The Universities of the Renaissance and Reformation
Author(s): Paul F. Grendler
Source: Renaissance Quarterly, Vol. 57, No. 1 (Spring, 2004), pp. 1-42
Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Renaissance Society of America
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THE
2003
JOSEPHINE
WATERS
BENNETT
LECTURE
e Universities
o theRenaissance
andRe,formation*
hy PAUL F. GRENDLER
European universitieshad great intellectualand religiousinfluencein the Renaissanceand
Italian universities
and exhibitedconsiderable
taughtlaw and medicineto
Reformation
variety.
doctoralstudents.Theirlooseorganizationmade itpossibleforprofessors
toproduceoriginal
researchin law, medicine,philosophy,and thehumanities.NorthernEuropean universities
on teachingartsto undergraduates,
concentrated
whiletheology
was themostimportant
graduate
structure
enabledMartinLutherand otherprofessors
in German,
oftheology
faculty.Theirstronger
to createand lead theProtestant
Dutch,Swiss,and Englishuniversities
Reformation.
Bytheearly
werein decline.
seventeenth
universities
everywhere
century
wereconservative
persistentview holds thatRenaissanceuniversities
homesof outmodedknowledge.Professors
dronedon about Aristotle
when theyshould have been teachingCopernicusand Galileo. Innovative
researchand religiousrevolutionwenton outsidethelecturehalls.Students
artsor law degreethat
came to the university
onlyto getthe all-important
ofgovernment,
the
would givethementryintotheexpandingbureaucracies
in
of
life.
Once
the
their
time
areas
university,
theyspent
important
brawling
and layingsiegeto thevirtueof thewomenof thetown.So goesa stereotypical judgmenton Renaissanceuniversities.
Nothingcould be furtherfromthe truth.UniversitiesacrossEurope
rolesin theRenaissanceand theReformasignificant
playedextraordinarily
tion. They hostedinnovativeresearchin manyfieldsand changedforever
but seldom boring.
Europeanreligionand society.They werestrife-ridden
Universities
and theirprofessors
mayhavehad greaterinfluenceon societyin
theRenaissanceand Reformationthanin any era beforeor since.That influenceenduresto this day. This lectureexploressome of the roles that
universities
playedin theRenaissanceand Reformation.
.This is an expandedversionof theJosephineWatersBennettLecturedeliveredat the
RenaissanceSocietyofAmericameetingin Toronto,Ont., on 28 March 2003. The mostimcareersof religious
portantchangeis theadditionof theappendixdocumentingtheuniversity
leadersof the ProtestantReformation.For some of the pointsmade in the text,onlya small
numberof references
chosenamong manysourcescould be included.I am gratefulto professors ChristophLathy,JamesMcConica, CharlesNauert,and Erika Rummel foranswering
Ann Moyerand Arjo J.Vanderjagtforprovidingme withhardquestions,and to professors
to-locatescholarlymaterials.Thefollowingabbreviationis used: OER = The OxfordEncycloEditor-in-chief
Hans J. Hillerbrand.4 vols. New York,1996.
pedia oftheReformation.
RenaissanceQuarterly57 (2004): 1-42
11 1
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RENAISSANCE
1. THE
MAP
QUARTERLY
OF EUROPEAN
UNIVERSITIES
functionRenaissanceEurope inheritedfromtheMiddle Ages twenty-nine
new
ones in
then
created
It
in
1400
universities
1).
(see
twenty-eight
fig.
ing
Another
total
the
almost
thefifteenth
2).
(see
eighteen
fig.
century,
doubling
universities
appearedbetween1500 and 1625, makinga totalof seventythree,as two disappeared(see fig.3). The new universities
appearedeverywhere,but especiallyin centralEurope. Between 1400 and 1625, Spain
Netherlandsand Belgiumthree
added eight,Francenine,the present-day
Switzerland
two,Italyseven,and thepresent-day
universities,
Germanyfournow had four.Scanteen. Scotland,which had no medievaluniversities,
in theMiddle Ages,establishedthe unidinavia,whichlackeduniversities
ofCopenhagenand Uppsala. Only Englanddid not foundanynew
versities
in theRenaissance.But bothOxfordand Cambridgeadded sevuniversities
eralnew colleges.
creatednew universitiesbeRenaissancerulersand citygovernments
from
benefit
would
cause theybelievedthatsociety
university
learning,and
becauseEuropeansthirstedforknowledge.On 4 March 1391, Pope Boniin Ferrara.
ofa university
theestablishment
faceIX issueda bullauthorizing
would produce
In grandiloquentlanguage,it explainedthata university
men of matureadvice,crownedand decoratedin virtue,and learnedin the
thecommunitywould havea flowsubjects.Further,
Principlesof different
all
who desiredlessonsin lettersand
thirst
of
the
to
fountain
quench
ing
someechoed such sentiments,
science.' Other bulls forotheruniversities
2
timesin thesamewords.
believedthatscholarlyexpertise
Princesand leadersofcitygovernments
to createsolutions,and to atand analysiswereneededto resolvedifficulties,
to this attitude;its critical
was
essential
Humanism
tain desired goals.
fromtheancient
and habitofseekingknowledgeand inspiration
perspective
Men also cameto uniworldhonoredand supportedscholarlyinvestigation.
in orderto acquirethedegreesand marketableskillsenablingthem
versities
to securegood positionsin society.But thekindof marketabletrainingthat
and
was scholarlyanalysis,theabilityto thinkcarefully
offered
universities
redimitosornatibusac di"Ut virosproducantconsiliimaturitate
perspicuos,virtutum,
versarumfacultaturndogmatibus eruditos, sitque ibi scientiarumfons irriguisde cuius
cupientesimbui documentis."The textof the bull
plentitudinehavriantuniversilitterarum
"In supremedignitatis"is foundin Balboni, 23, and the bull is reproducedon 24 and 25.
subthe rangeof university
However,Ferraradid not establisha teachinguniversity
offering
in
1442.
It
did
at
this
time.
jects
2The foundationbull forthe Universityof Turin issued by the Avignoneseantipope
BenedictXIII on 27 November1405 expressedthesame sentimentsin almostidenticallanguage. The bull is foundin Vallauri,1:239-41; see 240 forthe nearlyidenticalpassage.The
of Turindid not beginteachinguntil 141 1 to 1413.
University
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RENAISSANCE
AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
3
in 1400.Adaptedfrom
intheRenaissance
FIGURE1.Universities
ofthe
Encyclopedia
of
etal. 6 vols.NewYork,1999,6:190. Courtesy
Renaissance.
Ed. PaulE Grendler
York.
New
CharlesScribner's
Sons,
founto applyanalyticalreasonto a problem.This was thedeep university
tainthatquenchedthethirstforlearning.
2. SOUTHERN
AND
NORTHERN
UNIVERSITIES
fromeach
wereverydifferent
Southernand northernEuropeanuniversities
ofhisthe
circle
little
the
are
understood
differences
other,although
beyond
of
the
relative
toriansof universities.
importance disciplines,
Organization,
of facultyand students,and thelevelof instruction
thedistribution
largely
determinedthe rolesthatsouthernand northernuniversities
playedin the
Renaissanceand Reformation.
in common.Latinwas thelanguageof
All universities
had somefeatures
Professorslecturedon the
examinations.
and
texts,lectures,disputations,
and metaphysics.
booksofAristotleforlogic,naturalphilosophy,
Theycorn-
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4
RENAISSANCE
QUARTERLY
In
FIGURE 2. Universitiesin the Renaissance in 1500. Adapted fromEncyclopediaofthe
Renaissance. Ed. Paul E Grendler et al. 6 vols. New York, 1999, 6:190. Courtesy of
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.
mented on the works of Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna for medicine.
Professors of law made detailed examination of the Corpusjuris civilis and
Corpusjuris canonici. Theologians lectured on Peter Lombard's Sententiarum
libri quattuor and the Bible. And once universities welcomed the studio humanitatis into the curriculum, arts students heard lectures on Vergil, Cicero,
and other ancient Latin and Greek humanistic authors. Students attended
lectures on texts required by the statutes for several years before presenting
themselves for degree examinations. Despite these common features, great
differences separated southern European universities, especially those of Italy,
from northern universities, above all, German and English institutions.
Italian universities concentrated on law and medicine, while northern
universities concentrated on theology and arts. The University of Bologna,
the largest in Italy, had about forty professors of law and fourteen professors
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RENAISSANCE
AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
5
FIGURE 3. Universities
intheRenaissance
in 1625.Adaptedfrom
Encyclopedia
ofthe
Renaissance.
Ed. PaulE Grendler
etal. 6 vols.NewYork,1999,6:190. Courtesy
of
CharlesScribner's
Sons,NewYork.
ofmedicine,
inartssubjects
(humanities,
plustwenty-one
logic,philosophy,
andmathematics),
butno theologians,
in the1470s.Thisgrewtoforty-five
oflaw,twenty-eight
ofmedicine,
and twenty-five
in
professors
professors
in the1520s.Evenin thelastthirdofthesixarts,andstillno theologians,
teenth
whenthesizeofitsprofessoriate
haddeclineda little,
andthe
century,
oftheCouncilofTrentwasevident,
influence
proBolognastillhadthirty
fessors
oflaw,twenty-one
ofmedicine,eighteenprofessors
in
professors
3
otherartssubjects,and onlyone to fourtheologians.
SmallItalianuni
versities
alsoconcentrated
on lawandmedicine.
The University
ofNaples
hada faculty
offifteen
in
the
sixteenth
ofeight
professors
century,
consisting
two
ofmedicine,
threephilosophers,
one humanist,
and
legists, professors
3
Grendler,2002, 8-9 (table), 15, 18.
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6
RENAISSANCE
QUARTERLY
4
In short,aboutseventy-five
one theologian.
percentofItalianprofessors
another
law
and
medicine,
arts,andfivepertwenty
percent
taught
taught
cent,at most,taught
theology.
northern
universities
GerBycontrast,
taughtlittlelawandmedicine.
manuniversities
or
of
both
had
three
four
law
and
typically only
professors
in thesixteenth
in
of
medicine
faculties
more.
This
and
was
century
twenty
in
thecaseat theuniversities
ofVienna,Heidelberg,
and Leiden thesixteenthcentury,
and Giessenin theearlyseventeenth.'
Englishuniversities
even
less
law
and
medicine.
For
Oxford
hadonlyoneortwo
example,
taught
inmedicine
lecturers
anda singlelawprofessor
at anygivenyearin thesixteenth
century.6
in thequalityofinstruction
in lawandmedDifferences
and research
icineaccompaniedthedisparity
in numbers.Forexample,Italianuniversities
hadusedpublicanatomies
forteaching
sinceabout1300.
purposes
the
first
known
of
dissection
a
human
contrast,
By
bodyat theUniversity
in thelate1470s,and thefirst
ofParisoccurred
knownpublicanatomy
at
ofHeidelbergin 1574.7 Onlyin 1572 did newstatutes
theUniversity
of
ofWittenberg
theUniversity
to examinedissectrequiremedicalstudents
in thequantity
ed bodies.'Andthedifferences
and qualityofpublications
'Ibid., 44. See also the Universityof Catania, which had fivelegists,one professorof
medicine,two philosophers,one humanist,and no theologiansin 1485. The Universityof
Macerata had seven or eightprofessorsof law,one professorof medicine,one philosopher,
one logician,and one theologianin the late sixteenthcentury.Ibid., 107, 112.
5For example,the revisedstatutesof 1558 forthe University
of Heidelbergallowed for
fourprofessors
of law,threein medicine,threein theology,and fivein arts,fora totalof fifteen.Maag, 15 5. This was an averagefacultycomplementforthesixteenthcentury,
as can be
in DrUll, 569-97. The University
of Vienna in 1537
seen in the summarylistsof professors
ofHeidelbergin 1591, and theUniversity
ofGiessenin 1607 all had
and 1554, theUniversity
of law and threeof medicine,in facultiesof eighteento twentys-three
fourprofessors
professors. Freedman, 132-35. The Universityof Leiden had six professorsof law, three in
medicine,six in arts,and two in theologyin 1590. Maag, 177-78.
to determinethe numberof artsteachersin
One caution is in order.It is oftendifficult
because manydid not have specificappointments.Some
Germanand Englishuniversities,
5s
in training,who had obtainedbachelor'sor master
wereadvancedstudents,oftenclergymen
degreesand thentaughtfora shortperiodwhiletheypursuedadvanceddegrees,especiallyin
theology.Englishuniversitieshad a regentsystem,in which MA studentswere requiredto
teachfora yearor two upon completionof theMA degree,unlesstheyboughttheirway out
as manydid. The regentsystemwas decliningin the sixteenthcentury.
of the requirement,
The overallpointis clear:therewas a considerableamountofartsteachingand manyteachers,
but not at an advancedlevel.
'For medicineat Oxford,see Lewis. For law,see Barton.
'For Paris, Alston, 230-31; and Park, 1995, 114-15, n. 16. For Heidelberg, see
Nutton,96.
382. Since nothingwas said about a publicanatomy,it is not clearhow
'Urkundenbuch,
studentswould have bodies to study.
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RENAISSANCE
AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
7
ofmedicine,
Euroandnorthern
inmedicine
byItalianprofessors
produced
in thefifteenth
were
ofmedicine,
andsixteenth
centuries,
peanprofessors
in
with
law
was
much
the
same.
The
equallygreat. disparity
Beginning Barand
Baldo
Ubaldi
tolo da Sassoferrato
(1327?-1400),
(1313-57)
degli
inItalianuniveroffamousItalianlegists
after
taught
generation
generation
and lefttens,possibly
sities.Theyfilledhugetomeswiththeirtreatises
ofconsilia,
ofthousands
hundreds
by
advisory
opinionson casesundertaken
oflaw,eitherin utmoredoctorates
conferred
others.Italianuniversities
roqueiure(in bothlaws),civillawalone,or canonlawalone,thanall other
oflaw.'o
Oxfordlackedfamousprofessors
degreescombined.'Bycontrast,
wholectured,
sometimes
Instead,
youngmenwithbachelors'
degrees
irregforthedoctoraldegreedelivered
mostof
as partoftherequirements
ularly,
oflawandmedicine
Oxfordconferred
doctheinstruction.
onlya handful
in thesixteenth
In
in
Italian
universities
abuntorates
had
century. short,
lacked:a largecadreofscholarsof
dancewhatmostnorthern
universities
or at leastconvincedthat
medicineand law,manyofthemdistinguished
who
theircareers
were
and
advanced
they
byresearch
distinguished, taught
andpublication.
A maGermanand Englishuniversities
artsand theology.
emphasized
in Germanuniversities
jorityoftheprofessors
taughtarts,whichincluded
thehumanities,
and
not
medicine.
Artsandtheology
but
logic, philosophy,
of
the
For
two-thirds
professors
typically
comprised
professoriate."
together
of
in
the
had
teachers
arts,eight
example, UniversityWittenberg twenty-one
forcanonand civillaw,threein medicine,and fivein theology
in 1507.
Mostoftheartsinstructors
werenotprofessors
advanced
holding
degrees,
9
For example,at the University
of Siena seventy-seven
percentof the degreesawarded
were in law, seventeenpercentin arts(mostlymedicine),and six percentwere in theology,
between 1484 and 1579. At the Universityof Pisa seventypercentof the degreesawarded
werein law,nineteenpercentwerein arts(mostlymedicine),and elevenpercentin theology
between1543 and 1600. It shouldbe noted thatthenumberof theologydegreesrosesharply
in thelastthirtyyearsof thecentury.
At the University
of Macerata,thefigureswereseventyfivepercentlaw degrees,eightpercentartsdegrees,and seventeenpercenttheologydegrees,
between 1541 and 1600. Macerata, foundedin 1540-41, conferredmore theologydegrees
thanexpectedbecause it did not confermanydegreesuntilthelastthirty
yearsofthecentury,
when theologydoctorateswere farmore numerousthan in earlierdecades. Grendler,2002,
50, 765 116.
"The onlyprofessorof law (civillaw) of anydistinctionat Oxfordin thesixteenthcenturywas Alberico Gentili (1522-1608). an Italian Protestantrefugee,who held a regius
of law from1587 untilhis death. He did not alwayslectureregularly,
and he
professorship
lived in London in his lastyears.However,he did publishextensively.
A practitionerof humanisticjurisprudence,he published his most famouswork,De iure belli, in threeparts
between1589 and 1598. Barton,261, 265-665 289-93.
"Freedman, 132-35.
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8
RENAISSANCE
QUARTERLY
but studentsstudyingforadvanceddegrees,oftenin theology.In 1536, the
oftheology,
ofWittenberg
threein medicine,
had fourprofessors
University
in
of
in
whom
were
advanced
and
eleven
students."
four law,
arts,
many
of
of studentsby disciplineparalleledthedistribution
The distribution
of
It
is
to
the
at
Italian
unithat
students
professors. likely
fifty sixtypercent
versitiesstudiedlaw,thirtyto fortypercentstudiedarts(which included
medicine),and less thantenpercentstudiedtheologyin thesixteenthcen13
in
tury. By contrast,eightypercentof thestudentsin Germanuniversities
theperiod1348 to 1506 werein arts,studyingforbachelor'sdegrees.Ten to
fifteen
percentstudiedlaw,mostlycanonlaw.Threeto ninepercentstudied
and one or twopercentstudiedmedicine.'
theology,
Althoughthe percentageof the studentbody studyingtheologywas
thepositionoftheologywas very
similarin Italianand Germanuniversities,
different.
Professors
and studentsoftheologywerecentralto theeducational
in Germanuniversities,
missionand influential
butmarginaland lackinginfluencein Italian universities.Theologywas the major graduatestudyin
and intellecItsprofessors
and studentslivedphysically
Germanuniversities.
of
in
of
Italian
students
the
center
the
But
university.
theologylived
tually
and heardmostlecturesin local monasteriesof themedievalorders,where
- mostlyDominicansand Franciscans- livedand taught.
theirprofessors
and intellectually.
Theologywas mostly"offcampus physically
"Urkundenbuch,14-17, 167-69; Schwiebert,1950, 256-57.
"These figurescan onlybe estimatesforseveralreasons.MatriculationrecordsforItaldo not surviveforthefifteenth
and sixteenthcenturies.Nor can one estimate
ian universities
the distributionof studentsby lookingat the numberof professorsin each discipline.The
numberof law studentswas a lowerpercentageof totalstudentenrollmentthanthe number
of law degreesawardedwas a percentageof all degreesconferred,because law studentswere
morelikelyto obtaindegreesthanotherstudents.Althoughexpensiveto obtain,a doctorate
of law was a valuablecredential.A further
complicationarisesfromthe factthatItalianuniversityterminologydid not distinguishbetweenmedicineand otherartssubjects,such as
majorityof artsdegreeswere
philosophyand humanities.All were"arts."The overwhelming
numberof studentsconcentratedon otherartssubdoctoratesof medicine.But a significant
jects and thentook medicaldoctoratesor did not obtain degrees.For example,a numberof
ofphilosophyand humanitieslackeddoctorates.This meantthatthenumItalianprofessors
berofartsstudentswas higherthanthenumberof medicaldoctoratesconferred.Hence, law
did not dominatestudentenrollmentas much as the numberofdegreesconferred
suggested.
of Padua noted thatonce in a while,the numberof arts
Indeed, observersof the University
studentswas higherthanthenumberoflaw students.Grendler,2002, 34, 36. Of course,this
was unusual.The closestcorrelationbetweendegreesawardedand numberofstudentswas in
esdegreeof use onlyto clergymen,
theology,because thedegreewas so clearlya professional
peciallymembersof religiousorders.
14
Schwinges,2000, 47. This shortarticlepresentsan Englishsummaryof detailedresearchin Schwinges,1986, esp. 465-86. See also Siraisi,57, 202 note I 1.
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RENAISSANCE
AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
9
is thatItalianuniversities
The secondmajordifference
students
taught
at graduateand professional
levels,whilenorthern
universities,
especially
taughtmostlyundergraduates
seeking
Englishand Germanuniversities,
in ItalianuniverThe bachelor's
bachelor's
degreehaddisappeared
degrees.
at Italianuniversities
sitiesbyabout1400.Hence,students
soughtdoctoral
in
or
The
authorization
to
teach
licentiate,
Christendom,
anywhere
degrees.
to
a terminal
but
an
the
doctorate.
It
wasnotconsidered
appendage
degree
15In starkcontrast,
conferred
atthesametimeas thedoctorate.
wasnormally
thelargestnumberofgraduatesin northern
were
Europeanuniversities
of
men
for
whom
the
bachelor
was
the
terminal
arts
young
degree.English
conferred
ofdoctorates
inlaw
andGermanuniversities
a verysmallnumber
This is whymany
and medicinein thefifteenth
and sixteenth
centuries.
northern
bachelor
ofartsin handorwithequivalent
students,
preparation,
inlawandmedicine.
On theotherhand,northcametoItalyfordoctorates
in theology.
ernuniversities
didconfer
a significant
ofdoctorates
number
in Italianuniversities
in
The factthatthestudents
obtaineddoctorates
whiletheoverwhelming
lawandmedicine,
atnorthern
universities
majority
ofartsdegrees,
obtainedbachelor
meantthatstudents
capursueddifferent
reersaftergraduation.Studentsemerging
fromItalianuniversities
with
doctorates
oflawbecamelawyers,
incivilandecjudges,andadministrators
the
Roman
which
clesiastical
absorbed
a large
chanceries,
curia,
especially
Thosewithmedicaldoctorates
numberoflawgraduates.
received
permissiontopractice
from
localcolleges
ofphysicians
andentered
private
practice,
orItaliantowngovernments
hiredthemas communal
In northphysicians.
ernEurope,a largenumberofbachelors
ofartsbecameteachers
in Latin
schools.
The linksbetweenregionaluniversity,
bachelorofartsgraduates,
and
schools
be
could
close
and
The
role
that
the
of
municipal
University
tight.
in
the
Latin
schools
of
the
of
ilBohemia
is
Pragueplayed staffing
Kingdom
Bohemianeededabout300 teachers
to staff
its114 municipal
luminating.
Latinschoolsbetween1570and 1620.Towncouncils
wantedtheirteachers
inarts,tohavea command
tobewellprepared
oftheCzechlanguage,
andto
In orderto guarantee
be Protestant.
a supplyofwellprepared
the
teachers,
townsconcededthepowertoappointtheirteachers
totherector
oftheUniofPrague,
whochosethemfromthebachelor
ofartsgraduates
ofhis
versity
Theaccordwentbeyondthepowertomakeinitialappointments.
university.
Ifa youngteacher
rector
hadtheauthority
to
well,theuniversity
performed
him
to
teach
in
at
a
school
a
town
when
a
occurred.
appoint
vacancy
bigger
inisolatedtowns,
someteachers
started
thenmovedtolarger
Consequently,
15
Grendler,2002, 172-74.
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10
RENAISSANCE
QUARTERLY
townscloserto Prague,wheretheymightcombineteachingwithstudyfor
themasterofartsdegree.Praguegraduatedan averageof thirty-three
bachelorsof artsannuallybetween1601 and 1620, and about ninetypercentim16
mediatelybecameteachersin Bohemia.
The agreementguaranteeda supplyof qualifiedteachersto thetowns.
benefits
to thegraduatesas well.The prospectofa good teachBut itoffered
of
at
the
end
their
well
studiesprobablyspurredstudentsto perform
ingjob
and to completetheirdegrees.Since therectormade appointments,
young
teacherswould not be completelyunderthethumbof thetowncouncilor
facilitateda good deal of
the local minister.In addition,the arrangement
for
the
and
social
students
turned
teachers.Theyoften
mobility
geographical
came frommiddle class families,acquired bachelorof artsdegrees,then
townsfromthoseof theirbirth.Some rosein thesociety
taughtin different
of theiradopted townsto become membersof towncouncils,especiallyif
demonstrated
theclose links
theymarriedlocally.Overall,thearrangement
and
the
betweena mostlyundergraduate
university
largersociety.
The thirdmajordifference
and mostnorthbetweenItalianuniversities
ern European universitieswas organizationand cohesiveness.Northern
werehighlyorganized,by Reuniversities,
especiallyGermanuniversities,
naissancestandards.They had senatesempoweredto makeacademicpolicy.
rectorsor deanswho led significant
partsof theuniThey had professorial
of
and
deans had real
the
such
as
Senates,
rectors,
faculty theology.
versity,
A
of
over
and
curriculum
authority
teaching." hierarchy senate,rectorsand
and mastersof artswho taughtundergraduate
deans,permanentprofessors,
had further
coherencebeartscourses,existed.Some northernuniversities
the
causetheywerecloselylinkedto religiousorders.BeforetheReformation
linked
to
the
of
was
University Wittenberg
closely
AugustinianHermits,
who providedprofessors,students,and a residence.Undergraduateresidencessupervisedbylive-inteachershelpeduniteteachersand students.The
- Pariswas
at mostnorthernuniversities
numberof permanentprofessors
which
an obviousexception was small,sometimesas fewas tento fifteen,
was muchmorelikelyto be a
also aided cohesion.The northernuniversity
As a result,it
communityofteachersand studentsthanan Italianuniversity.
was in a positionto speakand act as a body,so long as itsmemberswerein
agreementor followeda leader."
"Pes'ekforthisand the followingparagraph.
of Wittenberg,
see Schwiebert,
"For a descriptionof the organizationof theUniversity
1996,223-37.
was thatGermanprinces
betweenItalianand Germanuniversities
"Anotherdifference
in
intothe affairs
of the universities
insertedthemselvesmoredirectly,
deeply,and frequently
noticeableafThis was particularly
theirstatesthandid Italianprincesand citygovernments.
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RENAISSANCE
AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
11
andwerenotcohehadhardly
ButItalianuniversities
anyorganization
No faculty
siveacademiccommunities.
senateandnorector
withpowerover
andfaculty
existed."The professors
weremoreseniorinageand
curriculum
thanthoseat northern
becauseItalian
universities,
accomplishments
partly
of
lacked
that
toteachfor
universities regents, is,youngmasters artsrequired
a yearortwobefore
theycouldgeton withtheirlives.Almostallprofessors
in Italianuniversities
helddoctorates
and enjoyedlifetime
tenurefromthe
first
annualcontract."
Therewereno undergraduate
residences
tosupervise.
Professors
fordegreeexaminations.
didnotcometogether
Professional
assothatis,collegesofdoctorsoflaw,medicine,
ortheology,
examined
ciations,
The membership
ofthesecollegesincludedsomeprofesdegreecandidates.
sorsbuta muchlargernumberoflocallawyers,
or clergymen
physicians,
withdoctoraldegrees
fromthelocaluniversity.
Nordid Italianuniversities
haveinstitutional
linkswithreligious
orders.
Indeed,lawandmedicine
professors
oftenviewedwithcondescension
theone or twomembers
ofthe
fromlocalmonasteries
whotaught
in theuniversity.
clergy
regular
theology
thesizeofmajorItalianuniversities,
withforty
toonehundred
Finally,
permanent
worked
the
time
that
professors,
community.
Probably only
against
came
was
the
formal
of
the
academic
professors together
year,at
opening
whichtimethehumanist
oratedaboutthebenefits
oflearning
and
professor
orboredhiscolleagues.
inspired
As a consequence,
individual
thestarsin lawand
professors,
especially
had
almost
had
to
followthebroad
medicine,
completeautonomy.
They
ofstatutes
intheirteaching,
curricular
suchas lecturing
onArprescriptions
in
istotle's
natural
But
that
was
all:
there
were
Physics
philosophy.
manyways
tertheReformation
andconfessions
offaith,
began,as Germanprinces
imposednewstatutes
madecurricular
inorforced
andinvited
outprofessors.
Italian
changes,
Bycontrast,
although
andcitycouncilsexercised
ultimate
and
control,
princes
theymadefewdirectinterventions
heldtheuniversity
at arm'slength.
An intervening
madeappointments,
generally
magistracy
determined
andoversaw
thedailyaffairs.
The factthatseveral
Italianunisalaries,
important
versities
werelocatedbeyondthecapitalcities(e. g.,theuniversity
oftheVenetian
statewasin
wasin Pavia,thatoftheFlorentine
statein Pisaafter1543,while
Padua,thatofLombardy
ofthepapalstate)further
Bolognawasthemostimportant
university
separated
princeand
university.
"Italianuniversities
had electedstudentrectors
wholed thestudentorganizations.
Sometimes
thestudent
rectors
alsotaught.
Butbytheearlysixteenth
theirpowerto
century,
choosea handful
ofjuniorfaculty
insomeuniversities
members
haddisappeared.
Bythemiddle ofthesixteenth
in Italianuniversities
studentorganizations
weregenerally
so
century,
thatrector
sometimes
wentunfilled.
Grendler,
2002, 158.
unimportant
positions
Italianuniversity
wereforoneortwoyears,
four
2'Although
appointments
occasionally
without
ofrenewal,
at thesameorhigher
years,
guarantee
theywerealmostalwaysrenewed
salaries
untiltheprofessor
ordied.Ibid.,160.
departed
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12
RENAISSANCE
QUARTERLY
ofteaching
Aristotle.
The bestonesspenttheirtimewriting
andpublishing,
in theirfields.SomeItalianprofessors
thereby
acquiring
greatreputations
ofmembers
from
andwonthefriendship
commanded
their
students
loyalty
ofthegovernment.
intouniversity
cohesion.
AsofButthisdidnottranslate
in thesame
tenas not,starprofessors
wereat loggerheads
withcolleagues
ofhavingtwoor
Indeed,theconcurrent
i.e.,thepractice
system,
discipline.
on thesametextatthesamehour,encouraged
bitter
moreprofessors
lecture
rivalries.
Thedifferent
ofItalianandGermanuniversities
structures
helpedtodeThelackof
andsociety.
termine
theirimpacton European
religion,
learning,
in Italianuniversities
scholarsto
madeit possibleforindividual
structure
of
form
Renaissance
individua
noticed
research,scarcely
produceoriginal
in law,medicine,
alism.And theydid.The listoftheiraccomplishments
is
and
the
humanities
mathematics,
verylong.Germanuniverphilosophy,
to introduce
to makeit possiblefortheuniversity
sitieswerestructured
of
is
the
That
what
into
and
UniversityWittenberg
change religion society.
ofMartinLutherdid.
undertheleadership
3. RESEARCH
AND
SCHOLARSHIP
reamountofinnovative
universities
Renaissance
producedan enormous
lastedfar
andwhoseeffects
searchthatchangedseveralfieldsoflearning
Research
byuniversity
professors
changedgreatly
beyondtheRenaissance.
orscience,
thehumanities,
natural
and,
mathematics,
medicine,
philosophy
ledtheway.
to a lesserextent,
law.In theseareas,Italianuniversities
research.2'
Butit
wasthemajoragentofchangeinuniversity
Humanism
win
to
uniItalian
hum
wasmostly
an indirect
process.
began
Leading
'anists
of
in thesecondquarter the
in Italianuniversities
versity
professorships
timebecoming
had a moredifficult
Germanhumanists
fifteenth
century.
oftenopposed
in
because
German
members
universities,
theologians
faculty
Someofthebattleswerememorable.
faculties.
theirentryintouniversity
Y.22
ofthesixteenth
centur
succeededin thefirst
Butthehumanists
quarter
ofrhetoric
andpooftencalledprofessors
humanities
However,
professors,
in
on
universities.
Italian
limited
direct
had
Instead,
professors
impact
etry,
to transform
ofhumanism
usedthemethodandapproach
otherdisciplines
thelinguistic,
Humanistic
theirowndisciplines.
philtraining
gavescholars
skillstostudythekeyworksintheoriginal
andhistorical
languages
ological,
its
The critical
betterthecontext.
and to understand
spiritofhumanism,
more
than
even
old
was
to
views,
important philological
tendency challenge
"This is also theview of Rflegg,1992, and Rflegg,1996, 33-39.
22
The bibliographyis verylarge.StartwithNauert;and Rummel,chap. 4.
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RENAISSANCE
AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
13
ofmedicine
skills.Forexample,in Italy,humanistically
trainedprofessors
theancienttexts
of
sneered
atmedieval
medicaltextsandrevered
sometimes
Galen.Theysoughtoutmanuscripts
andfoundnewworks.Theywerenot
ofGalenbutusedtheirknowledge
withmedieval
Latintranslations
content
ofGreektoproducebetter
Aboveall,thehumanists
were
Latintranslations.
ofwhathe
notcontentsimply
to followGalen.Theysoughtconfirmation
In time,theydiscovered
their
ownanatomical
studies.
wrotethrough
Galen's
and
corrected
them.
their
new
research
caused
Eventually,
inadequacies
23
themto abandonmuchofGalen'sphysiology.
ofmedicine
imbuedwithhumanist
valuesandarmed
Thus,professors
skillscreated
whichledtogreater
withphilological
medicalhumanism,
emclinical
In
on
and
medical
similar
anatomical
medicine,
botany.
phasis
study,
thehumanistic
intomoreaccurate
fashion,
questtofind,read,andtranslate
worksproduced"Renaissance
LatinAristotle's
Aristotelianisms"
and much
in
Y.2'The
search
for
natural
humanistic
Greek
mathematphilosoph
change
ical textsinspiredmoresophisticated
mathematical
techniques.Led by
AndreaAlciato(1492-1550), who taughtat theuniversities
ofAvignon,
and
some
with
scholars
humanistic
Pavia,
Ferrara,
Bourges,
Bologna,
legal
worked
to
achieve
a
historical
of
Roman
reconstruction
ancient
law,
training
andthenbasedtheirlegalcommentary
on a better
oftheanunderstanding
or mosgallicus,
cienttexts.Thiswashumanistic
becauseits
jurisprudence,
withGermanuniversities
center
wasinFrench
secondinimporuniversities,
ofbiblicalstudiesin theout-of-the-way
tance.A professor
of
University
in hislectures
andperspective
appliedhumanist
Wittenberg
methodology
25
ontheBiblewithoriginal
andresearch
results.
Thekeyitemwasalways
the
in
of
criticism
that
humanism
the
best
scholars.
university
spirit
engendered
In thatsense,humanism
wasthedriving
forceforinnovation
in university
research.
Allthemajorcreative
invariousfields,
from
Andreas
Vesalius
professors
Giovanni
da
of
and
Monte
both
whom
(1514-64)
(1489-1551),
taughtat
theUniversity
ofPaduain medicine,
to GalileoGalilei(I 564-1642),who
ofPisaandPadua,plusMartinLuther
mathematics
attheuniversities
taught
of
(1483-1546) and PhilippMelanchthon
(1497-1560)at theUniversity
had
humanist
Wittenberg,
training.
on medicalhumanismis large.StartwithBylebyl,1979 and 1985, and
"The literature
the studiesin Medical Renaissance.
14
"Renaissance Aristotelianisms"comes from Schmitt, 10-33. For mathematics,
see Rose. For humanistic jurisprudence,see Kelley. These are only threeworks in large
bibliographies.
15
The influenceof humanismon Lutherhas produced much scholarlydebate. Three
scholarswho see it as significant
areJunghaus;Spitz, 1996, StudiesVI-X; and Dost.
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14
RENAISSANCE
4. WITHOUT
UNIVERSITIES,
QUARTERLY
No
REFORMATION
Italian university
professorschangedscientificscholarshipthroughinnoand professors
vativeresearch.Germanuniversities
changedEurope bycreReformation.
the
Protestant
ating
Reformation
BerndMoeller,thewell-knownhistorianof theProtestant
in Germany,
made thestatement,
"Withouthumanism,no Reformation."26
He was correct.But Moellershouldhave added anotherstatement:"Withno Reformation,"
createdand
becauseuniversity
out universities,
professors
Reformation
sustainedtheProtestant
throughitsfirstcentury.
The ProtestantReformationbegan as a common academic exercise,a
proposeddisputation.MartinLutherhad been concernedabout theindulin and around Wittenbergsince 1514. This led him to
gence trafficking
examineand findwantingthe biblical and theologicalsupportforindul21
gences. In late October 1517, Luther draftedNinetyfive Theses,or
fora public
propositionsfordebate,concerningindulgences,in preparation
dispudisputationabout them.This was normalprocedurefora university
tationby a professorwho wished to attractattentionto himselfand his
views.Lutherhad engagedin previousdisputationsin September1516 and
April 1517, in whichhe attackedScholasticism.2' The ideas in theNinetyBut thetheses
wererevolutionary.
fiveTheses(or On thePowerofIndulgences)
werewrittenin academic disputationprose,whichwas just as drearyas it
sounds.2' The numberof thesesthatLutherproposedto debatewas about
Studentsmightproposeto deaveragefora disputationled bya professor.
to twentytheses(see figs.4 and 5)." GiovanniPico della
fendonlyfifteen
to
wideattentionin 1487 becausehe offered
Mirandola0 463-94) attracted
defend900 theseswithunusualcontent.
Becauseno earlycopyofLuther'snoticeofthedisputationhas survived,
it is notknownwhetherhe proposeda dateand time.Nor is it knownifthe
(see figs.4 and 5). Sometimesthe
originalcopywas printedor handwritten
announcementwiththethesesto be debatedwas printedand theplace and
"'Ohne Humanismus keine Reformation."Moeller, 1959, 59; in English,Moeller,
1982, 36.
27
Brecht 1:183-90.
Ibid., 1:166-74.
2'For an Englishtranslationof theNinety-FiveTheses,see Luther,489-500. See Brecht,
1:192-99 fora summaryand commentary.
31
See Matsen; and Grendler,2002, 152-57, formore information,bibliography,and
On 27 April 15 17, Andreas
of studentdisputationnoticesin Italianuniversities.
illustrations
Bodenstein von Karlstadt(1486-1541) published 151 thesesagainst Scholasticism. On
thesesagainstScholasticismweredisputed.Brecht,
4 September1517, Luther'sninety-seven
1:170, 172.
28
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RENAISSANCE
AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
15
FIGURE4. Handwritten
ofdisputation
De Ferro
announcement
Jacobus
bystudent
of Bologna.Archiviodi Statodi
Hispanusof 13 March1503 at theUniversity
dello Studio,Disputee ripetizioni
di scolariper ottenere
Bologna,Riformatori
letture
d'universita'
ofArchivio
di Statodi Bologna.
1487-1515,f. 175r.Courtesy
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16
RENAISSANCE
QUARTERLY
MW
x
announcement
ofdisputation
Mattheus
de Montibus
5. Printed
bystudent
Blanchorurn
of 19 March1508 at theUniversity
ofBologna.Archivio
di Statodi
dello Studio,Disputee ripetizioni
di scolariperottenere
Bologna,Riformatori
letture
d'universita'
ofArchivio
di Statodi Bologna.
1487-1515,f.279r.Courtesy
FIGURE
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RENAISSANCE
AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
17
butnotproven,
thatLutherpostedthe
dateaddedbyhand.It is alsolikely,
Theses
the
bulletin
which
wasthewooden
on
board,
university's
Ninety-Five
Aftermakinghis intentions
door oftheCastleChurchofWittenberg.
thedisputation
totakeplaceinearlyNoknown,Lutherprobably
expected
of
All
afterthetwosolemnfeasts
Saintsand All Souls, 1 and 2
vember,
November.
Whilemostdisputations
had onlylocal university
relevance,
to
to
therewasa growing
use
reach
butstill
broader,
tendency
disputations
senta copyoftheNinety-Five
totheloTheses
limited
audiences."So Luther
calarchbishop,
justas Picohadsentcopiesofhis900 thesestothepopeand
others.
The disputation
didnottakeplace.12 Had itoccurred,
attendance
would
havebeenlimitedto members
and
a
few
oftheuniversity
outcommunity
a
siderswho understoodLatin and wereinterested
to
attend
enough
on
and bystudents,
points.Professors,
disputation abstracttheological
standers
wouldhaveengagedina noisydebatelasting
several
hoursandsetoftheRenaissance
justlikesessionsat theannualmeeting
tlingnothing,
of
that
are
scholars
less
andmore
Society America,
except today's
garrulous
andstudents
haverisenorfalleninreputation
polite.Someprofessors
might
how
well
or
to
Itwasalsocustomary
loudly
they
according
disputed.
to mailcopiesofthethesestoprofessors
andfaculties
oftheology
elsewhere.
In due time,Luthermighthavereceivedsomecomments
in return.
But
notverymany.Luther
wasa relatively
probably
profesyoung,unpublished
sorin a little-known
was
distant
and
university.
Wittenberg
geographically
inprestige
evenmoreremote
with
Paris.
is
But
full
of
surhistory
compared
thatdidnottakeplacelaunchedtheLutheran
prises:an academicexercise
Reformation.
Muchmoreimportant
thanthedisputation
thatdidnottakeplacewas
in
Luther's
the
the
role
and
of
theUniversity
ofWittenuniversity
position
in
ofbiblicalstudiesat the
berg whatdid happen.Lutherwasa professor
ofWittenberg
fromthewintersemester
oftheacademicyear
University
andhe
1513-14untilhisdeathin 1546.He neverheldanyotherposition,
continuedto lecturedespiteinterruptions.
his
and
Nevertheless, teaching
setoffa chainreaction
oftheology.
and students
writing
amongprofessors
He taught
someofwhomwouldbecomeleadersoftheRefmanystudents,
ormation.
alsobecameprofessors
oftheology
andtaught
more
They,inturn,
who
their
and
so
on.
Luther's
students, taught
students,
Moreover,
faculty
3'Brecht 1:198-99, makesthispoint.
3'Althoughthisone did not takeplace,disputationsremainedan essentialfeatureofeducation at the Universityof Wittenberg.For example, universityrecordslist twenty-two
disputations,two with Lutherpresiding,from29 September1538 through29 September
1539. Urkundenbuch,
202-03.
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18
RENAISSANCE
QUARTERLY
hisstrongest
and mostloyalsupporters
fromthe
colleagueswereinitially
earliest
Reformation."
Observers
musthavebeensurdaysoftheLutheran
werenotrenowned
forsupporting
professors
prised,becauseRenaissance
theircolleagues.
Luther's
reverted
Indeed,after
death,hisacademicfollowers
to formandengagedin bitter
each
other.
with
disputes
The activities
ofthefirst
fourorfiveyearsoftheLutheran
Reformation
a youngfaculty
and
resembled
Led
Luther,
professors students
uprising. by
in
a
what
to
have
been
continuous
as theydebated
seminar,
appears
engaged
thefoundations
oftraditional
Catholicism.
Thatmanytaughtandlivedtoin
As in
the
must
have
thisatmosphere.
same
encouraged
gether
building
otherintellectual
neither
Luthernorhisfollowers
couldhave
revolutions,
wheretheiractionswouldlead.
predicted
The University
ofWittenberg
rewards
forpromoting
reapedenrollment
Studentsand otherscamefromall overGertheLutheranReformation.
many,easternEurope, and Scandinaviato hear Lutherand Philipp
on 29 August1518. In
whobeganteaching
at Wittenberg
Melanchthon,
thatabout400 students
visitorreported
earlyDecember1520,an official
to
600
students
attended
Melanchlectures
and
heardLuther's
500
theology
musthavebeennearlytheentirestudent
thon'slectures."The lastfigure
astheReforbody.Whileenrollments
plungedinotherGermanuniversities
onethousand
andmoreinthe
mationspread,
soared,reaching
Wittenberg's
thelargest
enrollment
ofanyGermanuniversity
1540sand 1550s,probably
35
thestudents
ofWitten-berg,
inthoseyears.
After
attheUniversity
studying
"Colleagues of Lutherwho werestrongsupportersincludeJohannAgricola,Nikolaus
von Amsdorf,Viet Dietrich,JustusJonas,WenceslausLinck,and PhilippMelanchthon.The
exceptionwas AndreasBodensteinvon Karlstadt,who beganas a supporter,but by 1522 opposed him. Indeed, he was forbiddento publish in thatyear,and his public activitieswere
limitedto teaching.He leftto become Professorof the Old Testamentat the Universityof
Basel in 1534. See theAppendixforshortbiographies.
34
"So hab'ich gesternin magisterPhilippslectionfteilichbei 5 oder600 auditores,un in
auditoreswenigbefunden."Reportof Georg Spalatinto
doctorMartinusuntervierhundert
Frederick,Electorof Saxony,no date but between3 and 7 December 1520. Urkundenbuch,
109. The matriculationnumberssupportSpalatin'sestimates.See nextnote.
35
This is an extrapolationfromthe semi-annualmatriculationfiguresfoundin Album.
The annual numbersare summarizedin a tablein Schwiebert,1950, 605; and presentedyear
byyear,1502 through1540, in Aland, 217, n. I I 0, and 220, n. 164. Their countsvarya little. Aland adds matriculationfiguresforthe universitiesof Cologne, Erfurt,Leipzig, and
is clear.Wittenberghad 579 manumericalsuperiority
on der Oder. Wittenberg's
Frankfurt
in 1519 and about 400 in 1520. Matriculationsthenfellthroughmostoftherestof
triculants
in 1527), then rose steadilyin the
the 1520s (only seventy-sixin 1526 and seventy-three
1530s, 1540s, and 1550s to a peak of about 800 in 1553. Since a studentneeded to enroll
onlyonce in his academiccareer,therecordsdo not indicatethesize ofthe studentbody in a
and it
givenyear.Since the vastmajorityof Wittenberg'sstudentswereartsundergraduates,
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RENAISSANCE
AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
19
of professorsLutherand Melanchthonspread the Reformationthrough
theirpreaching,byadvisingprincesand citycouncils,and bydrafting
Kirch(churchorders)and Schulordnungen
(schoolorders)forthenew
enordnungen
churchesin Germanstates.
Aboveall,Luther'sfollowers
becameprofessors
oftheology.Eighty-eight
leadersof the Lutheran,Calvinist,and SwissReformations
wereuniversity
in
the
from
the
of
1517
century
professors
Synod Dortrechtof
through
1618 and 1619. Anotherfourteen
wereteachersat theProtestant
academies
of Geneva, Zurich, Lausanne, Strasbourg,and elsewhere.Althoughthese
smallacademiesdid notconferdegrees,theytaughtsomesub'
pecially
In
at
a
level.
102
leaders
of
the
short,
theology, university
religious
magistewereuniversity
rialReformation
or taughtat an advancedlevelin
professors
16
major Protestantacademies. Like Luther,a largemajorityof thesemen
livesas university
and academyprofesspentall or mostoftheirprofessional
sors. Although they also preached, acted as pastors, and oversaw the
Lutheran,Calvinist,or SwissReformedchurchesin smallstates,theywere
By contrast,no Anabaptistleaderand onlytwo antiprimarilyprofessors.
37
wereuniversity
Trinitarians
professors.
ofartsdegree,
itis reasonable
tookabouttwoyearstoobtaina bachelor
toassumethatmany
in residence
at leasttwoyears,and thosewho cameforhigherdegrees
students
remained
Butmany,
In addididnotstaylongenoughto obtaindegrees.
stayedlonger.
manystudents
oftenattended
ora yearorso in
twoorthreeuniversities,
a fewmonths
tion,students
staying
a degreeinanother
AndintheheadydaysoftheearlyLutheran
each,before
university.
taking
itis likelythatmanycameto seeandhearthemanwhowassetting
Reformation,
Germany
Ifonemultiplies
theannualmatriculation
records
ablaze,butdidnotremain.
bytheconserof1.5,enrollments
vativenumber
as 850 in 1519,600 in 1520,a lowofI IO
canbe estimated
in 1527,a highof1,200in 1553, andan average
between
400 and600. Buttheseareonlyesin itspeakyearsprobably
timates.
The mostimportant
had more
pointis thatWittenberg
students
thananyotherGermanuniversity.
36
Thesestatements
arebasedon an examination
ofallthebiographies
in OER.Thisadmirable
workpresents
ofimportant
fromthepresent-day
Protestants
biographies
Germany,
theNetherlands,
the
Switzerland,
France,
Italy,Spain,Austria,
England,Scotland,
Hungary,
CzechRepublic(whichwasBohemiain thesixteenth
Poland,Denmark,
Slovakia,
century),
andIceland.Excluding
leaders(kings,
andcityleaders),
as
Sweden,Finland,
political
princes,
wellas artists,
whowereProtestants
and humanists
butdid notplaysignificant
musicians,
rolesin theReformation,
Of these,eighty-eight
remained.
wereuniver267 religious
figures
fourteen
were
and
at
Protestant
academies.See the
sityprofessors
professors important
The 165non-professors
includedalltheAnabaptists
andallbuttwoanti-TrinitarAppendix.
ian or Unitarians(see thenextnote).Othersexcludedarepreachers,
pastors,bishops,
Protestant
several
aboutwhomlittleisknown,
andindividuals
martyrs,
Anabaptists
including
whohadonlylocalinfluence.
A finalcomment:
whenitisremembered
thata tiny,
tinynumber(perhaps
.001%-.002%ofthepopulation)
attended
and
the
men
who
became
university,
evenfewer,
thekeyroleofuniversities
andprofessors
is really
remarkable.
professors
37
SeeCelioSecondoCurioneandMatteoGribaldiin theAppendix.
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20
RENAISSANCE
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of theProtestant
was themostimportantuniversity
ReforWittenberg
mationbya wide margin."NextcameHeidelberg,whichoscillatedbetween
Lutheranand Calvinistallegiance,Cambridge,whichled theEnglishReformation,and Leiden (founded1575), whichwas essentialto Calvinismand
of Marburg,Tdbinthe Reformationin theNetherlands.The universities
The
also
Geneva
and
Oxford
contributed
Academyplayed
gen,
significantly.
a unique rolein theCalvinistmovement.
oftheologyinsideGermanuniversities,
Professors
notoutsideas in Italy,
The character
createdand sustainedthemagisterial
Reformation.
and structureof German universitiesmade thispossible. Even thougha German
it
Protestant
facultyof theologynormallyhad onlythreeto fiveprofessors,
was the most importantgraduatefacultyand well organized.Lutherand
othersdid not haveto competewithnumerousand prominentprofessors
of
law and medicineforthe attentionof colleagues,students,and outsiders.
Had MartinLutherbeenan Italian- callhimMartinoLutero- in an Italian university,
he would have attractedlittleattention.He probablywould
not have been a university
at all. Most likelyhe would havespent
professor
hisentirecareerlecturingto othermembersofhis orderin a monastichouse
of studies.He would not havehad thestageand followingthattheUniversityofWittenberg
gavehim.
for
did not changeuniverExcept religiousdoctrines,theReformation
sitiesverymuch.Indeed,some Germanuniversities
subjects
quietlyrestored
and textsjettisonedin the firstwave of Protestantreforms.For example,
Wittenbergbroughtback the teachingof canon law in a second roundof
universireforms
between1533 and 1536.31Moreover,Protestant
university
scholastic
ties,whetherLutheranor Calvinist,continuedto use Aristotelian
methodto teachsuchsubjectsas naturalphilosophyand ethics.Laterin the
Scholasticismto teachtheology.
century,
theydevelopeda Protestant
5. PROFESSORS
OF THE
REFORMATION
AfterLuther'sdeath in 1546, intellectualleadershipof the Reformation
of theology.But withoutLutherto
passed almostcompletelyto professors
impose order,theybehaved more and more like academics. They spent
much time and energyattemptingto best otherprofessorsin rancorous
theologicalquarrels.The split betweenthe Gnesio-Lutherans(genuine
Lutherans)and the Philippists(the moremoderateand accommodationist
of things
of Melanchthon),whichbeganin 1548, was a harbinger
followers
to draftconfessionsof
to come. Lutherantheologiansmade valiantefforts
and theReforma"Three good, succinctstudiesof therelationshipbetweenuniversities
tion are Benrath,1966, reprintedas Benrath,1970, and Spitz, 1981 and 1984.
'9LUck,76, 78, 82.
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RENAISSANCE
AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
21
ofconcordtohealdivision,
without
faithandformulas
greatsuccess.MeanfromLutheran
followers
ranks.Luthwhile,Calvinism
grewand attracted
erantheologians
and princesbeganto viewthosewithintheirownranks
issuesas crypto-Calvinists,
sometimes
whodisagreed
onsomedoctrinal
with
no
in
reason.
But
the
Calvinist
had
more
success
community
good
preservintheDutchReformed
TheArminian
Churchinthe
Controversy
ingunity.
withintheReformed
comcentury
earlyseventeenth
exposeddeepdivisions
The religious
ofprofessors
oftheology
and universities
leadership
munity.
cameat a price.
whoproIt wasto be expectedthatprofessors
at Catholicuniversities
to
Protestantism
would
lose
claimedallegiance
theirposts.Andwhena
Catholicprofessors
whorefused
to acceptthe
turnedProtestant,
university
to
newfaith
weredismissed.4'ButProtestant
universities
be
proved equallyinofotherProtestants.
tolerant
Lutheran
universities
didnotwantZwinglians
Calvinists
Lutherans
Caldismissed
Lutherans,
rejected
theology,
teaching
and
not
tolerate
Gnesio-Lutherans
would
Lutherans.
vinists,
Philippist
Professors
oftheology
couldnotdismiss
otherprofessors,
however
much
have
to
so.
But
wished
do
did
draft
confessions
of
faith
and
theymight
they
ofconcord.
Princes
whoacceptedtheseformulas
formulas
them
on
imposed
theprofessors
oftheirstates.Manyprofessors,
and clergy
theoloespecially
losttheir
jobsinthesecondhalf
gianswhocouldnotaccepttheconfessions,
A fewexamples
ofthesixteenth
illustrate
thepoint.
century.
Viktorin
a
Lutheran
oftheology
(1
524-69),
Philippist
professor
Strigel
ofJenain Ernestine
at theUniversity
became
in a bitter
embroiled
Saxony,
with
another
Matthias
Flacius
there,
controversy
professor
theological
111yricus(1520-75).Thisledto theimposition
ofa doctrinal
statement
bythe
Elector
11.Strigel
Friedrich
tosignandwasbriefly
imrefused
ruler,
Johann
or
under
house
arrest
for
several
months.
He
moved
to
the
prisoned placed
of
another
in
in
Lutheran
But
1563.
institution,
1567,
University Leipzig,
he wassuspendedfromhisLeipzigprofessorship
on suspicionofholding
Calvinist
viewson theLord'sSupper.He immediately
movedtotheCalvinistUniversity
ofHeidelberg,
wherehe taughtuntilhe died.41
"For example,when the University
of Tflbingenbecame Lutheranin 1534 and 1535,
Catholic professors
wereforcedout. Mobley,83. But see the sad case of PhilippApian, professorofmathematics.In 1569 he losthis positionat theCatholicUniversity
ofIngolstadtfor
being a Protestant.He was thenhiredat the LutheranUniversityof Tflbingenin 1570, but
losthis positiontherein 1583 forrefusingto signthe Formulaof Concord of 1577. Mobley,
who losttheir
221-23, 229, n. 268, 293. The note also listsseveralotherTflbingenprofessors
positionsforreligiousreasons.Apian and Matteo GribaldiMofa (see Appendix) may have
been theonlyprofessors
who lostpositionsat both Catholic and Protestantuniversities
forreligiousreasons.
41
See Strigeland Flacius Illyricusin theAppendix.
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22
RENAISSANCE
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lost theirpositionsat the University
of Heidelbergas
Many professors
the PalatinateoscillatedbetweenLutheranand Calvinistallegiance.It had
become stronglyCalvinistduringthe reignof ElectorFrederickIII (ruled
1559-76). But when ElectorLudwigVI (ruled 1576-83) returnedthe Pain 1576, he insistedthatall professors
latinateto Lutheranism
and students
signa Lutheranoath of obedienceand swearallegianceto severalLutheran
doctrinalstatements.Three theologianswereimmediatelydismissed,two
professors
departedbeforebeingasked to signthe oath,and six professors
refusedto sign and lost theirpositions, between 1576 and 1579. Since
Heidelberghad only sixteenprofessorsin 1569, it was a huge turnover.
werehiredin theirplace. However,in 1583, Ludwig's
Lutheranprofessors
brother,
JohannCasimir,a Calvinist,begana nine-year
regencyforLudwig's
underageson, the futureElectorFrederickIV, duringwhichtimehe ruled
werelet go and Calvinistshired.Many
thestate.Now Lutheranprofessors
42
studentsalso left.
ofWittenberg
dismissed
Luther'sown University
saw severalprofessors
or sufferotherpenaltiesforreligiousreasonsin thelastquarterof the century.In 1574, Elector August I (ruled 1553-86) had Caspar Peucer
O 525-1602), a professorof medicine,imprisonedforcrypto-Calvinism.
had to decidewhether
He was not releaseduntil1586. In 158 1, professors
to signthe Formulaof Concord of 1577, designedto end the controversy
theformer.
betweenGnesio-Lutherans
and Philippistsbutstrongly
favoring
Two jurists,two professorsof medicine,and one mathematicianchose to
leave. But the nextruler,ElectorChristianI (ruled 1586-91) favoredCalvinism.PolykarpLeyser(1552-1610), a Lutheranprofessorof theology
theLutheranposition,was
appointedin 1577 and a keyfigurein enforcing
dismissedin 1587. The rulersof the 1590s again favoredLutheranismand
moredismissalsfollowed,includingthatof SamuelHuber (1 547-1624), for
in 1594.43
hisviewson predestination,
Niels Hemmingsen(1513-1600), a Lutheranand the mostimportant
suffered
the same fate.Appointedprofessorof Greekat
Danish Reformer,
of theolof Copenhagenabout 1543, he becamea professor
theUniversity
of
the
and the
member
in
He
was
the
most
1553.
university
prominent
ogy
"See the biographiesofJohannGrynaeus,Thomas Ldber,Zacharias Ursinus,and Girolamo Zanchi in the Appendix. See also Maag, 155-71, esp. 159-61; OER 2:216-17;
in DrUll,passim.In addition,
Wolgast,24-54; and the biographiesof Heidelbergprofessors
of all university
DrUll,593-97, provideslistsorganizedaccordingto religiousaffiliation
professorswho taughttherebetween1522 and 165 1. One can easilyfollowthe changes.
43
See the biographyof Peucer in the Appendix. See also OER 2:117-21; 3:251-52,
263-345, 395-415; and Aland, 178-209, forthe
255-61; 4:285-86. See also Friedensburg,
long theologicalbattlesat Wittenbergfromthe 1570s throughthe 1620s.
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RENAISSANCE
AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
23
authorofmanyworks.However,he was dismissedfromhispositionin 1579
forbeinga crypto-Calvinist
and forattackingtheGnesio-Lutheran
position.
These werenottheonlyprofessors
He neverheldanotherprofessorship."
to
lose theirpositions.
6. THE
DECLINE
OF UNIVERSITIES
Europeanuniversities
enjoyedone of thegreatestand mostproductiveperiods in theirhistory
Theyproduced
duringtheRenaissanceand Reformation.
an enormousamountof innovativeresearch.They createda religiousrevolution.They enjoyeda nearmonopolyas educatorsof Europe3sscholarly,
civic,and ecclesiasticalelites.They trainedan abundance of Latin school
teachers.But theirsuccessdid not continuein theseventeenth
century.
The causes of declineand loss of influencewerenumerous.War,espeacrosscentralEurope
ciallytheThirtyYears'War,whosetentaclesstretched
in manyplaces,especiallyin Gerand entangledItaly,disrupteduniversities
the upheavalsof civilwar,regicide,and
suffered
many.Englishuniversities
the Puritanascendancy.Greatills,such as famineand plague in northern
Italybetween1629 and 1633, damagedthesocietywhichsupporteduniversities. Internalproblems,such as increasedprofessorialabsenteeismand
weakeneduniversities.'In curricular
universities
studentbrawling,
matters,
on
to
the
Aristotelian
too
For
Italian
synthesis
profesexample,
hung
long.
sorsof naturalphilosophyonlydiscardedAristotlefora moreexperimental
century.'6
approachto sciencein thelasthalfof theseventeenth
wereseWar,plague, studentbrawling,and intellectualconservatism
riousproblemsbut not new.Competitionfromotherinstitutions
ofhigher
educationtippedthescaletowarduniversaldecline.Renaissanceuniversities
47
-centuryuniversities
did.
had no significant
competitors. But seventeenth
New kindsofschoolsrosein bothCatholicand Protestant
Europein thelast
44
OER 2:222-23; and Lyby and Grell, 117, 119-22, 125, 130; and biography in
Appendix.
45
For example,AnnibaleRoero (no lifedatesavailable)publishedin 1604 an accountof
his careeras a law studentat the University
of Pavia between1596 and 1602. He wrotethat
all studentsshould carryswordsand be willingto fight.Those who did not wereconsidered
cowards.He mocked thosewho closed theireyeswhen hit in the face. The only reasonfor
closingone'seyeswas to avoid theblood spurtingfroman opponent'swound. Roero, 133. For
more on studentviolence in Italian universities
see
includingthe new problemof firearms,
Grendler,2002, 500-05.
46
47
See Soppelsa; and Schmitt,5-7, 103-08.
Monastic orderstudiogeneralia,i.e., the schoolsof the Dominicans, Franciscans,and
othermedievalorders,whichtaughtphilosophy,biblicalstudies,and theology,weretheonly
But theydid not teachlaw or medicine.
competitorsto Renaissanceuniversities.
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24
RENAISSANCE
QUARTERLY
thirdofthesixteenth
in numberand expanded
century.
Theymultiplied
in theseventeenth
theirenrollments
fiercecompecentury.
Theyoffered
titionforscholarly
and
the
noble
students,
leadership
especially wealthy
students
thatall universities
The
new
schools
were
not
universities
sought.
thefullrangeofarts,theology,
law,medicine,
science,
teaching
philosophy,
andmathematics.
of
the
curriculum
and
Rather,
theytaught
university
part
men
skills
for
and
specific
professional
gaveyoung
religious
preparation life.
In theCatholicworld,thenewreligious
orders
as theJesuits,
theBarnabites(theClerksRegularof St. Paul), Somaschans(ClerksRegularof
andPiarists
oftheMotherofGod ofthePious
Somascha),
(ClerksRegular
in
new
established
schools
Schools)
Italy,Spain,and central
Europe."For
the
of
for
founded
its
first
school
external
students,
example, Society Jesus
whowerenotmembers
inMessina,SicoftheSociety,
laystudents
meaning
a corecurriculum
ofLatingrammar,
and
humanities,
ily,in 1548.It taught
some
and
to
ten
to
sixteen.
schools
rhetoric,
Greek, boysaged
Jesuit
spread
schoolsforexternal
stuincredibly
quickly;by1599,therewere245 Jesuit
dentsacrossEurope,444 in 1626, and 578 by 1679.49TheJesuits,
the
oftheChristian
Doctrinaires
(SecularPriests
Doctine),andOratorians
(the
French
oftheOratory)
founded
manyschoolsin France.
Congregation
In a fewcases- Cologne,Ingolstadt,
andParmain Italy
Mainz,Trier,
- theJesuits
areexamples
becamepartofuniversities,
wheretheydominatedthefaculties
oftheology
rolein artsand
and playedan important
51
In
such
have
attracted
students
whowouldnot
cases,theymay
philosophy.
otherwise
havecometotheuniversity.
theirpresence
meantfewer
However,
for
scholars.
professorshipslay
Butmostofthenewschoolsfounded
andotherreligious
bytheJesuits
tookstudents
In thelastthirdofthesixteenth
orders
awayfromuniversities.
theJesuits
in highersubjectsin manyof
to
instruction
add
century,
began
theirschools.Theyaddeda three-year
of
cycle logicinthefirst
year,natural
in
with
an
on
science
the
second
philosophy
emphasis physical
year,and
in thethird
and naturalphilosophy
metaphysics
emphasizing
psychology
basedonAristotle.
and
mathematics,
year,
always
Theyalsotaught
theology,
casesofconscience.
schoolsteaching
were
Jesuit
usuallylosubjects
higher
Forexample,
Italian
catedin larger
universities.
towns,oftenthosehosting
in
schools
were
the
towns
found
Jesuit
university of
subjects
teaching
higher
"For the religiousorders,startwith the comprehensivearticleson the orders,their
di perfezione.
founders,and importantfiguresin Dizionario degliistituti
"Farrell,365; Brizzi,1976, 20.
51
See Hengstfora survey,
and Mobley,234-374, fora morerecentstudyoftheJesuitsat
the Universityof Ingolstadt.For Parma,see Grendler,2002, 129-37, includingadditional
bibliography.
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RENAISSANCE
AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
25
Padua, Rome, and Naples, as well as Milan and othertownslackinguni51
centuries.
and earlyseventeenth
in thelatesixteenth
versities,
Many membersof religiousorderswereexcellentscholarswho publisheda greatdeal in
theology,biblicalstudies,philosophy,physicalscience,and mathematics.
oftenequaled or surpassedthoseof uniTheir scholarlyaccomplishments
versityscholars.
associationsrecognizedthequalityof thehigherstudiesof
Professional
A decisionoftheCollege
schoolsand reactedaccordingly.
order
thereligious
associationthatlicensedphysicians
of Physiciansof Milan, theprofessional
to practicein Milan, made thisclear.The College,whichalso had thepower
to conferdoctoratesof medicine,decreedin 1584 thatcandidatesfordoctoratesmightcountthreeyearsof philosophicalstudiesat theJesuitschool
in Milan towardthe sevenyearsof philosophyand medicinetrainingre52
quiredforthedoctorof medicinedegree. The Milanesestudentswho did
theirphilosophicalstudiesat theJesuitBreraSchool of Milan would otherof the Milanese
of Pavia,the university
wise have studiedat the University
state,or at otherItalianuniversities.
Religiousorderboardingschoolsforthesons of noblescompetedsuccessfullywith universitiesforthe most prized students.Beginningin the
mid-1570s, theJesuitsbegan to foundor accept the directionof schools
open onlyto boysof noble blood.5' Theywereeitherindependentboarding
schools or special classeswithinlargerJesuitschools. Unlike otherJesuit
schools,theseschoolswerenot freebut quiteexpensive.By thefirstquarter
theJesuitsin Italyalone operatedschoolsfornooftheseventeenth
century,
townsofTurin,Parma,Bologna,Ferrara,Siena,Rome,
blesin theuniversity
townsof Milan, Genoa, Brescia,
and Naples, as well as the non-university
Verona, Ravenna, Prato, Palermo, and Cagliari in Sardinia. They had
schoolsfornoblesin Madrid,Graz,Sopron,Vienna,and Olomouc in Habsburglands,and Kaschau in Hungary.They also operatedmanyboarding
schoolsopen to both noblesand wealthycommoners,especiallyin France
54
and Germany.
Jesuitboardingschools taughtboys fromabout the ages of eleven to
Forexample,thenobleboardingschoolof
and had largeenrollments.
twenty
Parmahad 550 boysin 1605, 644 in 1646, and 903 in 1660.55 Those in ad
"While well knownto historiansofJesuiteducation,the expansionofhigherstudiesin
Jesuitcollegeshas receivedlessattentionthanit merits.For Milan, see Rurale,136-45; forItalyas a whole, see Grendler,in press.
52
Rurale,145-46.
Brizzi,1976, is the fundamentalstudy.
54
Ibid., 26.
55
Brizzi,1980, 150-51.
53
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26
RENAISSANCE
QUARTERLY
vancedclasses,approximately
one thirdofthestudentbody,wereyoung
menagedseventeen
whomight
totwenty
otherwise
haveattended
universities.In France,thefamousColle'geHenriIV (usuallycalledLa Fle"che),
inthe1620s,ofwhom
had 1,200to 1,400students
bytheJesuits,
operated
and 230 in higherstudies.56
Itsmostfamouspupilwas
300 wereboarders
Rene'Descartes
there.He
O 596-1650),whospenttheyearstentonineteen
studied
andGalileoGalilei's
mathematics,
philosophy,
physics,
opticdiscoveriesinthelastthreeyears.
The boarding
schoolsoffered
thehighborn
curricula
toattract
designed
In additionto humanities,
and wealthy.
and
mathematics,
philosophy,
in
schools
for
nobles
northern
horseJesuit
Italytaught
boarding
theology,
Most
and dancing,noneofwhichuniversities
offered.57
French,
manship,
schoolsoffered
nobleboarding
theopportunity
foryoungpatriimportant,
cianstomingle
withtheirpeersfrom
otherpartsofItalyandabroad,because
nobleboarding
schoolsattracted
a European-wide
clientele.
Nobleboardschoolsforwealthy
commoners
becamethe
ingschoolsandotherboarding
schoolsofchoiceforEurope'selite.In additionto thesocialadvantages,
a better
envisawa Jesuit
or Barnabite
schoolas offering
parents
boarding
thanuniversities.
ronment
forlearning
Religiousorderboardingschools
a physically
structured
offered
safe,religiously
disciplined,and tightly
in
to
the
and
contrast
education,
violence,
licentiousness, looselyorganized
ofmanyuniversities.
curriculum
order
schoolsgenerally,
andtheir
schoolsinparticular,
Religious
boarding
the
most
thefuture
leaders
universities
of
prizedstudents,
stripped
highly
butdiscernible
numberofthesons
ofsociety.Earlier,an indeterminate
ofrulers
did
andhighnobleshadstudiedinRenaissance
universities.5'They
in
not
to
ahead
notoftengraduate,
becausetheydid
needdegrees order get
in life.Buttheydidattenduniversities
andwereverywelcome.Theirpretheirfreespending
theprestige
oftheuniversity,
senceenhanced
supported
from
and professors
associationwiththem.
thelocaleconomy,
profited
ofpower,
turntoa favorite
Whenthesestudents
reached
positions
theymight
fill
But
the
seventeenth
for
or
to
an
office.
advice
century
by early
professor
schools.
orderboarding
theseprizedstudents
usuallyattended
religious
16
Mazin, cols. 905-06.
Brizzi 1976, 207-56, 261-92.
5'Ercole Gonzaga O 505-63), a futurecardinaland de factorulerof Mantua fora few
years,and Giovannide' Medici (1475-1521), the futureLeo X, are two examples.Grendler,
2002, 166-67, 461. Indeed, many Renaissancepopes, cardinals,and bishops obtained law
studiesof princesand othernodegrees.But it is moredifficultto documentthe university
bles,because theyseldom took degrees.
57
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RENAISSANCE
AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
27
et al.,
The schoolsof theJesuits,
Barnabites,Somaschans,Doctrinaires,
forstudentswithoutawardingdewithuniversities
competedsuccessfully
of
the
all
schools
From
1561
onward,
SocietyofJesushad theauthority
grees.
to conferdegrees,includingthe doctorate,in theologyand philosophy,so
5' But so faras can be deterlong as thecandidatewas examinedrigorously.
studentsand onlyawarded
did notgrantdegreesto external
mined,theJesuits
a limitednumberofdegreesto theirownmembers,
usuallyjustthosewhohad
studiedat theCollegio Romano,theSociety'sleadingschool.61
In the Protestantworld,academiesrose to competewithuniversities.
IIand Gymnasium
Theyhad variousnames,includingacademy,Hochschule,
lustre,e. g., the BremenGymnasiumIllustre(Distinguishedor Illustrious
61
HigherSchool of Bremen). Whateverthename,theseweresmallschools
in a limitednumberofdisciplines,espeinstruction
university-level
offering
the formalstructureof a university
without
but
arts
and
cially
theology,
Most
of
important,theydid not conferdegreesbecause
faculty theology.
or
theylacked papal
imperialchartersauthorizingthemto grantdegrees
recognizedthroughoutChristendom.Indeed, no Calvinisteducationalinstitutionreceivedan imperialcharteruntilthe Holy Roman EmpirerecognizedCalvinismat the Peace of Westphaliaof 1648. Despite thishandischolarsand took studentsawayfrom
cap, academieshireduniversity-level
academies
If thetheologyand artsteachersweredistinguished,
universities.
and wieldedconsiderableintellectualand reliofferedexcellentinstruction
gious influence.
was theGenevaAcademy,whichbeganteachingin
The mostimportant
of
one or twoprofessors
oftheology,
twoprofessors
It
had
1559.
June
usually
one
or
two
of
and
of
a
a
Hebrew,
Greek,
arts, professor
professors
professor
62
of law,fora totalof six to eightprofessors
through1620. The facultyin
cluded severaleminentscholars,althoughsome leftaftera fewyearsfor
61
positionsof higherprestigeand salary. On theotherhand,university
pro51
Scaduto, 207-10. Earlier,Pope JuliusIII had grantedthe Societythe powerto award
degreesto itsown studentsin 1552, and Paul IV had authorizedthe Societyto grantdegrees
at theCollegio Romano in 15 56. Now all Jesuitschools
to all students,Jesuitand non-Jesuits,
had thisright.
in thesixbased on researchin progresson theJesuitsand Italianuniversities
60AIthough
teenthand seventeenthcenturies,the statementis tentative.
6
1See Stauffer;Menk forsurveysof CalvinistHochschulenor academies in the late sixteenthand earlyseventeenthcenturies.
62
Maag, 196-98 et passim.
6'The mosteminentscholarsat theGeneva AcademywereJeanCalvin who taughttheologyfrom1559 to 1564, Theodore de Be"zewho taughttheologyfrom1559 to 1595 and in
1598 and 1599, Franois Hotman who taughtlaw from1572 to 1578, Joseph-justeScaliger
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28
RENAISSANCE
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fessorswillinglyacceptedpositionsat Geneva and otherProtestantacademieswhentheylostuniversity
positionsforreligiousreasons.The student
to one hundred(risingto 149 matriculated
bodyat Genevawas small:fifty
studentsin 1584) wereaverageannual numbersbetween1559 and 1620.64
In the academy'sfirstdecade, a largemajorityof thestudentsbecame Calvinistministers.But by the 1570s, the majorityof studentsenteredcivil
serviceor becamelawyers.Many studentswereyoungnobleswho did not
65
careers.
pursueprofessional
Even thoughtheGenevaAcademydid not offerdegrees,it actedlikea
and
It taughtseveraluniversity
university.
disciplines.It trainedclergymen
of theologyin Calvinistuniversities
otherswho became professors
such as
to
from
France
and
came
and
students
Leiden.
Germany
Foreign
Heidelberg
to
of
not
to
transform
Geneva
decided
But
the
authorities
city
study.
attempt
66
withthe powerto conferdegrees.
the GenevaAcademyintoa university
Theyperceivedthatawardingdegreeswas not necessaryin orderto hold an
honoredplace in highereducationin the expandingCalvinistworld.And
thepeace of
theydid notwanttoo manyrowdyyoungforeigners
disturbing
theirgodlycity.The GenevaAcademyremaineda prestigiousacademyofferinghighereducationin a limitednumberof disciplines.It became the
ofhighereducationthatspread
modelforsimilarsmall,focusedinstitutions
acrossProtestant
Europe.
lostthepreeminent
Thus, Europeanuniversities
place in highereducationand scholarshipthattheyhad enjoyedin theRenaissance.Nevertheless,
of
in thecenturybetweenLuther'sfirst
lectureson theBibleat theUniversity
from
in
and
Galileo
Galilei's
the
winter
of
1513-14,
departure
Wittenberg
of Padua in 1610, universities
theUniversity
playeda rolein Europeanhistorythathas neverbeen equaled.
UNIVERSITY
OF TORONTO,
EMERITUS
who taughtartsfrom1572 to 1574, Isaac Casaubon who taughtGreekfrom1582 to 1586,
and 1587 to 1596, and Giulio Pacio who taughtlaw and sometimesartsfrom1575 to 1597.
See theAppendix.
64Maag,28-33, 53, 82, 85.
65
Ibid., 30, 33, 56, 84, 86.
66
Between1592 and 1599, the Geneva citycouncilexploredthepossibilityofawarding
degreeson its own authorityand attemptedto persuadefirstFrance,and then the United
Provincesof the Netherlands,to recognizethem.Althoughthe United Provinceswereencouraging,HenryIV, stilla Protestantin 1592, was not, and the cityabandoned the effort.
Ibid., 80-81, 187. The traditionallegal positionthatonlypope or emperorcould chartera
as kingsand citiesauthorizedunicentury,
university
beganto breakdown in theseventeenth
versitiesto grantdegrees.
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AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
29
Appendix
RELIGIOUS
WHO
LEADERS
WERE
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
PROTESTANT
AND ACADEMY
REFORMATION
PROFESSORS
in universities
or ProtesThis is a listof 102 Protestantreligiousleaderswho wereprofessors
tant academies during part or all of their careers.A handful of religious figureswhose
university
experiencewas limitedare included because theymade significantcontributions
towardmakinga universityProtestant.JohannesBrenz is the best example. On the other
who taughtin universities
hand, a fewProtestantreformers
onlyfora yearor two,and made
orwhoseuniversity
no knownsignificant
contributionto theuniversity,
experienceis unclear,
havebeen omitted.Each biographygivessummaryinformation
about thesubject'suniversity
careerbased on thebiographicalentries,a handfulofotherarticlesin OER, additionalstudies
of individualuniversities,
and a fewothersources.No attemptis made to presentthe restof
thesometimesveryextensivecareersoftheProtestant
professors.
Althougheach biographyin
OER was writtenbya deeplyknowledgeablescholar,namesof theauthorsof thebiographies
have been omittedin orderto conservespace. Readersare encouragedto consultthe fullbiographyand additionalbibliography.
Protestantreligiousleaderswho were fellowsof collegesat Cambridgeand Oxfordfor
severalyearsareincluded.Oxbridgecollegesincludedscholars,tutors,fellows,readers,lecturBut thelack ofpreciseinformation
about theirdutiesmakesit
ers,and sometimesprofessors.
difficultto say withprecisionhow and underwhat circumstancesfellowstaught.NevertheA
less, theynormallyboth studied and taughtin theircolleges. They soughtand obtained
bachelor's and master'sdegrees,usually in arts,or theology,or both. Degree regulations
obligedthemto teachwhilestudyingfordegreesor as regentsafterobtainingdegrees.Sometimesfellowswererequiredto takeresponsibility
fortheeducationofyoungermembersofthe
B
college. In addition,fellowsparticipatedin theintellectualand religiouslifeoftheircolleges
and oftenthe largeruniversity,
at a time when Oxford and Cambridge providedreligious
leadershipforthe EnglishReformation.The same was trueformastersof colleges.
Agricola,Johann(I 492 - 1566). GermanLutherantheologianand earlysupporterof Luther,
activein Wittenberg,
Eisleben,and Berlin.ReceivedBA in theologyand MA in artsfrom
the Universityof Wittenberg,wherehe lecturedon the Bible in the early1520s. Returnedto Wittenbergto teachtheology1537-40, but he differed
withLutherin thefirst
antinomian controversy.Left for Berlin in 1540. OER, 1:10; OER, 1:52; Brecht,
3:158-71.
Alesius,Alexander(1500?-65). Scottish-GermanLutherantheologianand biblical scholar.
RepresentedWittenbergtheologiansto HenryVIII, thentaughttheologyat University
of Frankfurtan der Oder ca. 1539-42 and Universityof Leipzig 1542-65. OER,
1:18-19.
Amsdorf,Nikolaus von (1483-1565). German Lutheranchurchmanand friendof Luther.
Taught philosophyand possiblytheologyat the Universityof Wittenberg1507-24.
OER, 1:27-28; Friedensburg,
66, 68, 100, 109; Urkundenbuch,
15, 118, 119; Schwiebert, 1950, 271, 294, 295; Schwiebert, 1996, 227, 237, 242, 249, 451, 453-54,
456, 460.
ASee McConica, 1986b, 1-48, 64-68; McConica, 1986a; and privatecommunicationof 30 Octo-
ber 2003.
BMcConica,
1986b, 2-3, 45, 66.
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30
RENAISSANCE
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oftheologyand chancellorat theUniAndrex,Jakob(I 528-90). GermanLutheranprofessor
versityof Tdbingen 1561-76 and 1580-90; co-drafterof the Formula of Concord of
1577. OER, 1:36-38; OER, 2:117-21; Kolb.
Arminius,Jacobus (1559-1609). Dutch professorof theology at Universityof Leiden
in Calvinistchurches.
led to intensecontroversy
1603-09. His viewson predestination
OER, 1:72-73.
Aslaksen, Cort (1564-1624). Norwegian Lutheran theologian. Professorof pedagogy
of Copen1600-03, ofGreekand Latin 1603-07, thentheology1607-24, at University
hagen. OER, 1:84.
at theAcademyofNimes 1542-48;
Baduel,Claude (149 1?-I 561). Frenchrectorand professor
exposed as a Calvinist,he became a pastorin Switzerlandand professorof philosophy
and mathematicsat the Geneva Academy1560-6 1. OER, 1:I I 0- I 1; Maag, 197.
von Feldkirchen(I 487-1 5 5 1). EarlyGermanfollowerof Lutherat
Bernhardi,Bartholorneus
the University
of Wittenbergwho representedLuther'sviewsin a disputationof 1516.
Rectorin 15 18 and 15 19 and (probablystudent)lecturerin theologyin thoseyears.Provostat Kemberglater.OER, 1:145-46; Friedensburg,
98-99, 112, 127, 132, 157.
Bernhardi,Johannes(ca. 1490-1534). Youngerbrotherof Bartholorneusand followerof
ofWittenbergand taughtnaturalphilosophy,hisLutherwho studiedat theUniversity
there
and
rhetoric
1:146.
1520-34.
OER,
tory,
oftheologyat theUniversity
ofTdbinBeurlin,Jacob(I 520-6 1). GermanLutheranprofessor
gen from1551 and chancellorin 1561. OER, 1:148.
Beize,Theodore de (1516-1605). Frenchand Genevan Calvinist.Firstrectorof the Geneva
Academyand professorof theology1559-95 and 1598-99. OER, 1:149-151; Maag,
196 and A indice.
of
Bibliander,Theodor (I 504?-64). SwissReformedtheologianand biblicalscholar.Professor
Old Testamentat ZurichAcademy1531-60. OER, 1: 171-72.
Bodensteinvon Karlstadt,Andreas(1486-154 1). EarlyfollowerofLutherwho latersplitwith
him. Professorof theologyat Wittenberg1511-23; professorof Old Testamentat
Universityof Basel from 1534 to death. He also taught Hebrew. OER, 1: 178-80;
A indice; Urkundenbuch,
A indice.
Friedensburg,
theologian,and
Bogermannus,Johannes(1576-1637). Dutch Orthodox Calvinistminister,
of Franekerin
of the Bible.Appointedprofessorof theologyat the University
translator
did not takeup dutiesuntil1636.
1633, but because of illnessand othercircumstances
OER, 1:181-82; and personalcommunicationfromProfessorChristophLdthy,Universityof Nijmegen,who consulted materialsin the Netherlandsnot easilyavailable
elsewhere.
Borrhaus,Martin (1499-1564). German Protestanttheologianwho mayhave held limited
ofrhetoricat University
of
of Basel 1541-46, thenprofessor
Anabaptistviews.Professor
in 1546, 1553, and 1564. OER,
Old Testament1546-64, and rectorof the university
1:202-03.
Brenz,Johannes(1499-1570). Theologian and influentialorganizerof the LutheranReformation in the duchyof Wdrttemberg.During his one year(I 537-38) as professorof
theologyat the Universityof Tdbingen he reorganizedthe universityin an orthodox
Lutherandirection.OER, 1:214-15; Mobley,315.
Bucer,Martin (I 491-15 5 1). Born in Alsace. Veryinfluentialtheologianand leader of the
StrasbourgReformation.Regius professorof theologyat Universityof Cambridge
1549-51. OER, 1:221-23.
Bugenhagen,Johannes(1485-1558). GermanLutheranorganizerof theReformationin severalnorthGermantowns.Appointedpastorof thetownchurchofWittenbergin 1523,
he also lecturedtwiceweeklyon theologyand theBible. Upon obtaininghisdoctorateof
A
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AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
31
butwithlessteaching
becauseofhis
oftheology
in 1533,hebecamea professor
theology
OER, 1:226-27;Schweibert,
1996,331,336,484, 489, 543 note91.
pastorship.
at Geneva.ProProtestant
leaderoftheReformation
Calvin,John0 509-64). French-born
oftheology
at GenevaAcademy
fessor
1559-64. OER, 1:234-40;Maag,196etpassim.
andbiographer
closeassociate
humanist;
Carnerarius,
0 500-74).GermanLutheran
Joachim
ofGreek,
ofTdbingen1535-41;professor
at theUniversity
Professor
ofMelanchthon.
ofLeipzig1541-74.
alsorector
anddean,at University
Latin,and moralphilosophy,
derUniversitdt
721, 740, 748.
OER, 1:249;Die Matrikel
Leipzig,
Lutherantheologian,
and Hebrew
German
humanist,
(1478?-1541).
Capito,Wolfgang
anddean
ofBasel1515-21,alsorector
atUniversity
Professor
ofOld Testament
scholar.
on theology
tothecitysleadhelectured
In Strasbourg,
oftheology.
offaculty
informally
and laymenand arguedforeducationalreform.0ER111:259-60;
ing clergymen
1975.
Kittelson,
Formanyyearsscholar
Thomas(1535-1603).EnglishPresbyterian
theologian.
Cartwright,
at Cambridge
ofdivinity
he becameLadyMargaret
at Cambridge,
andfellow
professor
forhisviews,wenttoGenevawherehemayhavetaught,
in 1570,thenlosthisposition
andBasel.OER 1:269-70.
in 1572,wasagainexiledandwenttoHeidelberg
returned
Proscholarofancientchurch
Calvinist
Casauban,Isaac(1559-1614).French-Swiss
history.
ofGreekat GenevaAcademy1582-86,1587-96.OEX 1:270-71; Maag,197et
fessor
passim.
ofrelihumanist
scholarandproponent
Se'bastien
Castellion,
0 515-63).FrenchProtestant
ofBasel1545-63.OER 1:271-72.
Professor
ofGreekat University
gioustoleration.
administraandeducational
Laurence(ca. 1538-1640).EnglishPuritan
Chaderton,
preacher
in the1560sto 1576,then
fromsometime
tor.FellowofChrist's
College,Cambridge,
heheldnoforfrom1584to 1622.Although
master
ofEmmanuel
College,Cambridge,
in
Puritan
and
influence
his
while
malteaching
master,
training
policies,example,
post
weregreat.0ER, 1:299-300; Bendall,Brooke,and Collinson,30-42,
clergymen
177-86.
oftheFormulaof
co-drafter
Martin0 522-86). GermanLutheran
Chernnitz,
theologian,
from1554until
ofWittenberg
oftheology
attheUniversity
Concordof1577.Professor
in thelate 1550s.He
in Braunschweig
ofchurches
he wasappointedsuperintendent
in Braunschweig.
lectured
OEX 1:309-10;Kramer.
informally
Nathan(1543-98). GermanLutheran
humanist,
pedagogue,and devotional
Chytraeus,
of Rostock1564-93. As he turnedtoward
of Latinat University
writer;professor
of Rostockbecameuntenableand he left
Calvinism,hispositionat theUniversity
forCalvinistBremen.Chytraeuswas the youngerbrotherof David Chytraeus
ofRostock1551-1600,
oftheology
attheUniversity
0 530-1600),a Lutheran
professor
in OER.OER,,1:351-54;Olechnowitz,
merited
a biographical
article
whoperhaps
1:33,
36, 38, 44-49,51 (forbothNathanandDavidChytraeus).
ofcivilmagwhoarguedfortheauthority
Coolhaes,Caspar0 534-1615).DutchCalvinist
oftheology
attheUniversity
ofLeiden,he
overthechurch.
istracies
professor
Appointed
oftheuniversity
on 9 February
atthefounding
theinaugural
lecture
delivered
1575,and
for
soon
out
of
the
date
But
he
was
driven
(exact
unknown)
university
beganlecturing.
in 1582. OER,,
his latitudinarian
Calvinismand was excludedfromtheministry
I 1; Clotz,33.
1:423-24;Jurriaanse,
a memCalvinist
whobecamea moderate
and,later,
Corro,Antoniodel0 527-9I). Spaniard
ofOxford1577-86,
at theUniversity
beroftheChurchofEngland.Taughttheology
insubsequent
andwasthere
years.OER,,1:433-34;TheCollegiate
University,
unofficially
326,384-85,390,392,417-18,430,440,725-
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32
RENAISSANCE
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Cruciger, Caspar (1504-48). German Lutheran theologian and ally of Melanchthon;
launchedWittenbergeditionofLuther'sworks.Professor
ofphilosophyat theUniversity
ofWittenberg1528-33, thentheology1533-48. Expertin Aramaicand Hebrew.OER,
1:455-56; Friedensburg,196-97, 226, 251-52, 254; Kathe, 81-82, 465; Schwiebert,
1996,334,336,480,489-90.
and Unitarian
Curione, Celio Secondo 0 503-69). Italian Protestantwithanti-Trinitarian
views.Professorof humanitiesat Universityof Pavia 1536-39; professorof rhetoricat
the University
of Basel 1546-69. OER, 1:460-61; Biondi.
Daneau, Lambert(1530?-95). FrenchCalvinistpastorand theologian.Taughttheologyunofficially1572-76 at Geneva, then as professorof theology at Geneva Academy
1576-80; professorof theologyat the Universityof Leiden 1581-82. Objected to the
measuresimposedby the Leiden citygovernment
overthe churchand left.Taughttheologyin Calvinistacademiesin Ghent 1582-83, Orthez 1583-90, and Lescar 1590-91.
OER, 1:463-64; Maag, 42-46, 175-76; Fatio.
Dering,Edward(ca. 1540-76). EnglishPuritanand preacher.FellowofChrist'sCollege,Universityof Cambridge,1560-70. OER, 1:475.
ofWittenbergin
Dietrich,Viet 0 506-49). GermanLutheran.Afterarrivingat theUniversity
1522, he becameLuther'samanuensis,editor,companionon journeys,and supervisorof
thestudentswho livedin Luther'shousehold;reformer
at Nurembergfrom1535. After
obtaininga MA in artsin 1529, he probablytaughtartsat Wittenberguntil1535. Dean
of artsin 1533. OER, 1:485; Friedensburg,
220.
to Geneva,CalvinisttheoDiodati, Jean(Giovanni) 0 576-1649). Son of Italianimmigrants
logian and translator.Produced Frenchand ItalianCalvinisttranslationsof the Bible.
Professorof Hebrew 1597-1606, and theology1599-1645, at GenevaAcademy.OER,
1:485-86; Maag, 196-97.
oftheologyat
Draconites,Johann(1494-1566). GermanLutheranbiblicalscholar.Professor
of Marburg1534-48; resignedduringantinomiancontroversy.
Professorof
University
of Rostock1551-60. OER, 2:4; CatalogusProfessorum,
6; Olechtheologyat University
nowitz,1:34.
Du Moulin, Charles 0 500-66). FrenchCalvinistlegal scholarand theologian.Professorof
law at University
of Tilbingen 1553-54, wherehe insertedtheologyin his law lectures
and provokedopposition.Taughtlaw at theUniversity
of D0^1e1555-56, and briefly
at
the University
of Besanon. OER, 2:1 1.
Eber,Paul (1511-69). GermanLutheransupporterof Melanchthon.Professorat University
of Wittenberg1537-69, teachingLatin, arts,and philosophyat first,then Hebrew
1557-59, and theologyafter1559. OER, 2:17; Friedensburg,258-61; Kathe, 94-98,
458,461,465.
of theEpiscopius,Simon (1583-1634). Dutch CalvinistRemonstrant
theologian.Professor
ofLeiden 1612-20. His viewsgeneratedgreatoppositionand he was
ologyat University
banished.OER, 2:54-55.
Flacius Illyricus,Matthias(I 520-75). Croatian-bornLutherantheologianand churchhistorian. Professorof Hebrew at Universityof Wittenbergfrom1544 until 1549, when
differences
withMelanchthoncaused him to leave. Professor
of theologyat theUniverbecause of
sityofJenafrom1550 until156 1, whenhe was deprivedof his professorship
his adherenceto the Gnesio-Lutheranpositionand loss of supportof ElectorJohann
FriedrichII of ErnestineSaxony.OER, 2: 110-1 1; Seeber,1:38-43, 54; Olson.
Fontanus,Johannes0 545-1615). Dutch Calvinistministerwho taughtat severalCalvinist
schools and in 1600 helped founda school at Hardewijkwhichbecame a university
in
1647-48. OER, 2:116-17.
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AND
REFORMATION
UNIVERSITIES
33
Foxe,Edward(1496?-1538). ArchitectofHenryVIII's propagandacampaignfordivorceand
co-drafter
of Anglicanconfessionalstatements.Provostof King'sCollege, Cambridge,
1528 to death. OER, 2:121-22.
Foxe, John 0 5 17-87). English Protestantchurch historianand martyrologist.Fellow of
Magdalen College, Oxford,from1538 to 1545, when forcedto resign.OER, 2:122-23.
Gornarus,Franciscus0 563-164 1). Dutch Calvinistministerand predestinarian
theologian.
Professorof theologyat Universityof Leiden 15 94-161 1, at Calvinist seminaryin
Saurnur,France, 1614-18, and at the Universityof Groningen 1618-41. OER,
2:181-82; Huisman, 322; van der Ven, 243, 246, 257, 258.
Gribaldi,Matteo (ca. 1500-64). Italianlegalscholarand Unitarian.Taughtlaw at the Catholic universitiesof Toulouse 1535-36, Cahors at unknowndates, Perugiaperhapsin
1540, Valence 1540-41, Grenoble1543-45, and Padua 1548-55. He thentaughtat the
LutheranUniversity
of Tdbingen 1555-57, but lost his positionforhis religiousviews.
He taughtat theCatholicUniversity
of Grenoblein 1559-60, butagain losthisposition
forhis religiousviews. OER, 2:194-95; Grendler,2002, 187-88.
Grynaeus,JohannJacob 0 540-1617). Swiss Reformedtheologian.Professorof Old Testamentat University
ofBasel 1575-84; oversawreorganization
ofUniversity
ofHeidelberg
1584-86; professorof New Testamentat Universityof Basel 1586 until death. OER,
2:199-200.
Grynaeus,Simon (1493-1543). German humanistand leader of the Reformedchurchin
Basel. Professorof Greekat the University
of Basel 1526-36; lecturedon the New Testament1536-43; rectorof the university
in 1543. OER, 2:200-01.
and educationalreHedio, Caspar (1494/95-1552). GermanProtestantpreacher,translator,
formerat Strasbourg.He helped organizethe StrasbourgGymnasiumand was a school
2:169-70.
inspectorfrom1526 untildeath. OER, 2:215-16; Contemporaries
ofErasmus,
Hernmingsen,Niels 0 513-1602). Danish Lutherantheologianwho eventuallybecame a
Calvinist.Most importantScandinavianProtestanttheologian.Professorof dialectics
and exegesisat theUniversity
of Copenhagen 1545-53, thenprofessor
oftheologyuntil
dismissedin 1579 forCalvinistviews. OER, 2:222-23; Lybyand Grell, 117, 119-22,
125, 130.
Hesshus,Tilernann0 527-88). GermanGnesio-Lutherantheologianinvolvedin severalcontroversies.
Professor
ofrhetoricand dogmaticsat theUniversity
ofWittenberg1550-5 3,
of Rostockin 1556 but expelledin 1557; profesprofessoroftheologyat theUniversity
soroftheologyat theUniversity
ofJena1568-73 and University
of Helmstedt1577-8 8.
OER, 2:237; Olechnowitz,1:32, 34; Seeber,43-44.
Hessius, Eobanus (1488-1540). GermanLutheranhumanistand poet. Professorof Latin at
theUniversity
ofErfurt1517-26; taughtat Egidien-Gymnasium,
foundedbyMelanchthon, in Nuremberg 1526-32; professorof classical studies at Universityof Erfurt
of Marburg1536-40; university
1533-36; professorofpoetryand oratoryat University
rectorin 1538. OER, 2:238; Contemporaries
ofErasmus,1:434-36; CatalogusProfessorum,311-12.
Hotman, Franois 0 524-90). FrenchProtestant
legalscholar.Taughtlaw or liberalartsat the
universities
of Valence and Bourgesand Protestantacademiesof Strasbourg,Lausanne,
and at Geneva 1572-78. OER, 2:256-58; Maag, 196.
Hunnius,Aegidius0 5 50-1603). Germantheologianwho followedLuther'spositionsclosely.
Professor of theology at the universities of Marburg 1576-92 and Wittenberg
1592-1603. OER, 2:276; Friedensburg,
10-1 1.
398-99, 404; CatalogusProfessorum,
Hyperius,Andreas0 511-64). Dutch Protestant
theologianwhosepositionscombinedLutheran, Calvinist,and Erasmianviews. Professorof theologyat Universityof Marburg
1541-64. OER, 2:299-300; CatalogusProfessorum,
7.
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34
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biblical scholar,and
Jonas,Justus(1493-1555). German Lutheranchurchadministrator,
friendof Luther.May have lecturedon canon law at the Universityof Wittenberg
1521-23; priorof the Castle Churchin Wittenbergand lectureron Old and New Testament1523-4 1. Dean ofthefacultyoftheology1523-25, perhapslonger,and rectorof
in 1531 and 1536. OER, 2:352-53; Contemporaries
theuniversity
2:244-46;
ofErasmus,
Friedensburg,144-46, 194-96.
Junius,Franciscus:(1545-1602). FrenchCalvinisttheologianand biblical translatorin the
Netherlands.Taughttheologyand Hebrewat NeustadtAcademy1578-84; professor
of
dogmatic theology at the Universityof Heidelberg 1584-89 and Old Testament
of theologyat University
of Leiden 1592-1602. OER, 2:360; DrUll,
1589-92; professor
344-45; De Jonge.
Adam (1493-1558). GermanLutherantheologianand churchadministrator.
ProfesKrafft,
sor of theologyat Universityof Marburg 1527-58; dean of facultyof theology1536,
rectorof the university
4.
1529, 1540, 1553. OER, 2:382; CatalogusProfessorum,
La Faye,Antoine de (1540-1615). French Calvinist theologian. Professorof theologyat
Geneva Academy 1581-1610; named supremedoctorof theologyand Be"ze'ssuccessor
in 1600. OER, 2:383.
Lambert,Franqois(1487-1530). Frenchbybirth,he held bothLutheranand Zwinglianviews
and wrotemanybiblical commentaries.He studied and lecturedat the Universityof
Wittenberg 1522-24, and was professorof theologyat the Universityof Marburg
1527-30. OER, 2:387; CatalogusProfessorum,
5.
Latimer,Hugh (ca. 1485-1555). Church of England preacherand bishop. Fellow of Clare
Hall, Cambridge,and teacherfrom 15 10 to about 1530. OER, 2:399-400; Leader,
322-29,342.
Linck,Wenceslaus(1482-1547). German Lutherantheologian,friendof Luther,preacher,
of Wittenand churchorganizerat Nuremberg.Professorof theologyat the University
berg 1511-22 and dean of the faculty of theology in 1512-13. OER, 2:425;
49.
Friedensburg,
Lubbertus,Sibrandus(ca. 1555-1625). FrisianorthodoxCalvinistand authorof theological
polemics. Professorof theology at the Universityof Franeker 1585-1625. OER,
2:455-56; Ekkart,39.
and advoLdber (Erastus),Thomas (I 524-83). SwissReformedtheologian,controversialist,
ofmedicineat theUniversity
overchurch(Erastianism).Professor
cateofstateauthority
of Heidelberg1558-80 althoughbanned 1572-76. Helped reviseuniversity
statutesin
in 1580 forfailureto subscribeto Luth1558 and 1559. Lost Heidelbergprofessorship
of Basel 1580-83 and
eranFormulaofConcord. Professor
ofmedicineat theUniversity
moralphilosophyin 1583. OER, 2:456-57; Wolgast,41, 43-45; Maag, 155, 158, 159;
DrUll, 141-42.
Lectureron ArisLuther,Martin(1483-1546). Germanleaderof theLutheranReformation.
totle'sNicomacheanEthics,1508-09, and professor
of biblicalstudiesfromthewinterof
of Wittenberg.
1513-14 untildeathat the University
oftheLydius,Martinus(ca. 1539-1601). Dutch Calvinistministerand theologian.Professor
of Franeker1585-1601. OER, 2:477-78; Ekkart,40-42.
ologyat University
of theologyat theUniverMajor,George (I 502-74). GermanLutherantheologian.Professor
sityof Wittenberg1545-74, with interruptions.Leader of Wittenbergfacultyfrom
of good works.OER,
overtheefficacy
1560. Centralfigurein theMajoristControversy
2:501-02; OER, 3:257-58; Friedensburg,197-99, 257-58.
PasMarbach,Johannes(I 521-8 1). German-bornLutherantheologianand controversialist.
tor in Strasbourgand professorof theologyat the StrasbourgAcademy from1545.
Presidentof the Company of Pastorsfrom1552 and schoolvisitorfrom1556. Differed
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UNIVERSITIES
35
with JohannSturmovergovernanceand theologyin theAcademy.OER, 3:1-2; OER,
4:116-17; Spitz and Tinsley,32-40, 376 et passim.
Melanchthon,Philipp (1497-1560). German Lutheranhumanist,theologian,and educationalreformer.
Came to theUniversity
ofWittenbergas professor
ofGreekin 1518 and
remainedfortherestofhis life.He also taughtethics,geography,
Hebrew,logic,
history,
and theology.From 1527 Melanchthon had the rightto lectureon any subject. He
draftednew statutesforthe facultyof theologyin 1533, and fortheologyand artsin
1545, advised other universitiesand schools, and wrote textbooks. OER, 3:41-45;
A indice; Kathe,ab indice.
Friedensburg,
churchmanand educationalreformer.
Melville,Andrew(1545-1622). ScottishPresbyterian
of Glasgow and reformer
of the curriculumalong humanistand
Principalof University
lines 1574-80; head ofSt. Mary'sCollege,a divinityschool,at University
of
Presbyterian
St. Andrews1580-1607. OER, 3:49.
MiInster,Sebastian(1480-1553). GermanProtestantHebraistand biblicalscholar.Professor
of Hebrew at the University
of Heidelberg1524-29; professorof Hebrew and theology
at the University
of Basel 1529-53. OER, 3:99; DrUll,397-99.
Musculus,Andreas(I 514-8 1). German Lutherantheologian.Co-drafterof the Formulaof
Concord of 1577 and leaderof the LutheranChurch in Brandenburg.Professorof thean der Oder 1542-81. OER, 3:103; Nischan, 35,
ology at the Universityof Frankfurt
37-39,41,44,49,128.
of theologyat theUniMyconius,Oswald (1488-1552). Swissfollowerof Zwingli.Professor
versityof Basel 1532-52. OER, 3:118.
at Basel.
leaderoftheReformation
Oecolampadius,Johannes(1482-1531). SwissProtestant,
of Heidelbergin 1505 and mayhave taughtGreektherein
Taughtartsat theUniversity
1514; professorof biblicalstudiesat the Universityof Basel 1523-31. OER, 3:169-71;
DrUll,420-21.
of
Oldendorp,Johannes(1480/90-1567). GermanProtestant
jurist.Taughtat theUniversity
of Frankfurt
an der Oder in 1520, at Greifswald
Greifswald1517-20, at the University
1521-26. Helped introducethe Reformationin Rostock 1526-34; taughtat the CathofCologne from1538 untilforcedto leavein 1543; professor
ofcivillaw
olic University
at theLutheranUniversity
ofMarburg1543-67, plus deacon offacultyoflaw and rector
severaltimes;helpedto draftnew university
statutesof 1560. OER, 3:173-74; Catalogus
78-79.
Professorum,
Osiander,Andreas(1496?-1552). GermanLutherantheologian.Leader of the Reformation
at Nurembergand drafterof Lutheranchurchordinanceselsewhere.Professorof theology at the Universityof Kbnigsberg1548-52, wherehe engaged in polemicswithhis
colleagues.OER, 3:183-85.
Osiander,Lucas 11(I 571-1638). OrthodoxLutherantheologianand polemicist.Professorof
theologyat the Universityof Tdbingen 1619-38; chancellorand provost 1620-38.
OER, 3:1 8 5.
Pappus,Johann(I 549-16 10). GermanLutheranministerand churchorganizer.Professorof
Hebrew at StrasbourgAcademy 1564-74 and theology1574-81; leader of the Strasbourg Company of Pastors 1581-1610. Disputed withJohannSturm,rectorof the
overthetheologiansin theAcadAcademy,concerningtheschool'sauthority
Strasbourg
1
0-1
3:2
1992.
OER,
1;
Kittelson,
emy.
Parker,Matthew (1504-75). EnglishAnglican churchmanand archbishopof Canterbury
1559-75. Fellow of Corpus ChristiCollege, Cambridge,masterfrom1544, thenvicechancellorof the Universityof Cambridgein 1545 and 1548. Lost officeswhen Mary
Tudor came to throne.OER, 3:215-16.
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Pellikan,Konrad (1478-1556). AlsatianProtestant
theologian,biblicalscholar,and Hebraist.
Professor
of theologyat theUniversity
ofBasel 1523-26; professorof Old Testamentat
ZurichAcademy1526-56. OER, 3:241-42.
Peucer, Caspar (1525-1602). German Philippist Lutheran theologian and physician.
Melanchthon'sson-in-law.Professorof geography1545-60, mathematics1554-60,
medicine 1560-74, and universityrector1560, at the Universityof Wittenberg.Lost
when imprisoned1574 to 1586 on suspicionof beinga crypto-Calvinist.
professorship
OER, 3:251-52; Friedensburg,
275-77, 290-92, 296-98; Kathe,458, 464 et passim.
Pfaiza,Paul (ca. 1540-86). Czech Protestant
theologianand humanist;coauthorofBohemian
Confession of 1575. Taught Hebrew at Universityof Prague 1568-71, philosophy
1575-77, was dean of thephilosophyfaculty1575-76. OER, 3:322.
Ridley,Nicholas 0 502?-55). EnglishAnglicantheologianand bishopofRochesterand London. Fellowof PembrokeHall, Cambridge,in 1520s; returnedto Cambridgein 1530s;
of Greek1535-38. Appointedmasterof PembrokeHall in 1540, althoughnot
professor
resident.OER, 3:431-32; Leader,300-01, 337.
Schegk,Jacob 0 511-87). German Lutheranphilosopher,medical scholar,and theological
controversialist.
Professorof logic and naturalphilosophy1531-53, of logic 1564-78,
of Tiibingen. Rector
professorof medicinepossibly1553-77, alwaysat the University
severaltimes.OER, 4:2; Lohr,718-20; Mobley,218-19.
Schnepf,Erhard(1495-1558). GermanLutheranchurchmanand theologianwho organized
the Reformationin Wiirttemberg.Professorof theologyat Universityof Marburg
ofTdbingen 1544-48; forcedout because
1527-34; professorof theologyat University
of his oppositionto the Interim.Professorof Hebrew at Universityof Jena 1549-58.
OER, 4:16-17; CatalogusProfessorum,
4-5; Seeber,1:39, 53-54.
of the Formula
Selnecker,Nikolaus (1530-92). GermanLutherantheologianand co-drafter
ofConcord of 1577. Professor
oftheologyat University
ofJena1565-68; forcedout by
the Gnesio-Lutheranruler.Professorof theologyat Universityof Leipzig 1568-86.
Forced out when AlbertineSaxonyturnedtowardCalvinismbut called back in 159 1.
OER, 4:42; Vartenberg,66, 70-71; Seeber,1:42-43.
Snecanus,Gellius 0 540-96?). Dutch Calvinistministerand theologian.Playedkeyrole in
of Franekerin 1585. OER, 4:70.
foundingof the University
Stangi6Horvathde Gradecz,Gregor(1558-97). Slovak Lutherantheologianand educator.
Founderin 1588 and teacherof dialectics,rhetoric,and ethics,at theLutheransecondaryschool in Staiiky,Slovakia. OER, 4:108.
St6ckel,Leonard (1510-60). Leading Lutherantheologianand pedagogue in Hungaryand
Slovakia. Taught at the Lutheran school in Bardejov from 1539 to 1560. OER,
4:113-14.
Strigel,Viktorin0 524-69). German PhilippistLutherantheologianand controversialist.
Professorof philosophyat Jena 1548-62, withJena becoming a universityin 1558.
When the rulerasked the facultyto drafta doctrinalstatement,Strigeland Matthias
Flacius Illyricusstronglydisagreedabout its content,withFlaciusprevailing.Strigelrefusedto signthe statementand was eitherimprisonedor placed underhouse arrestfor
severalmonthsin 1559. Professorof philosophyand theologyat Universityof Leipzig
from1563 untilsuspendedin 1567 on suspicionofholdingCalvinistviews.Professor
of
ethicsand historyat Universityof Heidelberg,thenCalvinist,from1567 untildeath.
OER, 4:119-20; Seeber,1:31, 36-42, 48, 53; Drilll, 523-25.
Sturm,Johann0 507-89). Protestanteducatorand diplomat.Rectorof the Strasbourggymnasium from1538 and the StrasbourgAcademyfrom1566 untildismissedin 158 1.
OER, 4:122-23; Spitz and Tinsley.
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UNIVERSITIES
37
Tausen, Hans (1494-1561). Leading Danish Lutherantheologianand bishop. Professorof
Hebrew at Universityof Copenhagen 1537-38. OER, 4:145-46; Dunkley, 43-44,
ab indice.
117-31 et passim;ScandinavianReformation,
Toussain, Daniel 0 541-1602). Swiss Calvinistpastorand theologian.Court preacherand
of Orleans 1560-62;
school inspectorat Heidelberg.Professorof Hebrew at University
professorof New Testamentat the Universityof Heidelberg 1586-1601; rector,vicerectorand dean of facultyof theologyseveraltimes.OER, 4:164-65; DrUll,530-31.
theologian,and historianof the
Triglandus,Jacobus0 583-1654). Dutch Calvinistminister,
Reformationin the Netherlands. Professorof theologyat the Universityof Leiden
1634-54. OER, 4:178.
Trotzendorf,Valentin (1490-1556). German Lutheran pedagogue. Taught at Zlotoryja
(Goldberg) 1523-25, Liegnitz 1525-29, and Zlotoryja again from1531 until death.
OER, 4:179-80.
Ursinus,Zacharias (1534-83). GermanCalvinisttheologian,principalauthorof the HeidelbergCatechism of 1563. Studied at Universityof Wittenberg1550-57; professorof
theologyat the Universityof Heidelberg 1562-67 duringa Calvinistphase. Taughtat
LausanneAcademy1571-77 and at Neustadtin 1578. OER, 4:202-03; OER, 2:216-17;
Visser;DrUll,536-38.
Valera,Cipriano de (1532?-1603?). Spanish Calvinisttheologian,polemicist,and translator
of Calvin's works into Spanish. Fellow and theologyteacher at Magdalen College,
ProtOxford,ca. 1560-68. One ofseveralcontinentalscholarsbroughtin to strengthen
estantinfluenceat Oxford.OER, 4:214.
Vermigli,PeterMartyr(1499-1562). Italian Protestanttheologianwithgreatinfluenceon
the Church of England. Professorof theologyat StrasbourgAcademy 1542-47; regius
professorof theologyat Christ Church, Oxford, 1548-53; professorof theologyat
StrasbourgAcademy1553-56; thenprofessorof Hebrew at ZurichAcademy1556-62.
OER, 4:229-31; The CollegiateUniversity,
353, 369-74 et A indice.
Vossius,GerardusJoannes0 577-1649). Dutch humanistand ecclesiasticalhistorian.Professor of rhetoricand historyat University
of Leiden 1622-49. OER, 4:250-5 1.
Whitaker,William 0 548-95). Puritantheologianand anti-papalpolemicist.Regiusprofessor
of theologyat University
ofCambridge1580-9 5, electedmasterofSaintJohn'sCollege
in 1586. OER, 4:269.
John(ca. 1530-1604). Anglicantheologianand bishop.FellowofPeterhouse,CamWhitgift,
bridge,in 1555; Lady Margaret professorof divinity1563-67, regiusprofessorof
theology1567-77. Archbishopof Canterbury1583 to death. OER, 4:270-71.
Wigand,Johann0 523-87). GermanLutherantheologianand bishop.Professorof theology
at UniversityofJena 1560-61, wherehe supportedGnesio-Lutheranpositionagainst
Philippists;leftunderpressurefromthe court.Again professorof theologyat the Uniof
versityofJena1568-73 but forcedout again. Professorof theologyat the University
Kbnigsberg1573-75. OER, 4:272-73; Seeber,1:40-41,43-44; Diener.
ScholastiZanchi, Girolamo 0 516-90). ItalianCalvinisttheologianand fatherof Protestant
cism. Professorof theology and Aristotelian philosophy at StrasbourgAcademy
15 53-63. LeftStrasbourgaftercontroversy
withJohannesMarbachovertheLord'sSupProfessor
of
at
the
per.
Universityof Heidelberg 1568-77. Forced out when
theology
Heidelberg became Lutheran.Professorof New Testamentat the Neustadt Academy
1578-83. OER, 4:305-06; DrUll,564-65.
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