother Earth and are
still able to find within her relations the answers to our future medicinal and healing needs.
The Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) working group of the Southern Gulf of StLawrence Coalition on Sustainability (SGSLC) started debating in 2007 the issue. It became
obvious that this was a topic of concern to our members and that the timing was appropriate
given the interest of governments, citizens and businesses in climate change impacts and
adaptation and alternative medicine. In the effort to adapt, many questions must be answered
and many segments of society must be pooled together to achieve solutions. Combining a
project focused on building adaptive capacity to climate change with the people who hold the
knowledge of the traditional medicine and who happen to be high on the vulnerability scale
seemed appropriate.
The SGSLC is in Migmagi - the traditional territory of the Migmag and Wolastiquyik
peoples. It was therefore logical to work with two communities from this region. In our
discussions, we often mentioned the Aboriginal Heritage Garden at Ugpiganjig, as we had
heard of this facility through various sources. With sea level rise a big concern in New
Brunswick, and with the AHG being situated in a coastal New Brunswick Migmag
community, it seemed appropriate to work with Ugpiganjig medicine gatherers. Its
collaboration with the Université de Moncton made Elsipogtog the obvious choice for our
second community. It has a well known group of traditional medicine knowledge holders and
is also situated in coastal New Brunswick..
This report is the synthesis of the work done to increase the adaptive capacity of the medicine
gatherers in Elsipogtog and Ugpiganjig by looking at their medicine gathering approaches as
potential adaptation strategies. This is key in determining what steps must be taken to ensure
that current and future generations have means, will and desire to adapt to the coming climate
changes. The report just skims the surface of the adaptive capacity of the medicine and its
gatherers because of the project’s scope, time limitations and case study approach. This report
will be discussed with local decision makers as per the next steps recommended by the
participants in the project. It is also the first step in sharing this information with other
medicine gatherers of the region.
The report consists mainly of the results from interviews as well as results from the two
gatherings with the participants. It also includes an analysis of the benefits and limitations of
the AHG and protecting areas of significance to medicine as adaptation strategies. We
conclude with the recommendations from the participants as to the next actions needed to
continue working on the issue of traditional medicine adaptation to climate change impacts in
the Atlantic region.
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
1.1 Participating Communities
“Today, I feel so strongly connected to my culture and I have learned to use and respect the knowledge of my
ancestors.” (Elder, Elsipogtog, Interview 1)
1.1.1. Elsipogtog
1.1.1.1. Location
The Elsipogtog First Nations Band inhabits the Richibucto Reserve, which covers 4120 acres
and is located 5 miles southwest of Rexton, New Brunswick.
1.1.1.2. History
The reserve was established in September of 1805. The Migmag of New Brunswick were
Kent County's first inhabitants. Their nomadic lifestyle led them as far as Prince Edward
Island in the summer, while Elsipogtog represented a better shelter in the winter. The main
body of the tribe stayed at what is presently called Richibucto, originally Melsigpogtog,
meaning "Strong Point". Their right to the land was eroded in 1725, when a treaty guaranteed
undisturbed encroachment by white settlers (Augustine, 1994).
The Migmag dispersed as white settlers grew. From 2000 originally, the population dropped
to 12 families scattered around Richibucto and another 12 families up the river at the present
reserve location. In 1802, the New Brunswick Legislature set aside 51,200 acres for the
Elsipogtog Community but reclaimed over 3,000 acres in 1866, and by 1900, the Community
only had 2,222 acres left (Augustine, 1994).
In 1871, the Federal Government initiated a process to prepare the Indians for the transition to
a farming mode of life. A first school was built in 1855 and a church in 1897. The outbreak of
the Spanish Flu in 1919 decimated the Elsipogtog Community of 40 families to half its size. It
was only after the Second World War that it started to rebuild to the level known presently
(Augustine, 1994).
1.1.1.3. Demographics
Today, Elsipogtog is a community of 2857 Migmag people and the percentage of land base is
only 8% of what was set aside in 1802. Elsipogtog is the largest Native Community in New
Brunswick, Canada. There are a little over 2100 people living on-reserve, with a distribution
of almost 50-50 in gender (Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC), 2007).
1.1.1.4. Habitat
Five main vegetation communities were identified – softwood, hardwood, mixed wood,
wetlands (bogs), riparian, and clear-cuts. The age structure of the trees varied significantly
from less than 10 years old in clear-cuts to more than 80 years old in some mixed wood
stands. While a small number of species dominated, many species such as red maple, black
spruce, eastern white pine, and grey birch occurred widely but in low density (Big Cove First
Nation Community Plan, 1999).
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
1.1.1.5. Resources
The reserve has a band office, health center, one school, a police detachment and a fire hall on
site (INAC, 2007). The over 600 homes are serviced by electricity, water, sewage and garbage
facilities. High-speed internet access is available, though public access is not. Few residents
have access to the internet from home (INAC, 2007).
(Community member using resources; source: Franklin Levi, Elsipogtog.)
1.1.2. Ugpiganjig
1.1.2.1. Location
Ugpiganjig is situated in coastal north-east New Brunswick; neighbouring non-Aboriginal
communities include Dalhousie and Charlo. In all, Ugpiganjig First Nation encompasses 1314
acres of land in three separate parcels. Most of the reserve is developed and a highway runs
through it. The section with the Aboriginal Heritage Garden is mostly woodlands and natural
areas (Eel River Bar First Nation Comprehensive Community Plan (ERBCCP), 2008).
1.1.2.2. History
Ugpiganjig just celebrated 200 years of habitation in this particular location. The Migmag
were forced to move to the mouth the Eel River under threat of losing their status. Despite the
swamp land that it was, the community was able to thrive thanks to the river. When the river
was dammed in 1963, the changes to the natural tidal filtration processes created pollution
that forced the community to change their way of life. In 1992, the Chief and council
established a new vision for the community. The AHG and the Osprey Truck Stop are part of
that vision (ERBCCP, 2008).
1.1.2.3. Demographics
The on-reserve population of Ugpiganjig is a little over 300 with an almost 50-50 distribution
of gender. The population of the community on and off reserve is roughly 600 (ERBCCP,
2008).
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
1.1.2.4. Habitat
One side of the reserve is bordered by the beautiful Bay of Chaleur. Ugpiganjig has a fresh
water river (which is dammed) that flows into the salt water. There are marshes where the
medicinal plants grow. Ugpiganjig is home to the world’s longest natural sand bar. The
reserve includes acres of forest within and several acres in the southeast. A map and picture of
the community can be found at appendix 4.
1.1.2.5. Resources
The southeast woods provide moose and deer to the population, mainly for food and
traditional purposes. During the summer season, they fish lobster, salmon, eel, cod and trout.
Before the dam was built, Ugpiganjig was home to a beautiful clam beach which provided
food and revenue to members of the community. Ducks are harvested but in small quantities.
The men cut lumber for the mills in the southeast and the woman create some very beautiful
moccasins, jewellery, sun catchers and other native lore. The community has struggled since
the loss of revenue from the collapse of the clam harvesting.
Economically, the community has limitations (especially when considering infrastructure
adaptation needs) mostly do to the varying degree of awareness and financial means between
community members. The main employment opportunities in the natural resources are
forestry and fishery (ERBCCP, 2008).
(Ugpiganjig Band Office and Community Center; source: EERCCP, 2008, Page 2)
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
2. Methodology
A cross-cultural project such as this one requires many personal interactions and significant
amounts of human and financial resources. This project seeks to ensure a meaningful
experience for the communities involved despite time restrictions.
2.1. Investigators
The project was conducted by one primary investigator and four secondary investigators. The
secondary investigators are two members of each Migmag community, all knowledgeable of
traditional medicine and have experience in facilitating projects in their respective
communities.
2.1.1. Relations
It is important to note that access into First Nations communities to conduct projects can be a
sensitive issue. Our difficulty was increased given the limited timeframe inherited as a result
of project approval delays with Natural Resources Canada.
Luckily, the primary investigator knew the two Gatekeepers9 of one of the communities and
they agreed to be part of the project as secondary investigators. The primary investigator
spent time with the medicine gatherers as well as with the secondary investigators in the
community. This helped establish relationships and built trust between the medicine gatherers
and the primary investigator.
The fact that the secondary investigators are trusted members of the community and are
knowledgeable and respectful of the medicine gatherers way of life helped create an
atmosphere of trust and sharing. Cultural protocols were followed in order to ensure that the
investigators’ actions and behaviours did not offend anyone in the community while
participating in activities.
2.1.2. Visits
During the nine month project period, the primary investigator made three visits of two to five
days to the secondary investigators in their respective communities. She stayed in their
homes, visited the communities, participated in a few social activities and met with the project
participants. The trips were adjusted according to the schedule of the receiving community,
and the needs of the respective groups, project goals and timelines. Gift giving10 was practised
during visits with the medicine gatherers.
2.2. Questionnaires and Gatherings
After discussing with the secondary investigators it was deemed appropriate that they would
interview each participant from their community on an individual basis. The primary
9
This term refers to the people within an Aboriginal community assigned to look out for the interest of their
elders and community members in projects involving academics, organisations and institutions.
10
It is customary to bring small tokens of appreciation when visiting with Aboriginals involved in a project.
These tokens generally consisted of small pouches with one of the sacred herbs (cedar, tobacco, sage or sweet
grass). However, they can also include baked goods, small decorations, and so on.
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
investigator in collaboration with the secondary investigators sought to develop culturally
appropriate methodology and interview questions.
The interview questionnaires were semi-structured and consisted of open-ended questions.
Permission to use the information from the interviews was granted by the project participants.
The open-ended interview questions focused on the participant’s experiences, understandings
and interpretations regarding relationships with medicine, medicine gathering and the
pressures that affect such relationships, with a special focus on climate change projections,
impacts and adaptation.
2.2.1. 1st Questionnaire
The same questionnaire was used in each community. The questions were developed by the
primary investigator based on climate change impacts research. The questions were reviewed
and adapted to their audience by the secondary investigators and were then reviewed by the
TEK working group members. The secondary investigators then met with the participants to
conduct one-on-one interviews. The questionnaire can be found in appendix 1. All interviews
were conducted before the first gathering.
2.2.2. 2nd Questionnaire
The same questionnaire was used in each community. The questions were developed by the
primary investigator based on climate change adaptation research. The questions were
reviewed and adapted to their audience by the secondary investigators. It must be noted that
the second interview questions on climate change adaptation lacked input by the SGSLC-TEK
working group due to time constraints. The interviews needed to be done before the second
gathering, and so the questions were kept as approved by the secondary investigators. The
questions were explained to the interviewees with great care and understanding of the
meaning and goal sought by each questions. The same steps were followed for the second
interviews as for the first. The questionnaire can be found in appendix 2. All interviews were
carried out after the first gathering and before the second gathering.
2.2.3. 1st Gathering
The two groups met for the first time in Elsipogtog on September 21, 2007. The gathering was
a two days and a half event11. The secondary investigators with the Elsipogtog participants
planned and organized the gathering. Most of the gathering was held inside the Elsipogtog
Health Center. The investigators talked and shared with the participants. The secondary
investigators for Elsipogtog were the facilitators for the gathering.
The Friday evening was an introductory session with a meal and included an activity using
illustrations to trigger memory and facilitate discussions. The evening was designed to help
the participants get to know each other and feel comfortable sharing together. The participants
were seated at tables in a circle. The seating remained for most of the gathering except for an
outside activity and the Sunday role playing. Most of the participants from Ugpiganjig lodged
with the participants from Elsipogtog. This contributed to create a bond between the two
groups and also contributed economically to the Elsipogtog community.
11
It is customary to hold gatherings involving Elders for three days, usually Friday to Sunday inclusively. Due to
travelling involved in this project, the gathering were both held from Friday evening to Sunday afternoon.
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Saturday the participants ate their meals together and spent most of the day discussing climate
change impacts. Praying, singing, drumming and smudging were done at the beginning and
end of each day. A spiritual outdoor activity was held at the tipi/sweat lodge area regarding
the medicine gatherers grounding12 with Mother Earth (this portion was non-documented).
To motivate conversations and keep spirits high, the facilitators used ice breakers, role
playing, and trinkets through out the day. The traditional aspects of the four rocks - known as
the Grandfathers - were brought in for spiritual connection to the issues discussed..
Sunday was the conclusion of the discussion on climate change impacts. The participants later
engaged in role playing which demonstrated the frustrations of medicine gatherers trying to
be heard in a world of non-Aboriginal government policies, interest and authority. The
gathering came to an end with the appreciation and the bonds between the two groups now
established.
2.2.4. 2nd Gathering
The two groups met for the second time in Ugpiganjig on October 26th 2007, for the same
duration as the previous one. The gathering was held inside the Ugpiganjig Band Office. The
date was chosen based on the most convenient time lag for the participants given family,
community and occupational obligations, as well as weather concerns. The participants and
secondary investigators at Ugpiganjig prepared the second gathering with only a few
adjustments from the primary investigator.
The schedule was similar to the first gathering. The participants arrived Friday for supper,
then had a small activity centered on getting to know each other better. The participants
enjoyed the activities and discussions.
Saturday, the participants discussed adaptation with the four seasons and visited the
Aboriginal Heritage Garden and its medicine trail. Once back in the Band Office, they
discussed the various benefits and limitations of the AHG as an adaptation strategy.
On Sunday, the participants held final discussions on the actions they would like to see come
from their community leaders, the government leaders, and from themselves. Small gifts were
exchanged at both gatherings, at the beginning and at the end.
The gatherings were appreciated by all participants and seen as a positive experience. The
differences and similarities between the groups made the sharing of information, observations
and perspectives interesting, varied and reflective of the uniqueness of each community
despite a shared history, culture, language and social position.
12
Grounding is used here to summarise the activity and its goal. In being outdoors in a spiritually significant
space, grouped together, the participants discussed their relation to Mother Earth, medicine and climate. By
being seated at the circle with their feet on the ground, the participants were “grounded” to Mother Earth while
feeling the environment around them. This sight is of the actual fire that is used for the sweat lodge ceremonies.
The four elements were with the participants during the outdoor activity (air, water, fire and wind). The depth of
the relations and interconnectedness between the medicine gatherers and the surrounding environment could
therefore be explored more fully..
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
(Elsipogtog Community Lodges by Healing Center; source: Franklin Levi, Elsipogtog)
2.3. Project Approach
2.3.1. Information
The information obtained from the project was recorded in notebooks by the investigators.
The participants were also given journals to enhance their experience. The participants were
free to choose whether or not they would share the information gathered in their journals with
the investigators. In the end, no information from the personal journals was shared with the
investigators, as most Elders prefer the traditional oral exchange of knowledge rather than the
written one. The secondary investigators were responsible for carrying out and recording the
interviews. During the gatherings, the secondary investigators from the visiting community
would take notes alongside the primary investigator. These written notes were submitted to
the primary investigator who analysed the information included in this report.
2.3.2. Confidentiality
No audio recording devices were used at any time during the gatherings, interviews or visits.
To ensure confidentiality and protect traditional medicine, individuals are not identified in the
project. Participants are identified as a group, i.e. the medicine gatherers of Elsipogtog or
Ugpiganjig.
2.3.3. Report
This report attempts to integrate the information that was obtained from the interviews and
gatherings, in order to analyse it through the climate change adaptation lens. The description
of the medicine gathering approaches was done in a manner that permits the evaluation of
each approach as an adaptation strategy and provides general description of the approach.
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Details of the methods of collecting medicine, the location, the nature of the medicine and any
other details that may permit a closer identification of the medicine and its uses were not
included in the report unless explicitly asked for or approved by the medicine gatherers. This
is important to ensure the protection of the medicine gatherers, the preservation of medicine
and the spiritual and cultural aspects of the traditional knowledge.
2.3.4. Language
The information gathered from the interviews and gatherings was in English. However,
participants who wanted to be interviewed in Migmag were accommodated by the secondary
investigator (one for each community is fluent in Migmag). They were able to interpret and/or
translate the interview questions, climate change information and provide clarifications at the
gatherings for the participants. It is the long-term objective of this project to have this report
translated into Migmag as well, if funding can be secured.
2.3.5. Compensation
Compensation occurred according to the payment policy of the project. Honorariums were
provided to the participants following their active contribution to the gatherings and interview
questions. The honorariums were established after discussions with the Gatekeepers and
secondary investigators of their respective community. The participants did incur expenses for
attending the gatherings. The receiving households were compensated for hosting
participants. Traveling participants were compensated per car travelling to the gathering with
a maximum of five cars per community. Meals were catered by a local member of the
receiving community.
2.3.6. Gifts
A culturally appropriate gift, for example tobacco pouches or small trinkets, was given to
each participating medicine gatherer at each gathering. The protocol for gift giving and
receiving was determined by the secondary investigators and the participants (as per the
customs of each community). The project funded the gifts. The primary investigators also
contributed to the gift giving.
2.4. Project Participants
2.4.1. Elsipogtog
The participants in Elsipogtog comprised a group of community members’ who have memory
and/or knowledge of traditional medicine. The participants did not participate equally in the
project for various reasons such as availability, health and desire to participate. Two
participants decided to leave the project after the first gathering. However, a core group of six
individuals answered both questionnaires and attended both gatherings. In total eight people
contributed their time and energy to sharing their knowledge, concerns and ideas.
The demographic breakdown is as follows:
3 Respected Elder females between the ages of 50-80
3 Respected Elder males between the ages of 50-80
1 Respected Elder female between the ages of 50-80 (one gathering, one interview)
1 Respected Elder male between the ages of 50-80 (one gathering, one interview)
15
Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
2 Secondary Investigators between the ages of 35-65, (1 Adult male, 1 Adult female
(medicine knowledge holders as well))
The medicine gathering approach used by these participants is one that is linked to the
location of the medicine. A few have small gardens in their yards or simply avoid mowing
their lawns to leave the natural wild flowers (some of which are medicine) grow. All,
however, do go out into the environment within and around their community to gather
medicine, be it the salt marshes, forests, rivers, ponds, streams or other local areas. Their
knowledge of medicine and its surrounding environment is quite extensive.
In addition, some of these participants are originally from Prince Edward Island Migmag
communities. As such, they have learned many teachings and medicinal knowledge from that
territory. Their shared observations of climate change impacts and adaptation therefore also
included some memories from their younger days on the island. Other participants travelled
extensively in the region and beyond and have learned also much from other territories and
Aboriginal and non-aboriginal peoples. Though the majority of the observations shared in this
project regarding medicine are local, some perspectives for adaptation are influenced by the
observations and experiences of other places.
2.4.2. Ugpiganjig
The participants in Ugpiganjig comprised interested community members who have
familiarity, memory or knowledge of traditional medicine. The participants did not participate
equally in the project for various reasons such as availability, illness and means of
transportation. However, a core group of eight individuals participated in both questionnaires
and at least one of the gatherings. In total ten people contributed their time and energy to
sharing their knowledge, concerns and ideas.
The demographic breakdown is as follows:
2 Youth, 1 female, 1 male (between the ages of 13-30)
1 Respected female Elder between the ages of 80-90
4 Respected Female Elders between the ages of 45-75
1 Adult female, between the ages of 30-50
1 Adult male (one gathering, one interview) between the ages of 35-55
1 Adult female (one gathering) between the ages of 30-50
2 Secondary Investigators, Adult females between the ages of 40-60 (medicine knowledge
holders as well)
The medicine gathering approach used by this community is in many ways similar to that of
Elsipogtog in that the community members simply gathered medicine in the local
environment. However, with the rapid increase of development around their community,
much of the habitat has been altered. In an effort to regain some of what they had and prevent
the permanent loss of their medicine, Ugpiganjig initiated the creation of an Aboriginal
Heritage Garden. This garden would in part help protect, cultivate and ensure the long term
availability of medicine in the community. It would also serve as a place for education and
gathering, and attract tourists. In the process, those who worked on the AHG were
reconnected to the knowledge of medicine and began embracing the idea of managing a
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
specific environment in order to ensure the sustainability and availability of medicine derived
from plants13.
Because of its history, few people still know or gather the medicine in Ugpiganjig. Much of
the knowledge was not passed on to the younger generations due to government programs and
social taboos. As such, the Elsipogtog group definitely held more knowledge of the medicine
than the Ugpiganjig group. The Ugpiganjig group on the other hand included the presence of
youth which holds hope for the future.
Furthermore, due to previous work with the Université de Moncton and other groups, the
Elsipogtog participants were more familiar with climate change issues than those of
Ugpiganjig. As such, the conversations were remarkably different during the first visit of the
primary investigator.
2.5 Project Challenges
The principle challenges with this project were the timelines imposed by the funding agency
and the cultural sensitivities around cross-cultural projects. Any project with Aboriginal
people requires time to build relations. From conception to execution local Aboriginal players
must be included. Unfortunately, we were unable to do so at the early stages of the project.
However, from the moment we received approval for the project, the secondary investigators
became involved.
Their input sparked several changes including having two gatherings rather than one, and
having the gatherings organized by the participants and secondary investigators rather than by
one person. This created a bigger involvement from the community members. Along the way,
approaches and steps were also shared between the investigators.
Cross-cultural projects can be challenging due to the potential for misunderstandings;
differences in language and cultural perspectives. The primary investigator had to learn about
the two Migmag communities and the differences in procedures Trust is earned and can be
difficult to achieve for an academically trained non-aboriginal project investigator in a
traditional Aboriginal setting. However, the welcoming, perseverant and patient disposition of
the Aboriginal secondary investigators and participants helped to make this learning
experience fruitful. It also permitted the project to continue to move forward despite a
beginning that lacked certain key relationship building steps.
Another challenge faced is the possible bias of the secondary investigators. Being from the
communities themselves and being knowledgeable in traditional medicine, they had to be
wary of not leading the interviews. The success of this project is very much due to the
participants trusting the investigators.
We overcame many of these challenges of trust and communication by establishing a more
personal relationship. The primary investigator went as often as was possible and necessary to
the communities to meet with the secondary investigators and the participants. The secondary
13
For more details see Adaptation Strategy section on Aboriginal Heritage Garden.
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
investigators from Ugpiganjig even chose to participate on the first visit of the primary
investigator in Elsipogtog to do the same. This helped reassure the participants that the other
community remained involved and interested.
2.6. Lessons Learned
It is vital that future projects such as this provide more start time for project developers and
managers to approach the various partners, especially when these address issues of concern to
Aboriginal people.
It is also important to understand that Aboriginal people do not want to be researched, but
want to be active participants in projects that will further the wellbeing of all peoples in their
regions. As such, more practical and capacity building projects need to be conceived in
collaboration with the local Aboriginal people. The funders need to be open to the
requirements of such work, which demands more time, flexibility and interaction before the
projects even begin.
The employees of the CCIAP of Natural Resources Canada have been very accommodating to
our need for flexibility. They understood that the timeline impeded the potential for more in
depth interaction with the communities and analysis of the results.
Financial restrictions and requirements can be very problematic when working with
Aboriginal communities. It is important that the organisation responsible for the financial
aspects of the project anticipate early onset cash flow. Hopefully, the approaches used for this
project will help others interested in working with First Nations to do so in a respectful and
rewarding manner.
3. Project Results
3.1. Climate Change Impacts
“The knowledge that we have to share, I believe will survive the climate change impacts.”
(Elder, Elsipogtog, Interview 1)
According to the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) the global temperature will
increase in the coming century between 1.4 to 5.8 degrees Celsius (IPCC, 2001). This
increase in global temperature causes a precipitation of climate changes that in turn affect
weather patterns around the world (Warren, 2004). Changes in weather patterns affect local
ecosystem and human infrastructure.
Assessing climate change impacts is challenging given the influence of other factors,
especially land-use practices on our environment. The climate includes temperature, rain,
snow, humidity, wind, sunshine, air pressure and other weather characteristics (IPCC, 2001;
Burakowski, 2006). Climate change projections are based on educated estimations of
scenarios and the use of computer models. As well, they are based on calculations from
studies looking at trends from the past 30 years. Some climate indicators can even be
18
Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
researched up to one hundred years ago (Burakowski, 2006). Therefore, assessing future
climate change impacts does include looking at the past for clues.
3.1.1. Projected Impacts
Below is a brief summary of some of the climate change impacts projected for Canada in the
coming decades and century. The general trends for Canada are as follows:
- Canada is getting warmer;
- weather is less predictable;
- there is less snow fall and more rainfall;
- sea surface temperature is increasing, but not so noticeable in the Atlantic;
- river and lake ice is breaking up earlier (start time varies according to region);
- glaciers are shrinking;
- There is an increase in pests because of the warmer winters;
- building, leafing and flowering is occurring earlier, and:
- the frost-free season is getting longer (Canadian Council of Ministers of the
Environment (CCME), 2003; Environment Canada, 2007).
When considering these impacts to the physical environment, it is important to remember that
these ecological processes influence human society. Our weather and the health of our
environment affect how we build our houses and cities, how we manage our resources for
economic purposes, how we determine our vulnerability and exposure to illness, and so on
(Medhi, 2007; Gagnon, 2006). As we will see in adaptation, it is always important when
considering project impacts to remember the intimate link between human society and our
surrounding environment.
In the Atlantic region, specific climate change impacts include:
- Flooding;
- Erosion;
- Marine storms (storm surges);
- Seasonal precipitation distribution pattern (rain and snow patterns);
- Frequency and/or severity of extreme events (heavy rain, ice storms, high winds,
prolonged drought, hurricanes, and so on);
- Sea level rise, and:
- Species distribution and invasive species (Warren, 2004; IPCC, 2001; Burakowski,
2006).
The Maritimes are especially sensitive to sea level rise as shown by climate change scenarios
(CCIAP, 2007; Natural Resources Canada, 2007). Studies in New Brunswick have
demonstrated that the coastal ecosystems and human communities are especially vulnerable to
storm surges (Daigle, 2006).
The results in this section address both observations of impacts on a daily basis and broader
climate changes that affect the community as a whole. The discussions and interviews on
climate change impacts did leave room for the participants to discuss elements such as
frequency, severity, and extent of climatic events and changes, as suggested in various papers
(Smith, 2003; Warren, 2004). The discussions and questions were designed to be location,
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
group and time relevant, though not as specific as suggested in the literature (Smith, 2003).
The results below permit a good understanding of the medicine gatherer’s observations,
concerns and impressions of climate change impacts.
(Beech Tree in Elsipogtog; source: Franklin Levi, Elsipogtog)
3.1.2. Results on climate change impacts
The participants from both communities shared many stories, memories, thoughts and
feelings about the changes they have observed in their environment. They also talked about
the differences in the way we all live over the past decades. The participants openly shared
their knowledge, concerns, misgivings, experiences and hopes. The personal stories were
many and moving. Below is the synthesis of the observations and concerns from both
participant groups following the questionnaires and the first gathering regarding climate
change impacts.
3.1.2.1. Observations
Elsipogtog
The medicine gatherers of Elsipogtog expressed numerous concerns regarding climate change
impacts. Observations have been noticed in their gathering areas and in the community. Some
examples of these observations include changes in winter season precipitation, quantity of
20
Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
snow on the ground, changes in size and growth pattern of certain medicinal plants, increase
cultivation of maple sap as the flow occurs more frequently (three time rather than two), and
potential for harvesting certain medicine in the winter (due to warmed winters with less
snow). The changes in the winter and summer seasons have affected the growing pattern of
certain medicine, some blooming earlier and some later.
Land-use
The medicine gatherers observations of medicine and climate change impacts could not be
separated from the impacts of land-use practices that have been carried out and continue to be
carried out in the area. For example, traditionally muskrat root/calamus root used to be found
by what is now a highway. With mining development next to the highway combined to
climate changes (hotter summers), the area has dried up and the water table has been
noticeably reduced. The known fact is that muskrat root/calamus root can no longer be found
in that area. It is unknown whether climate changes alone, or the mining, or both combined,
have caused the medicine to disappear from the area. All observations discussed have been
included in this project even if the participants are uncertain which factor has the greatest
influence on the medicine’s current and future state.
Two other land-use practices that have noticeably affected medicine when combined to
climate changes impacts are farming and residential and commercial development. For
example, blueberries and cranberries, used to grow in areas where new homes, industries and
commercial enterprises on and off reserve now stand. The sweet grass is being lost because of
the combined effect of coastal development, increase weed presence (due to fertilisers flowing
from agricultural fields to the water systems and climate changes) and loss of territory to the
ocean (sea level rise and storm surges). The effect of development practices on habitat and
specific species like trees create a scarcity of certain medicine as the species that are needed
are becoming harder to find (i.e.: tree bark used for bronchitis). What role climate changes
have on medicine in quality or availability is still unclear to the participants. Yet the
observations lead to the belief that climate change impacts and land-use practices have a
cumulative effect on medicine.
Changes
Some medicine gatherers have noticed the presence of certain species that they have never
seen before, especially in insects and plants. Some have noticed that the Robins have in the
last few years come back and then had to leave again because it was too early. There is a
feeling that the fish, animals and plants are being displaced.
Observations of weather pattern changes were mostly around the reduction of quantity of
snow and the length of the winter. There were some observations that past thunderstorms
were many but of short duration (yet enough to fill the culverts with water). The area based on
observations over the last 40 years seems to have become drier, with less precipitation than
before.
The land in the area is eroding away displaying artefacts long buried both along the coast and
shorelines. The lack of proper buffer zones around rivers seems to be contributing to a
decrease in the quality of the aquatic habitat. This may affect the fish population and
contamination levels when combined with change in precipitation patterns and increase sea
levels.
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Ugpiganjig
The participants in Ugpiganjig noticed the changes to the medicinal plants, especially the loss
of marshlands. The erosion of their beaches and the effects on sweet grass has been seen as
negative.
In 2005 the Bay de Chaleur did not freeze over: the first time in living memory. In winter
time, water bodies across the area seem to be freezing closer to the shore. All participants
have observed a very noticeable decrease in the quantity of snow on the ground.
Observations by the participants indicate that the community is slowly but surely losing its
medicinal plants. The general belief is that this is a combined effect of climate change impacts
(temperature and precipitation patterns) and increased development of the area.
3.1.2.2. Areas of concern
Elsipogtog
According to the participants, the concerns for this community are less pressing in regards to
climate change. The real worry is in ten and twenty years, as their observations indicate the
area will lose its moist environment and become a dryer one. This, coupled with other climate
impacts such as southern species moving north, may make the medicine disappear or disperse
from the area. Added to current development practices in the region, these climate impacts
will create a significant difficulty for the medicine gatherers in accessing and finding the
medicine. However, it is believed medicine can call out to the medicine gatherer to be found,
so locating it isn’t as big a worry as not being able to access the site or medicine dying out
due to invasive species.
Because of the interconnectedness of all things (water, air, soil, humans and animals) it is a
concern that illness will be more widespread with water and soil freezing for shorter periods
of time and pollution increasingly entering the system. There is increasing concern that the
contamination of the land, air and water negatively affects medicine, and as medicine is
stressed by climate changes, these contaminants may be more present, as all things may not
be able to keep up with the recycling of the contaminants. There is a strong concern that
medicine is not as healthy because of contamination. There is also the belief that medicine can
clean itself, but for this to happen, it needs its interconnected relations to be healthy. These
points are explored in further sections.
People spend more of their lives indoors these days. This is a concern that the knowledge is
being lost from lack of first hand experience and connection with medicine, which, in itself,
explains why less people use medicine and know them. The Elders are concerned that people
are less healthy today than in their day, despite technological improvements.
There is also the concern that with climate changes, Mother Earth is not resting in the winter
time and therefore does not freeze bacteria, which may result in lesser quality of medicine and
22
Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
add to health concerns. Finally, there is a worry that the abundance of medicine is decreasing
and their growth seems altered. The reasons for this behaviour could be many, but some are
discussed in the following sections.
Ugpiganjig
For this community, flooding is a major concern because of their infrastructure and because
of the impact this has on medicine where the habitat is greatly reduced.
The youth of the group are particularly concerned with their future and those of their children,
especially in relation to the health of the area.
There is a strong concern among the participants in Ugpiganjig that if the plants and medicine
are not protected now, there will be nothing for the future generations.
3.1.2.3. Specific habitats and species of concern
Elsipogtog
Here is a list of some of the specific medicine and habitats the medicine gatherers of
Elsipogtog are concerned about and the reasons why:
o Sweet grass: over-picked, being overrun by weeds, erosion of land and salt marsh,
residential development, no access (because of privatisation of land especially in
Richibucto);
o Salt Marsh: residential development on coastal lands;
o Calamus/Muskrat Root: contamination, over-picking and drying of environment in
fresh water marsh, industrial and housing development;
o Salmon: change in season, migration, reproduction levels, and timing (sometimes
early sometimes late). Salmon not arriving during spawning season or water flow is
not there when salmon is ready;
o Moose: habitat destruction, changing climate patterns, misuse of animal, too many
deer in the area;
o Ducks, geese and other waterfowl: landing in fertilised and pesticide-laced fields,
affected by the contamination of their habitat;
o Fish: depletion of fish from over fishing, contamination of habitat from ocean
dumping, city sewage and dumps, and river and lake contamination;
o Irish Moss and Hemlock root: running out in public lands and now Aboriginal people
are being approached to share what little they have;
o Cedar: medicine gathering is not done properly and the tree is becoming scarce;
o Black ash: wet areas are getting drier (brooks, swamps, etc.) combined to forest
practices makes this species harder and harder to find.
Some medicine gatherers believe the sweet grass, calamus root, golden thread and other
medicine they pick are still healthy and will remain so, unless human land-use practices and
development alters their environment.
23
Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Yet at the same time, some medicine gatherers believe the physical changes to the medicinal
plants are due to contamination and not changes in the climate patterns. There is the
possibility that a combination of both is affecting the growth of plants. The issue of
contamination in medicine is one that definitely requires more attention because it not only
affects traditional medicine but western medicine derived from natural resources.
It is important to note that one participant expressed the following: “the vegetation which took
millions of years to adapt has to go through a rapid change and will change the medicinal
contents of these plants which the non-native calls contamination.” Here the differences in
understanding of contamination cross-culturally could necessitate further exploration.
Ugpiganjig
Here is a list of some of the specific medicine and habitats the medicine gatherers of
Ugpiganjig are concerned about:
o Beaches are getting smaller and smaller;
o The Sandbar is stretching rapidly;
o Sweet grass is being overrun by weeds, and depleting because of lack of
understanding of traditional ways. It is becoming harder and harder to find and it is not
regenerating;
o Fish species are being depleted; fishing is not as good as before;
o Clam beds are lost, due to land-use practices, contamination and potentially climate
impacts to water temperature;
o High bush cranberries;
o Cedar;
o Labrador Tea;
o Marshland are very important;
o Wild sarsaparilla need to be protected for our Elders;
o Gooseberries are no longer present in our area.
The participants of Ugpiganjig identified and explained less the specific medicine and habitats
of concern. This is expected given the loss of traditional knowledge and very small
percentage of the population that is still familiar with medicine.
3.1.2.4. Specific climate change impacts of concern
Other than the observations and areas of concern listed above, the participants indicated
specific climate change related impacts that concerns them:
Elsipogtog
o The drying of the area with changes in the precipitation patterns;
o The increase heat and warm weather is drying up the plants’ moist habitat;
o The increased severity of storms (night storms, hurricanes, hailstorms, etc) and the
consequent economic impacts in their region. The community does not have
emergency response knowledge;
24
Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
o
o
o
o
The decreased amount of snow and increased amount of rain in the winter time;
The sun is strong enough to tan in the winter;
The winds are stronger;
The saltwater is going into the freshwater because of sea level rise.
Ugpiganjig
o
o
o
o
o
River getting shallower;
Beach road is eroding;
Marshland is disappearing;
High tides are washing away the beach front;
Water is often undrinkable.
The participants here did not link their concerns with what specific climate change impact
may cause it. However, it is clear that sea level rise, storm surges, heat and precipitation
forms and levels seem to be the main ones.
3.1.2.5. Capacity
Here the participants clearly identify some of the aspects of their areas and communities that
they see as impeding or favouring the capacity of dealing with the impacts of climate change.
Elsipogtog
Knowledge Sharing
Sharing the knowledge is very important between medicine gatherers. This knowledge must
include the effects of climate change impacts if the knowledge is to be relevant for the future
generations. As such, conservation of medicine and its environment is an essential component
of sharing of knowledge.
The youth are not necessarily interested in learning traditional ecological knowledge, and
parents are often more concerned with their children reaching academic education. As people
get older and sickness affects their families, they then turn again to traditional ecological
knowledge for medicine. Some participants felt that more gatherings with other medicine
gatherers from other communities across the Atlantic region would be an important asset in
increasing their future adaptive capacity. For Migmag people, the capacity of one community
is linked to the relations with other communities. One suggestion was an annual one week
meeting: “Gathering for the Future”, of Elders with other First Nations medicine gatherers
would be a way of ensuring increase youth exposure to medicine.
There are difficulties in sharing the knowledge in depth because of past abuse of the trust of
medicine gatherers in others. All in all, the Elders of Elsipogtog believe they have a good
capacity as medicine gatherers, but the sharing of certain knowledge is still difficult. Though
the medicine gatherers know they must share the knowledge, the fear of exploitation by
government, industry and academics is still very present and impeding the sharing of
knowledge that could help the future generations.
25
Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Habitat Reduction
With the habitat for medicine being reduced in area and numbers, it is getting harder to
access, harvest and know medicine. One example of this is the trees. They are crucial to the
proper functioning of forest ecosystems. They also are needed to counter climate change.
They absorb carbon and produce oxygen. Yet the forest keeps being reduced.
Habits
Changing the habits of people is hard even once awareness is present. For example, many
people know smoking is bad for their health and the environment, yet they continue to smoke.
What capacity do the medicine gatherers have to change the habits that are detrimental to
Mother Earth and themselves? Some participants believe that it is timely and necessary to
promote a national campaign on the effects of smoking on First Nations communities and
educate youth and Elders on smoking and the damages it can do. The government has helped
fund in the past other initiatives to promote other social change campaigns: why not help First
Nations save their habitat and lower their exposure to contaminants?
Ugpiganjig
Dams and clams
The presence of the dam since the 1960s has affected the health of the waters in the area and
the clam population has diminished noticeably. The people are now told not to harvest the
clams as they are contaminated. The dam is scheduled to be removed. What impacts this will
have on the clams is unknown. The participants hope they will be able to harvest healthy
clams again which will help nourish the community and provide revenue.
Loss of knowledge
The how-to and the know-how of medicine gathering are being lost. The knowledge needs to
be shared. This needs to be done with respect and understanding. The youth specifically need
to learn more of the traditional knowledge. There is a concern that there will be no medicine
left for the next generation at this rate of degradation. Likewise there will be no knowledge
left to pass on.
3.1.2.6. Impressions
The participants hold many beliefs that are not easily defined in the work that has been done
to date in determining the relation that climate change impacts have on an Aboriginal
community. Below are included some of the impressions which indicate how serious is the
concern for the survival of medicine and the medicine gatherers’ way of life for the future.
Elsipogtog
Youth
The medicine gatherers generally felt saddened and fearful for the future generations, and
especially for the future of their youth. The changes in society and the loss of habitat are
creating a loss of knowledge. Though the Elders are willing to share, and believe it is vital,
26
Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
they perceive that the youth are not interested and the current pressures on the communities
do not favour the sharing of knowledge.
Land use
The medicine gatherers are saddened by the lack of protection of the habitat in their area. The
forest is clear-cut and the replanting does not occur every time. Even when it does, the trees
planted and the forestry management practices are done for the companies that harvest the
woods and not for rebalancing the forest with all its provision of foods and medicine.
The use of pesticides and fertilisers in farming and forestry practices are greatly affecting
some habitats where medicine grows (like calamus roots being overrun by cattail). The
current buffer zones around waterways are not enough to prevent this pollution from
occurring. Communities must boil their water despite it being treated throughout the summer.
Over-picking
The practices of over-picking/over-harvesting of medicine by those who do not follow the
proper ways are preventing medicine from regenerating. This in itself can destroy medicine,
but combined with climate change impacts, it also weakens medicine’s chances of being
found in the region in sustainable numbers. The medicine gatherers see greed by those who
collect more than what they need (over-picking and harvesting) as an enormous problem to
overcome.
Pollution
Medicine gatherers must now be careful with medicine that is picked because of the presence
of contaminants. It is harder to know what contaminants may be in it now. The belief that
medicine can take care of itself is challenged by the increasing levels of contamination,
presence of contaminants and diversity of contaminants. Can the western knowledge and the
traditional ecological knowledge bridge the perspective difference to find solutions? Some
medicine gatherers hope so, others believe they cannot bridge that gap.
There is a serious concern that in the future, the people will have to pay more for their water,
food and gas, as the environment around them is being degraded by human practices and
pollution from all over the world.
Some medicine gatherers have shared that oysters and other shellfish could be used
particularly to clean rivers and estuaries. In this line of thought, they have tried to share their
knowledge to those in authority but have never seen any results. There is a hope and
willingness to work together for solutions, but the wounds of the past and the lack of change
in decision making processes continue to hamper the establishment of real solutions.
Ugpiganjig
This group’s impressions were that actions need to be taken. The participants mentioned
transplanting and using crib wharfs for protecting the medicine (see Solutions sections).
Contamination seems to also be a concern for the participants in Ugpiganjig, especially with
the clams. Also, some have remarked that children now get rashes when they swim in the salt
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
water. The cause of these observations is unknown. What impacts contamination has on the
medicine is also unknown.
3.2. Climate Change Adaptation
“Those who gather and share the knowledge would become obsolete because the places to harvest are being
affected and being lost, destroyed.” (Participant, Ugpiganjig, Interview 1.)
Though most of the world’s focus on climate change has been with mitigation, there is
substantial work that has been done on determining and defining adaptation measures. We
refer you to our reference documents for additional research on the subject14.
To summarise, adaptation considers the vulnerability of a species, location or society in the
face of projected climate change. Vulnerability means looking at the resiliency of the subject,
which includes knowing the coping range, i.e. the systems tolerance to change (IPCC, 2001;
Warren, 2004; Mehdi, 2006). Certain key elements are considered when looking at human
society, namely the economic, political, social, technical and physical make-up (Smith, 2003).
Climate change adaptation involves “any action that reduces the negative impacts of climate
or takes advantage of potential new opportunities” (Mehdi, 2006) because of the expected
changes in the local and global climates. A community, nation or country can knowingly
choose to prepare for the coming changes by adapting prior to the impacts. This is called
anticipatory adaptation (Smith, 2003; Warren, 2004). Another approach is to implement
adaptation measures after the change in the climate has occurred. This is called reactive
adaptation (Smith, 2003; Warren, 2004). It is believe that the first approach is more effective
given that some impacts carry a heavy financial burden, such as increased intensity of storms
(Smith, 2003; Mehdi, 2006).
There are generally six approaches
spread the loss, change an activity,
(Warren: 2004, Table 1: Adaptation
the adaptive capacity of medicine
population is
to adaptation: “do nothing, prevent the loss, share or
change a location, and/or enhance adaptive capacity”
Strategies, Page 10).This project focuses on increasing
and medicine gatherers. Adaptive capacity for any
“a function of wealth, access to technology, stable and effective institutions, systems in
place for dissemination of information, equitable distribution of power and wellfunctioning social systems” (Smith, 2003, page p3).
Approaching adaptation from the perspective of building adaptive capacity is by far the most
holistic approach. According to Mr Smith “enhancement of adaptive capacity represents a
practical means of coping with changes and uncertainties in climate, including variability and
extremes” (Smith, 2003, page 11). Seeking to build the adaptive capacity of a group can
overcome the chances for mal-adaptation as all components of society (Built, Environmental
and Human) are considered (Adger, 2003: Mehdi, 2006).
14
For a recent review of the realities of climate change impacts and adaptation in the Atlantic region see the
reference for the Canadian Climate Impacts and Adaptation Research Network (C-CIARN) Atlantic Region
State-of-Play Report.
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
The subject of this project could be analysed in depth using these various components to
determine the vulnerability of the medicine gatherers, their communities and medicine. Each
component could be broken down and looked at with each of the medicine gathering
approaches to determine the level of efficacy of the proposed adaptation strategy. However, as
mentioned earlier we are simply skimming the surface of this issue in this project. Here we
will see what the participants perceive as barriers for adaptation and what they also consider
adaptation to be.
(Beaver dam and habitat; source: Franklin Levi, Elsipogtog)
3.2.1. Results on climate change adaptation
Below are the observations and concerns of both participant groups taken from the
questionnaires and the second gathering. The participants from both communities shared
laughter, stories, ideas and feelings about the fears and hopes for the future of their way of
life. They openly discussed what they believe impedes adaptation and what facilitates
adaptation. Here again the personal stories are many and moving.
3.2.1.1. Obstacles
Elsipogtog
Space
Some of the physical obstacles in Elsipogtog are high sea levels, rapid melting of ice and
spring flow, erosion of land, stronger storms, and so on. Added to these physical changes
cause by natural elements are man made changes on land that is productive for medicine.
These include residential and/or commercial developments, clear cutting, use of all terrain
vehicles’, no trespassing signs, and so forth. The loss of habitat and the effect this has on
animals and biodiversity reduces the resiliency of the area to climate impacts and makes it
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
difficult for medicine gatherers to find medicine. The forestry practices that reduce
biodiversity coupled with the no trespassing signs on woodlots make it impossible for both
medicine and medicine gatherers to have a place in the local environment. The replanted
woods where medicine gatherers have access often lack medicine because of previous land
practices. Outside the immediate community, the medicine gatherers identified major
developments such as bridges, industry and large beach front properties as obstacles to the
physical capacity of medicine to adapt to climate changes.
Access
The lack of access to private lots, the dangers of accessing no trespassing zones and the lack
of access to traditional territory because of provincial and federal policies make it very
difficult for medicine gatherers to do their work. Access to medicine that is along the
shoreline away from the community, from Cocagne to Restigouche, is restricted even though
medicine grows plentiful and healthy in some of these areas. The access is restricted because
the shoreline is being developed by private property owners.
Pollution
The level of pollution in the area is pervasive in the quality of the water, soil and air. This can
be seen with the sewage effluent emptying into the ocean, the garbage along the shorelines,
heavy development, dumping along river ways, and so on. The streams have little life in them
and the interconnectedness of life is what permits medicine to be. Again the contamination
through worldwide pollution is reducing the resiliency of medicine even possibly modifying
its DNA. In the participants’ view, contamination stems from everything from airplane
emissions to empty cans with toxic residues dumped beside the waterways, to pesticides and
ocean pollution.
Further study may be needed to determine whether contamination alone is affecting the
growth and quality of medicine, or whether climate change impacts influence the effects of
contamination on medicine.
Water
The physical impacts on the water flow, presence and distribution indicates to the medicine
gatherers that there will be difficulties accessing clean water in sufficient quantities in the
future. The observations of loss of beaver habitat and their diminished presence in the area is
a concern in this case, as beavers play a very important role in relation to water. The Elders
see beavers as essential for learning how we should adapt to climate change impacts.
Knowledge and habits
Planning efforts within and around the community often do not include those that know
medicine, or are familiar with the medicine gatherers. Policy and decisions often do not
consider the whole picture of the community. There is a greater need for inclusion of those
that hold traditional knowledge in the decision making processes in the community.
The knowledge of the medicine gatherers also includes how to use medicine. Often medicine
has no effect if people are on western medication or consume alcohol and drugs. As such, an
obstacle is the awareness that some life habits must be given up, addictions abandoned, if
traditional medicine is to be used and be effective. The spiritual component is part of the
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
effectiveness of medicine. The knowing and believing in the spiritual steps involved in the
use, knowledge and gathering of medicine is essential if adaptation is going to succeed.
“Drugs and alcohol used by the community at large is a huge obstacle personally for me as a
medicine gatherer in that it goes against all ethics, morals and teachings of spirituality of Mother
Earth and the gathering of medicine within our communities” (Elder, Elsipogtog, Interview 2).
In short, the lack of awareness, knowledge, belief, respect and spiritual practice by those who
make decisions that affect the medicine are obstacles.
Age
The medicine gatherers are getting older and this is a problem as it is becoming harder for
them to move around without the pains that come with age (brittle bones, physical exertion to
get to medicine, and so forth). The heat is an obstacle for elderly people and with no youth to
learn and gather with them, it makes the harvesting harder. They are also less able to protect
themselves from others who may use intimidation to prevent them from gathering. Lack of
stability in the seasons is also making it harder for the medicine gatherers to do their gathering
safely. Having the right clothing with rapid changes in weather, not missing the change in the
time of blooming and not tiring out over long journeys, these are all realities of growing older,
which make it physically difficult for medicine gatherers of this community to practice their
way of life.
Interest
The lack of interest from the community in traditional medicine is evidently an obstacle to
adaptation. The people have to approach the medicine gatherers if the knowledge is to be
passed on and used, but this is not happening. Nobody wants to become the Advocate of the
medicine, to protect them, from within the system of decision making.
Permission
There is a concern that with new provincial and federal legislations, one day medicine
gatherers may need permits to gather in the forests and marshlands. Permits and certain
technologies like GPS are seen as obstacles, as they control the access to the knowledge, and
require technical training to understand. Also, if technology alone is used with no inclusion of
the data of where medicine is, development can occur in places where it wouldn’t if decision
makers were accessing the traditional ecological knowledge of their communities. This is
seen as a major impediment to the capacity of the medicine gatherers, as the access to
medicine would be governed by governmental institutions instead of those with the
knowledge.
Laws
Some laws such as the Species at Risk Act (SARA) are seen as obstacles as it “interferes with
my gathering and harvesting of medicine for medicine purposes” (Elder, Elsipogtog,
Interview 2). According to the medicine gatherers, the restrictions on picking certain plants
puts at risk their way of life and goes against First Nation rights. There is also a perception
that big development (dams, roads, electricity lines, poles, towers, roadways, trails, and so on)
and residential development can go forth despite acts like SARA. Yet, these cause more
damage to the environment and medicine’s potential for regeneration. The medicine gatherers,
who know how to pick medicine, do so in a way that permits the regeneration of the species.
Their way of life should be seen as a positive contribution to the well being of the species by
SARA instead of a threat to the species. From their perspective, these laws fail to see that
First Nations people, culture and beliefs are themselves at risk of disappearing.
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Ugpiganjig
Space
For the Ugpiganjig participants the lack of presence of medicine and space for it to grow is a
key obstacle. Ugpiganjig is facing a reduction of its coastal territory because of sea level rise.
With development occurring further in land and on both sides, the amount of territory
available to adapt is limited.
Access
The participants indicated that one obstacle outside their community is the obvious
impediment of being unable to pick medicine that grows on private lots.
Awareness
According to the participants, the most important obstacle seems to be the lack of awareness
and priority in the chief and council on environmental issues and how it is affecting the
population, especially the elders. This impedes implementation of measures that would permit
the adaptation of medicine and the medicine gatherers to climate change.
Resources
There is also the lack of funding available to help pass on the traditional knowledge that is
necessary to help with adaptation. Though the knowledge may be traditional, the youth know
modern society. This requires a bridging of not only age but also technology and language.
Knowledge and respect
Some participants indicated that there is some lack of knowledge and respect from the NonAboriginal when considering the more traditional aspects of Aboriginal life.
Age
Finally, inherently Elders do not like change. According to one participant, adaptation can
mean: “to change oneself to conform to the new circumstances” (Participant, Ugpiganjig,
Interview 2). The participants indicated that it is difficult for some of their Elders to accept to
change some of their daily patterns, when routine is an important part of the functioning of
daily life for elderly people.
3.2.1.2. Strong points
Elsipogtog
Medicine
The beliefs among the medicine gatherers in regards to the potential for medicine to adapt to
climate change divides between two camps. For the first group of believers, medicine will
find its own way to adapt and have a great ability to do so (from changing their shapes, sizes
and attributes, to physically migrating to other areas). The second group’s perception is that
there is no easy answer to help medicine adapt, but that something needs to be done.
Some particular comments were that Salmon is very vulnerable to the changes and the
stresses it is living at this time. Its capacity to adapt in the wild seems minimal. On the other
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
hand, Black Ash is seen as having great resiliency to flooding and so should do well through
the changes in the precipitation patterns. Fiddleheads have a natural evolutionary adaptation
to protect them from the sun and water. Lady Slippers and Golden Thread on the other hand
have enormous difficulty adapting once their habitat has been altered (like clear cutting).
One point that seems unanimous is that medicine is adapted for severe weather. The concern
is therefore more with the adaptation of medicine to the subtle changes from climate impacts
rather than severe storms. The extreme events are more of a concern for human
infrastructures.
The medicine gatherers
The potential for the medicine gatherers themselves to adapt is strong, though not easy. They
hold the knowledge of ancestors and are still in numbers sufficient to hold that knowledge for
a few more decades. There is a strong interest to pass along that knowledge and this is a
positive feature. The challenge is in finding those interested within their communities to
receive the knowledge.
The medicine gatherers are always observing the environment around them. They therefore
notice the changes earlier than most and vary their activities to match those changes. This
increases their resiliency to climate impacts compared to other community members who are
becoming disconnected from their local environment. The observations are not only of the
changing climate but also of the behaviour of the plants and animals around them. They look
towards the beaver, moose and other animals for clues and directions on how to adapt and
where to find medicine that may have moved or been able to survive certain changes.
The focus of the medicine gatherers is on taking only what is needed for their respective
families. This means that over-picking and harvesting can be avoided as the population of the
community grows, because medicine is not taken for all of the community. This is something
the medicine gatherers can build on in their efforts to affect the way of life of those who are
willing to listen.
The challenge is in the physical difficulty for the medicine gatherers as they age to withstand
the elements. The positive reaction of the medicine gatherers to this challenge is to grow
spiritually by looking at medicine “in the four colors of man and the circle of Life” (Elder,
Elsipogtog, Interview 2).
Ugpiganjig
The Ugpiganjig participants indicated their strong points that help them and the medicine
adapt are:
- The resiliency of the Migmag people;
- The sharing that is occurring between the neighbouring Migmag reserve and
themselves;
- The ability of medicine to move and re-grow;
- Their openness in learning new ways of carrying on the traditions;
- Thinking “green” in every aspect of their daily lives;
- Their determination and the Migmag spirit of never giving up; and
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
-
Their seven generations approach to thinking and their natural inclination to look after
the future.
The weak adaptation points for the medicine gatherers and medicine is that Elders do not like
change; they are set in their ways; and they are used to a certain time to pick the medicine and
it is hard to change that habit. There is less chance of passing on the knowledge because of
the old age and the lack of interest from youth. Some participants say that adaptation is harder
because they lack the means and ways to keep up with the impacts of rapid climate change.
3.2.1.3. Adaptive capacity
In looking at the big picture, it is important to ask whether increasing the adaptive capacity of
the medicine gatherers will affect their respective communities’ ability to adapt.
Elsipogtog
The participants in Elsipogtog responded both positively and negatively to this point. Some
were full of hope and saw that with proper facilities and support from their community, they
could pass on the ancestral knowledge orally to their community members. They could see
themselves as teachers, if the community respects and nurtures the place of the Elders and the
ancestral knowledge of adaptation. These perspectives indicate that given their proper place as
teachers of the ancestral knowledge to the whole community, there would be great knowledge
of adaptation in the community and this would help with adapting to future changes in the
climate.
However, some participants clearly indicated that the barriers within the community, such as
the youth being more interested in money than knowledge, and a communal tendency of
reacting to severe events rather than preventing them, will prevent the increased adaptive
capacity of the medicine gatherers from spreading to the rest of the community.
Elsipogtog has in the past developed land planning documents that did include areas set aside
for medicine. According to the medicine gatherers, it seems that these plans have not been
enforced by the community’s decision makers. Their impression is that towards the beginning
of the 21st century, the community was moving towards increasing its adaptive capacity, but
has since diverged from its plans. The adaptive capacity of the medicine gatherers in this
sense is only as strong as the respect they receive from the decision makers of their
community.
The biggest obstacle in Elsipogtog in increasing the community’s adaptive capacity to climate
change seems to be one of social mindset rather than technical, political, financial or physical
incapacities.
Ugpiganjig
In sharing the knowledge and passing it down orally from Elder to youth, the participants see
a possibility of increasing the adaptive capacity of medicine and the medicine gatherers. It can
also help if this is done amongst the various Migmag communities.. This can occur through
gatherings and sharing with the other communities and by moving medicine that can be
34
Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
transplanted elsewhere. The participants indicated that by being up-to-date on what is going
on in the world and paying attention to the changes around them, they will increase their
capacity through knowledge. They believe that there is good potential in their community to
increase the medicine gatherers adaptive capacity if these steps are followed.
The participants do believe that the community’s overall adaptive capacity will be higher by
increasing that of the medicine gatherers and medicine. They see this happening through the
sharing of knowledge of medicine for many generations; by protecting and preserving
medicine for future generations to use, and by including community input into protecting
what the community has. Once the community is made more aware of climate change and the
importance of medicine, the participants believe the community will work together to increase
its resiliency to climate change. The biggest obstacle at Ugpiganjig seems to be more
resources and leadership than a lack of interest in investing in adaptation strategies.
3.2.1.4. Potential Adaptation Actions
Here the answers indicate some of the many points the participants believe will produce a
positive step towards adaptation. These come from the interviews, and you will notice that
some of these are repeated in the results and next steps sections.
Elsipogtog
Individuals indicated the following steps as having potential to increase the adaptive capacity
of medicine and the medicine gatherers in Elsipogtog:
• Transplanting medicine;
• Using Greenhouses;
• Designating protected areas for medicine;
• Setting aside areas in community plans that are culturally significant and land wise
(i.e. prevent development on land specific to medicine);
• Protecting the medicinal plants from the sun; medicine are burning from heat and sun
rays (ex..: keep forest cover and plant by buildings with overhangs);
• Keeping medicine clean (i.e. prevent contamination of the area and source of their
water and nutrients);
• Leaving the leaves of trees on the ground to protect the roots and plants from acid rain
and other effects. (They offer great protection and food which increases the plants and
insects’ capacity to survive and regenerate medicine);
• Increasing awareness within the community of the importance of medicine and its
protection;
• Making sure medicine is included in acts, bylaws and policies by council and chief as
an important adaptation aspect for the community;
• Preventing the clear-cutting and degradation of the environment and diminishing of
biodiversity in the first place;
• Increasing the community’s land base to match the population growth and needs;
• Increasing networking with other medicine gatherers, i.e. increasing knowledge
through practice of ceremonies and gatherings across reserves;
• Getting youth interested by offering teachings in exchange for helping to pick
medicine;
35
Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
•
•
Passing on the knowledge orally within the medicine gatherers families and/or by
choosing a person worthy of the knowledge and pass it on to them; and
Recognising the place of medicine gatherers inside and outside the Aboriginal
communities.
Ugpiganjig
The participants believe that protecting medicine to ensure it is present for future generations
to use is very important. “Yes, we have to protect medicine…we do not know what the future
holds in store” (Participant, Ugpiganjig, Interview 2). They unanimously agreed that
protecting medicine would increase the adaptive capacity of the medicine gatherers.
The participants identified education and sharing knowledge as a means of protecting
medicine. They also indicated the importance of realising that we do not know what the
social, economic, political and physical realities of the future will be. Being prepared for the
failure of the current economic, political and social systems is important and must be
considered in developing adaptation actions.
3.2.1.5. Immediate changes
Elsipogtog
Community
The participants in Elsipogtog indicated that cooperation, communication and understanding
within their community were the most urgent behaviours that need to change if they are to
adapt to climate change. The community needs to find out why it is a reactive community and
how can this be changed into a proactive community. In this sense, continuing to improve the
social situation within the community (fighting drug and alcohol addictions) could very well
help move the population to embrace proactive steps.
Leadership
Likewise, the participants believe that politicians should show leadership in regards to these
issues and therefore embrace the proactive approach when putting in place contingency plans
for severe storms. These contingency plans must be adapted to the community and the reality
of the response time and attitude of the population.
Empowerment
It seems from the participants’ answers, that the population in Elsipogtog is one that is too
dependent on its governance structure, meaning it lacks empowerment within the population.
The general population of Elsipogtog waits for the chief or band council and the department
of Indian and Northern Affairs to come up with all the solutions.. From the medicine
gatherers point of view, it seems that realisation and understanding of the need for
empowerment of the population in Elsipogtog are necessary if significant positive changes are
going to occur within the community.
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Sharing
They also believe that more sharing of information is needed with other reserves on the issue
of the future of medicine and traditional knowledge. There is a strong belief that the
knowledge-of-old needs to be taught in their community and others in order to show how the
Migmag can adapt to changes in the climate. Some mentioned learning the old ways again to
prepare for a time when electricity, gas, water and food will be all harder to come by.
Awareness
Increasing the awareness and understanding of the impacts of climate change and how this
relates to First Nation realities is seen as the most important step to make change happen.
However, this step will only be effective if led and executed by First Nations themselves and
shared across all the communities.
Ugpiganjig
Empowerment
The Ugpiganjig participants indicated a variety of immediate changes that need to be done if
their adaptive capacity is to be increased. Thy indicated they could not wait for government to
act, because it often takes too long. Therefore, participants see empowering the community as
a step forward necessary for adaptation.
Knowledge
The participants believe more knowledge of medicine and climate change is needed and must
be shared. The youth were singled out as a group that should receive “basic training” in
medicine gathering. Some participants indicated than more studies were needed in regards to
medicine in order to have a better idea of what can be done to help increase the adaptive
capacity of the medicine gatherers.
Crucial on the list of things to change is the protection of what currently exists to ensure
future presence of medicine. First, existing habitats must be protected to ensure yearly
regeneration. Second, the Aboriginal Heritage Garden must remain a place for medicine.
4. Adaptation Strategies
“I am fortunate to have a Mother; Grandmother; who know. we are in a movement. Twenty years ago we
wanted to be White, now we are coming back, now we want our culture. We are attracted to our culture. We
want to know. We want to know who we are. Know our Old People, Take this knowledge and share it”
(Youth, First Gathering, Elsipogtog, 2007).
As explained earlier, the two approaches to medicine gathering we are exploring as adaptation
strategies are “to go where the medicine is” and the use of an Aboriginal Heritage Garden.
Many details of the daily life of medicine gatherers were not touched upon directly in this
project. This is in part because of time restrictions, but also for practical and privacy reasons.
Through the interviews and the gatherings, the participants were able to share what they saw
as the important parts of their lives that touched or are touched by climate change and the
37
Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
need to adapt to it. Below is a bit more information about each medicine gathering approach
as an adaptation strategy, and an analysis of the benefits and limitations of each, as seen by
the participants. We believe the wisdom on how to adapt lies in great part within the
knowledge of the Elders. Taking this approach permits those who have the traditional
knowledge to be the ones to provide the answers.
4.1. Aboriginal Heritage Gardens
“In order to know where you are going, you need to know where you came from”
(Quoted by Participant, Ugpiganjig, Interview 2).
The original idea for the Aboriginal Heritage Garden came from visits by Ugpiganjig’s
community and council members to other Aboriginal facilities where history and knowledge
were shared. In particular a visit to the Smithsonian Institute in Washington D.C., USA,
where 40 different medicinal plants were grown and protected inspired the group (LaBillois,
2007). According to Mr Gordon LaBillois, who is in charge of the Aboriginal Heritage
Garden project, part of the idea is to show to the Migmag people and others the resiliency of
Aboriginal peoples and their contribution to modern society. He hopes to demonstrate that
their capacity to adapt comes from evolution through environmental changes and historical
events such as colonisation. Mr LaBillois sees the AHG as a page in a living book of history,
but also as a repository for the knowledge of the traditional way of life, which includes the
use of medicinal plants for practical purposes (LaBillois, 2007).
Getting an Aboriginal Heritage Garden going for a First Nation community is not an easy
task. The project is a $12 million dollars vision involving federal, provincial and first nation
governments. Usually, there are sufficient human resources behind the planning of such a
project, but in this case there is only one full time employee working on completing the
project. This explains in part why, although started in 1994, the centre is still not open. At one
point, garden employees were hired and toured the Atlantic region learning about the plants
and traditional medicine. But funding challenges made it impossible to keep staff and has
delayed the completion of the Aboriginal Heritage Garden (LaBillois, 2007).
Part of the original intent of the center is to protect and share the knowledge of medicine
According to Mr LaBillois, there is definite potential for the AHG to act as a place where
medicine could grow on the lands adjoining the building. Currently in the business plan, there
is no thought of storing medicine in the building and it may be difficult to include later on.
However, the center has definite potential as a place of learning. It could be a centre that
reinforces the spiritual importance of medicine to First Nations and contribute to the
wellbeing of everyone (LaBillois, 2007).
It is the hope of Mr LaBillois and all those that support the Aboriginal Heritage Garden that
once in place, the facility will:
- complete provincial heritage efforts (of other cultures);
- help with the local economy through direct and indirect employment;
- show that First Nations can contribute positively to the province;
- reawaken the important role and presence of First Nations in the history and
making of North America’s modern culture;
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
-
demonstrate that with rights comes responsibilities, and the Migmag people are
embracing both; and
show a way of life that has proven resilient for many generations and holds
many solutions to current and future problems linked to our well being
(environment, economy, health, etc.) (LaBillois, 2007).
If realised; these goals will increase the capacity of the community and of the region to adapt
to climate change. Achieving these goals will increase:
- Diversity in economic revenues;
- Awareness of the local environment;
- Cooperation at the municipal, provincial and federal level;
- Local empowerment (positive role for community members);
- Social cohesion within and outside the community, and so on.
One example of potential for cooperation in the region is the bond that came from fighting
heavy industry. According to Mr LaBillois, approximately seven years ago, the members of
local Migmag communities joined their voices to those of local residents from surrounding
villages, towns and city centers that fought the establishment of an incinerator in the area.
This common fight helped bridge communication, cultural and socio-economic gaps and
permitted each group to find allies for a common vision of a cleaner and healthier North East
New Brunswick (LaBillois, 2007). This helped the community of Ugpiganjig receive more
support for its ideas, including the Aboriginal Heritage Garden.
It is important to realise that the Aboriginal Heritage Garden has faced many difficulties. Of
these difficulties, the one most related to this project is the space which was dedicated to the
medicine was compromised and destroyed, because of political and/or economic decisions
linked to the partners involved (Participant, Ugpiganjig, Gathering 2). The AHG has great
potential to meet all its desired outcome, but it will depend greatly on the partners who join
and the technological advancement that will come with time.
A potential problem for the Aboriginal Heritage Garden is its location. With climate change
impacts projected to include sea level rise and more frequent and stronger storm surges
(Warren, 2004; Daigle, 2006), it is important to determine if the center is protected from
them. Some of these impacts may not occur for another 50 years or more, but if the AHG is to
fulfill its role for the adaptation of medicine and traditional knowledge, the facility itself must
be adapted in location, structure and operations. More studies such as those conducted for the
New Brunswick sea level rise (Daigle, 2006) should be done for Ugpiganjig.
Looking at this from the perspective of adaptive capacity, though still incomplete and not yet
operational, the Aboriginal Heritage Garden has helped increase the capacity of the
community. The results of working on the AHG and getting the community behind are
improved social cohesion, healing, learning and cooperation (Participant, Ugpiganjig, Second
Gathering). The participants from Ugpiganjig definitely believe in the Aboriginal Heritage
Garden and its potential, despite the many operational challenges and let downs that have
been part of its creation so far.
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
4.1.1. Participants’ perspective
After Mr LaBillois’ presentation on the Aboriginal Heritage Garden, at the beginning of the
second gathering, the participants had many questions and suggestions for the council
member. The dialogue definitely indicated that there was hope from the medicine gatherers
that something very amazing could be accomplished with the center. After the participants
visited the AHG, they discussed as a group its benefits and drawbacks as a climate change
adaptation strategy.
The conversations indicated that as a whole having an Aboriginal Heritage Garden in Migmag
territory would have immense potential in protecting medicine, sharing knowledge of the
Migmag people among themselves and with others, and as a resource center for the future
generations. The participants from both communities saw the center as having much potential
for the education of youth - both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal - in the ways of old, and
teaching them the importance of preparing now for the future. In order for this to be achieved,
those managing the AHG must realise the importance of medicine and give it a rightful place
in the decision making process at the center.
4.1.1.1. Limitations
The major limitation of the Aboriginal Heritage Garden as an adaptation strategy is the
associated cost. The level of investment needed for the creation and operation of such a center
prohibits the creation of more than one facility per region. It is likely the only one
economically feasible in Migmagi. Smaller scale heritage gardens however could still be
established across the region.
Another limitation is answering the needs of medicine and medicine gatherers. The capacity
of protecting medicine and sharing the knowledge appropriately at the center can be impeded,
as has already been the case in Ugpiganjig, when the facility is managed by people who are
unaware of- or lack interest in medicine, or are constrained by political and financial reasons.
It is important that the center retain the original vision of the Ugpiganjig community.
The participants also saw as major obstacles the differences in mindset between the First
Nations and the provincial and Canadian governments. The purpose of the Aboriginal
Heritage Garden will affect how it is used, and as such its role as an adaptation strategy.
Many participants indicated that they have seen Acadian and British living museums across
the maritime region, and the Migmag should be allowed to have theirs too. First Nations do
not receive the same treatment or support from the governments. Bridging the differences in
management priorities in a project like the Aboriginal Heritage Garden is very problematic.
Another limitation of the Aboriginal Heritage Garden as an adaptation strategy is that the
spiritual elements of medicine and its interconnectedness to its local environment cannot
necessarily be replicated in a heavily human controlled and frequented place. There are ways
around this problem, if it is acknowledged beforehand and the vision of the garden is clear to
all partners.
One caution that was given by the participants is the need for greater community support
behind a project like the Aboriginal Heritage Garden. The community as a whole has to adopt
the idea and be willing to put a little effort to help make it a success, if the whole community
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
is going to benefit from it. If the center is to be sustained it must be taken to heart by the
community and eventually other communities as well.
4.1.1.2. Benefits
All the work that has been done to make the AHG happen has had a very positive influence
on the Ugpiganjig community. Many of those who were involved in the project have become
more knowledgeable and empowered, and many of the community members have something
to look forward to; something that comes from them and will serve their needs as well as
others.
The participants did discuss what potential the Aboriginal Heritage Garden has, and what type
of actions could be done to increase its capacity as a climate change adaptation strategy. Here
are some of their ideas:
- Be an actual garden with transplanting, greenhouses, identification of plants
along the trails, and explanations of the importance of the plants as medicine;
- Include a sugar shack activity in later winter and early spring to share the
source of the maple sugar knowledge and provide economic benefits and
incentives. (This sugar shack could also be a method of explaining climate
change in a concrete manner to visitors);
- Make the grounds available for gatherings and teachings;
- Work with other parts of the region and other Migmag communities to share
the responsibility of growing medicine; ensure that the role of protecting
medicine and sharing knowledge includes openness to all other Migmag
communities in need;
- Ensure managers take note of the habitat type (very wet) in which it is situated.
Then consider which medicine grows best to see which ones the AHG could in
fact sustain;
- Include within the building of the AHG more spiritual and cultural knowledge
to be shared. These components, such as gender roles, ceremonies and correct
methods of harvesting, must be included in the teachings and the operations of
the AHG;
- Create two areas for medicine: one where people can walk and observe
medicine and interact with guides, and one not accessible to the public to
ensure the well being and sustained presence of medicine;
- Invest more in the trails and their maintenance, since the area, medicine and
the site are very conducive to wellbeing. It would attract visitors as much if not
more than the activities inside the building.
The Elders caution that the sharing of the knowledge and medicine in an Aboriginal Heritage
Garden would have to include an ethical training of the staff and operations of the center to
avoid the knowledge being stolen or misused by people visiting the center. Including the
spiritual and cultural teachings along with the knowledge of medicine would be essential in
ensuring this protection.
The Elders also cautioned that though the AHG has great potential and could very well serve
as an adaptation strategy for medicine and medicine gatherers, there will be need for more
study and knowledge of whether or not the transplanting of certain medicinal plants will
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
actually succeed. Some species cannot be easily or successfully moved or transplanted. For
these species, protection of the habitat may be the better adaptation strategy.
4.2. Protected habitat
“Knowledge is the key to preserving our medicine” (Participant, Ugpiganjig, Interview 2)
Currently, the other approach to medicine gathering within the communities is “to go where
the medicine is”. There is no specific protected habitat that ensures a place for medicine to
grow naturally within or around these communities. As seen earlier, there are major obstacles
to this approach namely accessing medicine and preventing the contamination and
deterioration of their habitats. Implementation challenges of protection of habitat are many
including:
- Political support, will, and enforcement of protected areas;
- Getting agreement by all players to protect an area;
- Acquiring land from private lots for protection;
- Public use of protected areas;
- Economic needs for primary resources;
- Operational requirements for enforcement of protected areas, and so on.
Despite these challenges, the participants still consider protection of habitat as a valid
adaptation strategy to climate change.
Climate change adaptation research has shown that a crucial element is to keep what habitat
and environment we have in our region clean, diverse, numerous and healthy (Warren: 2004;
IPCC, 2001). New Brunswick studies on sea level rise have shown that an adaptation strategy
that involves leaving the coast undeveloped could very well be the best adaptation approach
(Daigle, 2006). Therefore, protecting an area with medicine by or on the coast from
residential, commercial or industrial development can provide more for the region, than
would seem at first glance. If protected, the area will hold medicine that can help prevent
illnesses and cure others for those who need it regardless of their economic means, health care
system, insurance or social status. The area will also have a higher resiliency to the changing
climate and its related impacts, i.e. less repairs, emergency services and health care costs to
society (Daigle, 206; Warren, 2004)
An important aspect that must not be overlooked is that protection of habitat implicitly means
protecting water. With water being essential to life and one of the major actors in the climate
change scenarios (Gagnon, 2006), keeping it clean and healthy is a crucial element of
sustainability and climate change adaptation all over the world. Protection of habitat therefore
can also help reduce cost for water treatment (Gagnon, 2006). In the long run, protecting
habitat should cost less than fixing the problems of contaminated water, soil, air, and the
human health cost of treating our illnesses caused by these factors.
Protection of habitat should help reduce contamination levels in the environment by ensuring
the natural native ecosystems perform their functions and life services. It could be valuable to
study if medicine is healthier (contains less contaminants) in protected habitat. This may be
needed over several years and would require the collaboration of those with knowledge of
medicine, together with those with knowledge of contaminants.
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Finally, protection of habitat can provide long-term access to resources when harvested in a
sustainable manner (Warren: 2004). This is what First Nations have done for many
generations. The medicine gatherers are part of those who have learned the knowledge of
medicine and benefited from it, because of the continued presence of healthy habitats in and
around their communities. The fact that medicine and traditional knowledge are still in
existence today is a result of sustainable use of the environment through multiple generations.
The protection of habitat where medicine is located is part of choosing a sustainable way of
life for our communities.
4.2.1. Participants’ perspective
For the medicine gatherers, it is important that habitat where medicine is found be protected
yet be accessible to them. This is to ensure a healthy supply of medicine for current and future
generations. Not all medicine, as was discussed in this project, can be successfully
transplanted or moved. This is an important point to stress.
Some medicine, if not all, gets its potency from its environment and relies on other living
creatures to propagate and grow. It is therefore not feasible to include all medicine within a
man-made structure. Some things must be left to the wild, and as such focusing on the
Aboriginal Heritage Garden alone or greenhouses would not permit a sufficient amount of
protection for medicine for multiple generations.
As seen earlier, the participants from Ugpiganjig were unanimous in supporting the need for
protection of medicine, while the participant in Elsipogtog were equally divided in their
answers as to the usefulness of protecting medicine as an adaptation strategy for medicine
gatherers. However, the overall conversations at the gatherings and the answers in the
questionnaires indicate that protection of habitat is needed and does answer the needs of the
“go where the medicine is” approach. The protection must be done in a way that ensures the
sustainable presence and use of medicine within and around the communities. In this way,
habitat conservation is essential to ensuring that traditional medicine will be present for future
generations despite changes in the climate.
4.2.1.1. Limitations
As indicated previously, the limitations of protecting habitat as an adaptation strategy include:
- permitting access to the medicine gatherers;
- enforcing regulations for protection;
- ensuring sustainable political will; and
- respecting and understanding the importance of maintaining the protected area
by the general population and decision makers.
The participants did indicate that because of the current North American way of life found in
their communities and surrounding area, few people understand and respect medicine and the
need for its protection. Traditionally, the responsibility for ensuring medicine for many
generations was in the hands of the Elders, in the knowledge shared with the community and
with those that knew medicine. These roles were in great part respected by the community at
large. Today, community members are less inclined to consider the place of medicine and the
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
medicine gatherers in their lives. As such, under the current system, the responsibility for
ensuring protection of habitat and species lies in enforcement of regulations by governments.
Putting in place protection measures (namely protecting the habitat where medicine is
located) must be done by decision makers, i.e. politicians and governing bodies. This can be
problematic because the authority to enforce regulations for the protection of habitat is in the
hands of government institutions, most having few-if any-relations with local medicine
gatherers. This can be a major limitation for the adaptive capacity of the medicine gatherers.
Before, they could simply ensure the well being of the habitat and medicine through close
community cooperation, cultural and spiritual beliefs, sharing of knowledge and influence on
local decision makers. Now they must rely on far away government bureaucrats and
politicians who can actually prevent them from doing what they have done for generations.
The potential for making social and economic changes that would favour or degrade the
protection of habitat ends up being decided with minimal or no involvement of those who
hold the knowledge of medicine.
What could reduce the need for regulations and government intervention is cultural change. .
This change entails an acceptance of the rights and responsibilities of each community
member in regards to the protection of the habitat. This would necessitate positive social,
political, technical and economic investments with the community.
4.2.1.2. Benefits
There are many barriers to medicine gatherers who “go where the medicine is”, such as
access, age, availability, and so on. However, this approach does allow the continuation of the
hands-on knowledge that is needed to find, gather and bring back medicine. This knowledge
is an essential component of knowing medicine and may adapt to climate changes in a more
autonomous manner, like the surrounding ecosystems would. This may make medicine,
medicine gatherers and the area as a whole more resilient to climate change impacts.
The protection of habitat ensures the continued presence of biodiversity; an essential feature
to the health of all creatures. The relations of medicine with its environment are favoured in
this approach. This allows a greater knowledge of the interrelated factors that influence
growth and adaptation in a living and biologically diverse environment.
In this instance, the medicine gatherers can ensure that the traditional knowledge that comes
from knowing the land is passed on, as the habitat will still be there. There is also more
comfort for the Elders in knowing that the chances of the knowledge being stolen would be
decreased, since medicine will be less easily accessible to the general public than at the
Aboriginal Heritage Garden.
Therefore, as an adaptation strategy, protecting habitat significant to medicine is positive if it
is accessible to the medicine gatherers, if the rules for protection are enforced by those in
authority, and respected by the community. This belief is shared within Migmagi by more
than just the medicine gatherers.
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
4.2.1.3. Comparison
In October 2005, the Atlantic First Nations Environmental Network (AFNEN) and the
Canadian Climate Impacts and Adaptation Research Network (C-CIARN) Atlantic Region
held a two day workshop entitled Adapting Water Management in First Nations Communities
to Climate Change. This workshop included First Nations participants representing 50% of
the Aboriginal communities in the Atlantic region and focused on adapting water
management in their communities in light of climate change impacts. It is interesting to see
that some of the recommendations from these participants are the same or raise the similar
points as have been seen in this project.
Here are some of the adaptive capacity points brought forth at the AFNEN-C-CIARN Atlantic
workshop:
1. Flora and fauna will be adversely affected by climate changes if there is no sustainable
use of the land, sustainable as defined by the Migmag (Gagnon, 2006, p 47-49);
2. Destruction of traditional resources in flora and fauna, as well as place, does affect the
spiritual, cultural, economic and social well being of the community (Gagnon, 2006, p
47-49);
3. Using a Migmag traditional knowledge and view of sustainability, building capacity
and land use to ensure the resiliency of traditional resources will better address the needs
of the community for long term adaptive capacity to climate change (Gagnon, 2006, p 52,
57, 58);
4. Protection, conservation and/or sustainable management of lands that hold special
traditional meaning or fauna and flora (traditional resources) are essential to building the
adaptive capacity of the communities (Gagnon, 2006, page 49).
The participants in this workshop were not medicine gatherers, but water managers from the
various communities. Yet, they still identified traditional knowledge and protection of habitat
as major components of their adaptive capacity when looking at water. The similarities
between theses findings indicate that there are definite perspectives on adaptation that are
shared across Migmagi and could very well be the building blocks for implementation of
adaptation strategies in the Atlantic region.
5. Next Steps
“..if we do not Save Our Medicine and Protect Our Medicine, we will loose them”
(Elder, Elsipogtog, Interviews 2).
During the second gatherings, the participants discussed what ensuing steps needed to be
taken in order to implement actions that would prepare them for climate change impacts. In
determining solutions, they looked at what actions they already take and what is available to
them. In developing recommendations, they considered what is needed from those in
positions of authority. In the end, they explained the main challenges to these ideas and took
the time to share what they would do to help themselves, medicine and their communities
prepare for climate change.
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
5.1. Solutions
The participants talked about what they do and will need to do in each of the four seasons to
ensure that they consider the changing climate and its affect on medicine. The figure below is
an illustration of the way in which the discussion was guided and what answers were given. It
must be noted that during the second gathering discussions, very few -if any- ideas were
disregarded by the participants.
Figure 1: Four Seasons Adaptation wheel, (participants, second gathering)
Certain key points were made. Namely that the plants are showing signs of adaptation,
whether they are budding earlier or later, moving or staying where they are, and so on. By
simply being out in the environment, the medicine gatherers will notice these changes and be
able to adapt to the plants changing behaviour.
The same goes for observing the behaviour of certain animals like the beaver who affect their
immediate environment as they adapt. Beavers can affect the waterways of an area and will
adapt their construction to serve their needs when changes in their environment occur. By
observing the beaver, the medicine gatherers can understand what the beaver is doing, how
and for which reasons.
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Likewise, utilising the knowledge the medicine gatherers already hold regarding fires and
their role in plant reproduction, the interrelations between reptiles and plants, the presence of
ice and the collection of smelt, and so forth, will help them notice the changes, keep track of
them and find solutions. Through increase sharing and interaction between medicine gatherers
of Migmagi, this traditional knowledge will be helpful in preparing them for climate changes.
Finally, as mentioned by the participants, they need to look back to move forward. This
means that by acknowledging the adaptation methods of old (home gardens, germinating
seeds, planting, harvesting, drying, canning, storing and preserving food and medicine) the
current and future generations can get the most out of their environment while limiting the
over-harvesting of medicine. These solutions show that many small daily actions can be done
to increase the effect of their medicine gathering adaptation strategies and thereby strengthen
their capacity to adapt.
5.2. Recommendations
The participants came up with many action items they would like to see coming from their
community leaders, their communities and the decision makers outside their communities.
These recommendations are to be used as guides for what community decision making should
focus on when looking at climate change adaptation. It is to be noted that many of these
recommendations affect not only adaptation capabilities but also address the issue of climate
change mitigation.
Below is the list of actions the participants identified as what they would like to see coming
from their community leaders:
Recycling in the community;
Composting (in each home or within the community);
Protecting areas from development (like blueberry point in Ugpiganjig);
Increasing awareness of leaders about medicine (make them see more than the plants);
Including in the communities councils’ mandates enforcement: having signs, rules,
regulations and awareness about dumping and pollution on community grounds;
Reducing greenhouse emissions in community operations;
Redirecting staff towards helping make the gardens (communal and individual ones);
Growing, harvesting and facilitating the presence of medicine on community lands
(and within community actions);
Working with neighbouring communities – utilising their resources;
Investing resources, support and will in environmental enforcement (on and around
reserves);
Investing resources into making greenhouses from community materials and talents;
Putting in place a crib wharf (Ugpiganjig) along the coast with the input of the
community as to its position;
Finding sources of funding for these environmental solutions: make them simple,
make them accessible to all, and user friendly (i.e. not be overloaded by paperwork);
Finding out the communities carbon footprint ( know what our impact is from waste
and activities);
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Following through on projects by community leaders and decision makers, i.e. not
letting politics (internal or external) get in the way of implementation; and
Implementing more community clean-ups on a regular basis.
As can be seen, many of these recommendations are interlinked yet varied in their application.
The recommendations show that ideas are not lacking in the communities. The means and
will of implementing them are the challenges.
5.3. Challenges
“I know that our Knowledge is not accepted as Fact, only as observation, in fact even by our own first nations. It
is sad to know this, is all I can say” (Elder, Elsipogtog, Interview 1).
The participants identified some key challenges to implementing adaptation measures within
their communities that need to be addressed. These include:
Challenging the community leaders to rethink how they do things (operations, policy,
etc);
Getting community members to take a stand;
Changing the perceptions of those sitting at the table (have them see the hurt that is
being done);
Increasing the will of the people, the awareness and the desire to take responsibility,
i.e. not to run immediately to the band council for action; and
Convincing more people that the effort of doing good deeds to help the environment is
worth it.
The participants identified that it is particularly hard to be heard, listened and taken seriously
by their own community members. It is even harder for this to occur with outsiders. This
challenge impedes their social influence and their political voice. The participants possess an
openness and desire to learn from those living off-reserve, to share seeds, medicine,
knowledge and experience with them, if respect, trust and understanding could be established.
This is a big challenge to overcome if their adaptive capacity and that of their communities
are to be increased.
Schools
The youth in the participating groups indicated that they need direction from the schools and
the teachers in how to act on everything they hear about climate change. They especially need
to be informed about how they will be impacted. They feel there is not enough discussion in
schools on the issue and its effects. It is important to note that though youth may not seek out
the Elders and the traditional ways, they show great interest when this knowledge is brought
to them.
5.4. Individual paths
During the last gathering, the participants took turns stating what they would do individually
to start helping their community to adapt. The group in Ugpiganjig was encouraged to keep
meeting and working together on increasing the awareness of climate change and good
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
environmental practices within their community. There was also a general agreement of
paying attention to the local environment and medicine, being more environmentally aware in
the impacts of their daily activities, and ensuring to share their knowledge with youth and
other Migmag medicine people. The Elders of Elsipogtog agreed to continue to participate in
activities that center on sharing knowledge and increasing awareness of their way of life
within their community. They also will continue to be guided by their Gatekeepers in these
endeavours.
In the end, the participants felt that the seeds for change within their communities and around
them are already planted. All that is needed is for the medicine gatherers, the community
leaders, the community and the decision makers outside First Nations communities to work
together to make them grow.
6. Conclusion
This project has permitted the identification of what the concerns are for the medicine
gatherers, what obstacles they face and what resources they have to be able to adapt to the
changing climate. In the process of getting the two community groups to meet and share, the
project itself has helped increase the adaptive capacity of the medicine gatherers. With both
medicine gathering approaches now seen as adaptation strategies, there is potential to bring
more Migmag medicine gatherers together on the issue of adaptation. We hope this project
will be a stepping stone to increasing the adaptive capacity of all the medicine gatherers in
Migmagi.
The participants acknowledge that there is little they can do about the changing climate, yet
they are committed to action to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Despite the belief that
medicine will adapt autonomously as they have done for generations, the participants still
identified the need for action. They acknowledged that the changes to the climate are
happening quickly, and deleterious human activities are compounding the effects of climate
change. Their observations leave them worried about the future, but not hopeless.
Their recommendations and actions show that they still hold great hope in themselves, their
communities and their people.. The participants indicated that they believe protecting habitats,
sharing knowledge, having the Aboriginal Heritage Garden, and changing community
leaders’ perspectives on the importance of medicine in climate change adaptation will serve to
increase their adaptive capacity.
This project shows that more than one adaptation strategy is necessary when considering the
sustainability of medicine and medicine gatherers in the face of climate change. As shown,
both gathering approaches (Aboriginal Heritage Garden and go where the medicine is) have
benefits and detriments as adaptation strategies. Yet combined together, they offer a higher
probability for successful adaptation to changing climates than individually, not only for
medicine but for the medicine gatherers and their communities.
The problematic issue for both these strategies, together or apart, is that they require the
political and economic support and engagement of First Nation, municipal, provincial and
federal decision makers. The best chances of this occurring are through education and
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
involvement of the decision makers and community endorsement of these strategies. Taken
together, these will provide the necessary changes to make the two adaptation strategies
beneficial to the adaptation capacity of the whole region.
The Aboriginal Heritage Garden would provide a successful adaptation strategy which would
increase the adaptive capacity of the medicine gatherers and the community. It could also be
an economic centre which would help move the region’s current economy towards more
diverse and sustainable requirements. The Dalhousie area, like many maritime economic
centres, has been hit hard by the closing of mills and many primary resources exploitation
industries. Like others, seeking a path towards a diverse and sustainable economy requires
working on economic sectors that have not fully been developed to date and collaborating
with partners from the whole range of population make-up. Investing in the Aboriginal
Heritage Garden by the neighbouring economic and political players - if led by the adaptive
approach of the Ugpiganjig community - could provide sustainable wellbeing and economic
prosperity in the region.
Protecting habitat where medicine is found is crucial in ensuring long-term health,
availability, diversity in- and access to- medicine. Since medicine depends on the health of the
surrounding environment, it is crucial that the concepts of biodiversity, sustainable
development and conservation be embraced by decision makers. Medicine does not exist in
isolation, but with other living beings that learn to benefit from its healing properties. In the
same way, humans can learn to benefit from the properties a healthy environment brings to
our societies.
More in depth study of the region’s potential for adaptation to climate change would be useful
for all players in the region. We believe that by supporting the medicine gatherers in
Elsipogtog and Ugpiganjig, both communities and their neighbouring municipalities will be in
more favourable positions in future years to deal with climate change impacts and help other
players across Migmagi.
(Beaver dam and habitat; source: Franklin Levi, Elsipogtog)
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
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http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/climatechange/potentialimpacts/coastalsensitivitysea
levelrise/1
Participant, Interview 1, September 2007, Ugpiganjig, New Brunswick, Canada.
Participant, Interview 2, October 2007, Ugpiganjig, New Brunswick, Canada.
Participant, Second Gathering, October 26-28 2007, Ugpiganjig, New Brunswick, Canada.
Smith, Barry, 2003, From Adaptation to Adaptive Capacity and Vulnerability Reduction;
Chapter 2, Climate Change, Adaptive Capacity and Development, Editors Joel B Smith,
Richard JT Klein, Saleemul Huq, Imperial College Press, UK.
Verheyen, Roda, 2003, The Legal Framework of Adaptation and Adaptive Capacity; Chapter
8, Climate Change, Adaptive Capacity and Development, Editors Joel B Smith, Richard JT
Klein, Saleemul Huq, Imperial College Press, UK.
Warren, Fiona and Lemmen, Don, 2004, Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation, A
Canadian Perspective, Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, accessed online January 28 2008,
http://adaptation.nrcan.gc.ca/perspective/index_e.php
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Appendix 1
Climate Change Impacts Questionnaire, September 2007
A) Given the information provided to your group about projected changes to the climate of
Earth, how do you believe this to be a future concern for the gathering of local traditional
medicine for your community?
B) Based on your memory, stories of old and current observations, what changes in the
climate, your local environment and/or in the medicine have you noticed?
C) Based on what you have observed related to climate change impacts and the information
provided to you about projected climate change impacts, what are your concerns for the
medicine, their habitat and for those who gather and share the knowledge of the medicine?
D) Are there specific habitat and/or medicine that you are particularly concerned about and
why?
E) Are there specific climate change impacts that you are most particularly concerned about
and why?
F) Are there any other concerns related to the health and regeneration of medicine that are
important to you?
G) Are there any concerns related to the capacity of medicine gatherers to continue gathering
medicine and sharing knowledge?
H) Are there any other concerns and/or comments you would like to make on the current state
of the medicine and the capacity of medicine gatherers given the projected impacts of changes
to the climate?
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Appendix 2
Climate Change Adaptation Questionnaire, October 2007
A) Considering the place of medicine and those that know the medicine and how to use them,
what do you see are the obstacles within your community that would prevent them from
adapting to future changes in the climate?
B) Considering the place of medicine and those that know the medicine and how to use them,
what do you see are the obstacles within New Brunswick and Canada that would prevent
them from adapting to future changes in the climate?
C) Considering the daily activities, needs and capabilities of those that know the medicine and
how to use them, what do you believe are the physical, financial, political, social and
technical barriers that are making it difficult, impossible or easier for them to increase their
capacity to adapt to climate changes?
D) In your opinion, how does increasing the adaptive capacity of those that know the
medicine and how to use them, help increase the overall capacity of your community to adapt
to changes in the climate?
E) In your opinion, how does increasing the adaptive capacity of those that know the
medicine and how to use them, help increase the overall capacity of the medicine to adapt to
changes in the climate?
F) Considering the daily activities, needs and capabilities of those that know the medicine and
how to use them within your community, what do you believe are the most important changes
that need to happen in order to increase their capacity to adapt to future changes in the
climate?
G) How would increasing the capacity of the medicine to adapt to climate changes increase
the capacity to adapt to climate change of those who know the medicine and how to use them,
and their community?
H) Considering that Ugpiganjig has a Aboriginal Heritage Garden who’s partial mandate is to
protect the medicine (at least those which are plants) for the future generations as an
adaptation strategy for the medicine and those who know them and how to use them, what do
you see are the benefits and costs of such a strategy as a way of building the adaptive capacity
of the medicine and those that know them and how to use them?
I) Are there any other concerns and/or comments you would like to make on the current state
of the medicine and the capacity of medicine gatherers given the needs to build adaptive
capacity to changes to the climate?
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Appendix 3
Map of Elsipogtog
Elsipogtog Map (Big Cove First Nation Community Plan Background Study, June 2001,
Figure 3: Base Map, Page 4.)
This is a base map of Elsipogtog
The Red Lines with Dots represent the Boundary of the Community
The orange line is highway Route 116
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Climate change adaptation strategies for medicine gatherers in two Migmag communities of New Brunswick
Appendix 4
Ugpiganjig Map
Ugpiganjig First Nation Map (ERBCCP, 2008, Map 1, Page 6)
Addition to Reserve
Indian Ranch
Addition to Reserve
Eel River Bar First Nation (Reserve No. 3)
Bay
Bay of
of Chaleur
Chaleur
Aboriginal Heritage Garden
(Addition to Reserve)
56