Name
Class
CHAPTER 9
Date
The History of Life on Earth
SECTION
1 Looking at Fossils
California Science
Standards
7.3.c, 7.4.c, 7.4.e
BEFORE YOU READ
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What are fossils?
• How are fossils formed?
• What can fossils tell us about the history of life on earth?
What Are Fossils?
STUDY TIP
Organize Make a spider map
to show the different ways
fossils can form.
READING CHECK
Can you name any dinosaurs? Do you know what they
looked like or how they moved? Scientists have been able
to tell us many things about organisms, such as dinosaurs,
that lived millions of years ago. How do scientists learn
about these organisms if they have never seen them?
They study fossils. A fossil is the trace or remains of
an organism that lived long ago. Fossils can form in five
different ways.
1. Define What is a fossil?
FOSSILS IN ROCKS
READING CHECK
2. List Give three examples
of hard parts of an organism
that could become fossils.
Usually when an organism dies, it begins to decay or
it is eaten by other organisms. Sometimes, organisms are
quickly buried by sediment when they die. Sediment can
preserve the organism. Hard parts, such as shells, teeth,
and bones, are preserved more often than soft parts,
such as organs and skin. The parts of the organism that
remain can become fossils when sediment hardens to form
sedimentary rock.
FOSSILS IN AMBER
Sometimes organisms such as insects are caught in
sticky tree sap. If the sap hardens around the insect, a
fossil is created. Hardened tree sap is called amber. Some
of the best insect fossils are found in amber. Frogs and
lizards have also been found in amber.
This insect is preserved in
amber. It is more than 38
million years old.
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SECTION 1
Class
Date
Looking at Fossils continued
FROZEN FOSSILS
Ice and cold temperatures slow down decay and can
allow fossils to form. Woolly mammoths, which are
relatives of modern elephants, became extinct about
10,000 years ago. Scientists have found frozen remains of
mammoths preserved in blocks of ice. By studying these
fossils, scientists hope to learn more about the mammoths
and their environment.
Say It
Discuss Have you ever seen
any fossils? What kind of
organisms were they? Where
did you see them? How were
they made? Describe these
fossils to your classmates.
PETRIFICATION
Organisms can also become fossils by petrification.
In petrification, minerals replace an organism’s tissues.
During one form of petrification, minerals fill the tiny
spaces in an organism’s hard tissues, such as bone.
Sometimes, the organism’s tissues are completely replaced
by minerals. In petrified wood, for example, all of a tree’s
wood is replaced by minerals. The wood becomes a rock.
READING CHECK
3. Define What is
petrification?
FOSSILS IN ASPHALT
In some places asphalt can bubble at the Earth’s surface
and form sticky pools. The La Brea asphalt deposits in
Los Angeles, California, are at least 38,000 years old.
These pools have trapped and preserved many different
organisms. These include saber-toothed cats and dire
wolves that lived from 10,000 to 40,000 years ago. From
these fossils, scientists have learned about the ancient
environment of southern California.
What Other Kinds of Fossils Have Been Found?
Organisms can leave behind clues about their lives.
These clues are also fossils. These fossils were made
by an organism, but they do not include parts of the
organism’s body.
TRACE FOSSILS
Evidence of an organism and its activities can be
fossilized. This is called a trace fossil. Tracks are an
example of a trace fossil. They form when footprints are
filled with sediment and preserved in rock. Tracks can show
how big an animal was and how fast it was moving. For
example, parallel paths of dinosaur tracks have led scientists
to hypothesize that some dinosaurs moved in herds.
READING CHECK
4. Define What is a trace
fossil?
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Class
Date
Looking at Fossils continued
These dinosaur tracks are
found in Arizona. They show
that the dinosaur was running
when it made the tracks.
TAKE A LOOK
5. Identify What kind of
fossils are dinosaur tracks?
Burrows are another kind of trace fossil. Burrows
are shelters made by animals such as clams that bury
themselves in sediment. A burrow is preserved when it is
filled with sediment and buried quickly. A coprolite is also
a trace fossil. Coprolites are preserved animal dung.
MOLDS AND CASTS
READING CHECK
Molds and casts are two more kinds of fossils. The
print, or impression, left in sediment or in rock where a
plant or animal was buried is a mold. The figure below
shows two types of molds from the same organism. One is
an internal mold of the inside of the shell. The other is an
external mold of the outside of the shell.
A cast is an object that forms when sediment fills a
mold and becomes rock. Like a mold, a cast can show
what the inside or outside of an organism looked like.
6. Compare What is the
difference between a cast
and a mold?
The fossil on
the left is the
internal mold of
an ammonite. It
formed when the
sediment filled
the ammonite’s
shell. On the
right is the
external mold of
the ammonite.
The shell later
dissolved.
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SECTION 1
Class
Date
Looking at Fossils continued
What Can Fossils Tell Us?
Think about your favorite outdoor place. Observe
the plants and animals around you, including the birds,
insects, and grasses. Now, imagine that you are a scientist
at the same site 65 million years from now. What types of
fossils would you dig up? Would you find fossils for every
bird, insect, and grass that existed? Based on the fossils
you found, how would you reconstruct this place? Fossils
can show scientists three main things:
1. the kind of organisms that lived in the past
2. how the environment has changed
3. how organisms have changed
CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS CHECK
7.4.e Students know fossils
provide evidence of how life and
environmental conditions have
changed.
Word Help: evidence
information showing
whether an idea or belief is
true or valid
7. List Name three things
fossils can show scientists.
THE INFORMATION IN THE FOSSIL RECORD
Scientists know some of the history of life on Earth
from fossils. Some parts of this history are more complete
than others. Scientists know more about organisms that
had hard body parts than about organisms that had only
soft body parts.
Some organisms lived in environments where fossils
can form more easily. Scientists also know more
about these organisms than those that lived in other
environments. The fossil record is incomplete because
most organisms never became fossils, and many fossils
have not been discovered yet.
TAKE A LOOK
8. Explain What is one
reason this organism could
be fossilized?
A HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES
Fossils can show evidence of climate change. For
example, today Antarctica is covered with ice and snow.
However, scientists have found fossil evidence of forests
and freshwater organisms in Antarctica. These fossils show
that the climate must have been much warmer in the past.
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Looking at Fossils continued
A HISTORY OF CHANGING ORGANISMS
READING CHECK
9. Explain How can
scientists find out how life
has changed?
Critical Thinking
10. Explain Would you
expect to find fossils of an
organism that lived relatively
recently in old layers of rock
or in younger layers? Explain
your answer.
To understand how life on Earth has changed, scientists
compare fossils. Scientists also look for similarities
between fossils and living organisms. However, only
a small fraction of the organisms that have existed in
Earth’s history have been fossilized. As a result, the fossil
record is incomplete. This means scientists do not have a
continuous record of changes in life on Earth.
How Do Scientists Know How Old Fossils Are?
To understand the history of life on Earth, scientists
have put fossils in order based on their ages. How do
scientists know how old a fossil is? In some cases,
scientists can use absolute dating methods, such as
radiometric dating, to determine the age of fossils. More
commonly, scientists use relative dating methods.
With relative dating methods, scientists don’t know the
exact age of a fossil. However, they do which fossils are
older than others. One of these relative dating methods
is called superposition. Fossils found in older layers of
rock come from more ancient life forms. Fossils found in
younger layers of rock are from more recent organisms.
USING FOSSILS TO DATE ROCKS
Fossils of certain types of organisms can be found
all over the world. These fossils are found only in rock
layers of a certain age. They are called index fossils.
Index fossils are fossils of organisms that lived during a
relatively short geologic time span. To be an index fossil,
a fossil organism must be found throughout the world. It
must be easy to identify and many fossils of that organism
must exist.
Phacops is an example of an
index fossil. This organism
lived about 400 million
years ago. When scientists
find Phacops in a rock layer,
they know the rock layer is
about 400 million years old.
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The History of Life on Earth
Name
Class
Section 1 Review
Date
7.3.c, 7.4.c, 7.4.e
SECTION VOCABULARY
fossil the trace or remains of an organism that
lived long ago, most commonly preserved in
sedimentary rock
index fossil a fossil that is used to establish
the age of a rock layer because the fossil is
distinct, abundant, and widespread and the
species that formed that fossil existed for only
a short span of geologic time
trace fossil a fossilized mark that formed in
sedimentary rock by the movement of an
animal on or within soft sediment
1. List Give three examples of trace fossils.
2. Explain Why is the fossil record incomplete?
3. Explain Why can some fossils form in cold temperatures?
4. Infer Which kind of organism is more likely to be found as a fossil in amber—a
frog or a rabbit? Explain your answer.
5. Apply Concepts What could you conclude if you found a fossil of a tropical plant
in a cold climate?
6. List What three conditions must a fossil meet in order to be an index fossil?
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The History of Life on Earth
Life Science Answer Key continued
Chapter 9 The History of
Life on Earth
3. 40 km
4. Since fossils of the same organism were
SECTION 1 LOOKING AT FOSSILS
5.
1. the trace or remains of an organism that
lived long ago
6.
7.
2. shells, teeth, bones
3. In petrification, minerals replace an organism’s
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
tissues.
a fossil that shows evidence of an organism’s
activities
trace fossils
A mold is an impression left in sediment. A
cast is the object formed when sediment fills
a mold.
what kind of organisms lived in the past;
how the environment has changed; how
organisms have changed
It had hard parts, such as bone.
They compare fossils. They also compare
fossils to living organisms.
Younger layers; fossils found in older layers
of rock are from more ancient life forms.
Fossils from younger layers are more recent.
8.
Review
1 Tectonic plates rest on the mantle. As the
mantle moves, it drags the plates with it.
2. New lithosphere forms where tectonic
3.
4.
5.
Review
1. tracks, burrows, coprolites
2. Only a small fraction of the organisms that
3.
4.
5.
6.
found far apart, the continents were
probably once joined.
No, the continents will continue to move and
change location.
They move only about 2 cm to 5 cm per year.
Land animals could move between the continents. They could be found in more places.
It moves warm water across the ocean. This
gives western Europe a mild climate.
6.
have existed in Earth’s history have been
fossilized. Organisms with hard parts are
more likely to be preserved than organisms
with only soft parts.
Ice and cold temperatures slow down decay.
A frog; fossils in amber are made when an
organism gets stuck in tree sap. Smaller
organisms that can be found on trees are
more likely than other organisms to become
fossils in amber.
The climate was probably much warmer
when the plant was alive.
It must be found throughout the world. It
must have existed for a relatively short geologic time. There must be many fossils of the
same kind of organism.
7.
plates move away from each other.
Geologic evidence in rocks scarred by glaciers shows that India, Africa, and Brazil
were once joined. Fossil evidence from
Mesosaurus suggests that Africa and South
America were joined.
The continents were once joined.
Pangaea was a large land mass about 245
million years ago. The continents of today
were once part of Pangaea.
Before the land bridge formed, sea creatures
could pass between the continents. After the
land bridge formed, some populations were
separated. Over time, some populations
evolved into different species.
As Pangaea broke apart and the continents
moved, they caused the ocean currents and
winds to flow differently. This changed the
flow of heat around the Earth.
SECTION 3 TIME MARCHES ON
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
SECTION 2 EARTH’S CHANGING
CONTINENTS
8.
9.
10.
1. tectonic plates
2. North American plate or Pacific plate
291 million years
Mesozoic
the death of every member of a species
more than 3.6 billion years ago
It absorbs harmful radiation from the sun.
Prokaryotes; they are single-celled organisms without a nucleus.
Organisms with hard parts become fossils more
commonly than those with only soft parts.
fishes, land plants, reptiles
the Permian extinction
reptiles
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Life Science