'Consider the strengths and weaknesses of elections within the United States.'
Written by Frances Steel – November 2013.
Introduction
Elections allow citizens to choose a representative to govern and legislative for
them; liberal democracy relies on elections in order to provide popular consent1.
W.J.M. Mackenzie stated that ‘Elections commit the people to a sense of
responsibility for their own betterment. It seems clear that they are essential to
us as props of the sentiment of legitimacy and the sentiment of participation’2.
The first US presidential election was held in 1788 and then on for 4 years. This
essay will consider what the strengths of these US elections are and what their
weaknesses are.
Elections in US
Duncan watts said Elections are used in America as ‘from the days of the
Founding Fathers, Americans have always had a fear of too much power
residing in one pair of hands’3. The presidential election in the US is a seven
stage process, first is the Invisible primary, then Primaries and caucuses and
then is the choosing the vice-president candidates, this is the nomination
section of the process. Then is National Party conventions and then is the
General elections campaign stage. Next is the actual Election Day and finally is
the Electoral College, all of these stages are important are complete the election
process. The Fact of elections occurring every four years is laid down in article II
of the constitution, federal law also states it should be held on the Tuesday
after the first Monday in November on the fourth year.
Nomination process - Invisible Primary
The first stage is the invisible primary which is the period between the
candidates declaring an intention to run for the presidency and the first
contests of the primary season. It’s said to be very important as candidates gain
funding and recognition and put to together a necessary organisation4. For
example in 2007 Barak Obama, the Illinois senator who was seeking the
Democratic Party’s nomination raised $32.5 million5. Normally the invisible
primary will be played out through the media, hoping to be mentioned in order
to receive recognition. And then there are the formal announcements of
entering the presidential race, for example the first major Republican to
announce his candidacy for the presidential race was former speaker Newt
Gingrich of Georgia 237 before Iowa caucuses6. This is an important stage of the
election process as allows candidates to gain funding and can show any front
runners.
Nomination process- Primaries
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UK Elections and Electoral Reform, Philip Allan Published, Neil Smith, Page 14
American Politics and Society, 7th Edition, David McKay, Page 11
Understanding American Government and Politics, 2nd Edition, Duncan Watts, Page 186
US government and Politics Anthony J. Bennett, 4th Edition, page 43.
Politics Review, November 2007, Volume 17, Number 2, Edward Ashbee Page 24 US government and Politics Anthony J. Bennett, 4th Edition, page 45
The second stage of the election process is the nomination process which
involves the primaries and caucuses. A Primary is a state based election to
choose a party’s candidate for the presidency shows support from ordinary
voters and chooses delegates committed to vote for that candidate at the
National Party Convention7. A Presidential Caucus is a series of state-based
meetings of party activists who come together to indicate their preferences for
the candidates8. The nomination process is described as the candidates
‘Throwing their hat in the ring, to mark the traditional accouchement of running
for office’9.
Strengths of Nomination process
Increases participation
One of the strengths of the nomination process is that it increases participation
of ordinary voters; increased participation means a more politically active
society and creates more competition between candidates and the parties. For
example, before in the unreformed system 11.7 million took part in voting for
nominations, compared to 2008 was just fewer than 58 million voters partook
in the nomination elections10. As of the reforms there has been an increase in
participation which is strength as creates a more democratic society. This shows
that one of the strengths of US election is that the nomination process increase
participation. However the problem with this is that although it was 58 million
votes still was only 30% of voting age population that voted, and doesn’t solve
the voter apathy in the US.
Demanding test for candidates
One of the strengths of the US elections is that the nomination process is it is a
gruelling task for candidates, which means the strongest candidates will last. An
example of this is in 2008 Barack Obama was a stronger candidate after winning
battle with Hilary Clinton11. This means that if candidates are tested if are ready
for the election process, and only the most committed candidates complete this
stage. This shows that nomination process is strength of US elections as it tests
candidates and prepares them for the presidential race. This can be compared
to in the UK, where the nomination of the next Labour leader was a test for Ed
Miliband as his win put unprecedented personal as well as political pressures on
his defeated brother, David Miliband 2010, in competing against others and his
brother and winning tested him, making Ed prepared for leading the Labour
party12. A problems with this is that the losing candidate many have a large
following, meaning that the party may have lost voters due to the other
candidate winning.
Allows for non- politicians
Categorical positive to the nomination process is that it is opened up to
outsiders. For example, Jimmy carter 1976, Bill Clinton 1992, Barack Obama
2008, all did not initially have a national reputation13.In opening up the
US government and Politics Anthony J. Bennett, 4th Edition, page 46
AQA Government and Politics, A2, 3A, Colleen Harris, 2nd Edition, Page 15
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U. S. Government and Politics, Curt Lader, 6th Edition, Page 247
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US government and Politics Anthony J. Bennett, 4th Edition, page 54.
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US government and Politics Anthony J. Bennett, 4th Edition, page 56.
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http://www.theguardian.com /2013/mar/27/david-miliband-labour-lost-big-beast
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US government and Politics Anthony J. Bennett, 4th Edition, page 56. 7
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nomination makes the system more democratic as outsiders have an
opportunity. This is strength of the US elections as makes the elections
democratic as gives more representation of society. A problem with this is that
the outsiders may have uneducated policies or not be as successful as other
candidate will have national recognition.
Weakness of the Nomination process
Undermines the constitution
One weakness to the nomination process is that is seems to undermine the
constuition and especially the 10th amendment, it which gives state rights to
their own laws. For example during the primaries the Democratic national party
prohibits the use of an open primary for delegate selection. In a challenge to the
national party, Wisconsin democratic insisted on selecting delegates in an open
primary in 1980.In the US supreme court in 1981 case , Democratic party of the
US v Wisconsin ex rel La Follette, held that that the national party rules are
superior to state laws14. This case shows that during the nomination process the
parties can undermine states laws and in doing so undermine the 10th
amendment. The problems with this are that the nomination process
undermines the constuition which was created back in 1787, which makes the
constitution look unreliable and easily changeable.
Dominated by the media
Another weakness of the Primaries is that as of the reform, the decisions are no
longer made by professional politicians, now are made by the media which have
become the ‘King Makers’15. Media’s dominance has increased due to the intraparty TV debates before and during Primaries. Political Theories Lovey wrote in
1995 ‘Our present nominating process has become a televised horse race
focusing more on rival media consultants and adverting executives than on
ideas and programmes’16. Another similar view to this was by Howard Dean,
previous governor of Vermont, in a New York Times interview quoted ‘Voters
don’t like to be told by the Times Magazine and Newsweek who the front runner
is- they like to choose that for themselves’17. These quotes show that the
influence of media control on the primaries are large and that they do state who
the wish to be front runner and exert this view to all their customers. A problem
with this is that media is needed in elections as media allows the mass to keep
informed, without media it would be less democratic as the electorate would not
know any of the information.
Process is too long
Another weakness of US Elections is that the nomination process is too long,
which can create voter boredom. For example in 2004 campaign Senator John
Kerry announced his candidacy 423 days before the first primary18. Also the
primaries can take months for example in the 2004 presidential primaries the
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American Presidential Election: Process, Policy and Political Change, Harvey L.
Schantz, Page 16
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US Government and Politics Anthony J. Bennett, 4th Edition, page 59
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US Government and Politics Anthony J. Bennett, 4th Edition, page 59
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US Government and Politics, Anthony J. Bennett, Annual Survey 2005, Page 22
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US Government and Politics Anthony J. Bennett, 4th Edition, page 57
Iowa Caucuses started in January and the Texas Primary didn’t start till March19.
The lengthy process leads to voter boredom and can be expensive for the
candidates making it harder for third parties or independent candidates. This
shows that the nomination taking such a long time is a weakness of the US
elections as can be expensive and lead to voter apathy. A problem with this is
that as America is such a large country it takes longer for all candidates to
announce their candidacy so it needs to be as long as it is, which could be one
of the reasons for the low voter turnout to elections as it is to drawn out.
National Party Conventions
National Part convention date back to 1830’s, which was held by Jacksonian
Democrats, traditionally conventions have provided excitement and the
nominations for the parties president and vice president candidates20. National
Party Conventions are held by the two major parties and some third parties, in
these conventions they party platforms are created. Most of the party platform
is about the American dream, support of motherhood and apple pie, for
example part of the Republicans 2012 Party Platform was ‘Republican believe in
the Great American dream enabling everyone to have a chance to own, invest,
build and prosper.’
Strengths of National Party Conventions
Promote party unity
One advantage of the party conventions is that it means before general election
the party reunites and reconciles any differences. This is an advantage as it
shows a united party and would create a strong political image for America. For
example in 2008, Hilary Clinton and Barack Obama made reconciliation after
Obama beating Clinton in the nomination process; Hilary Clinton even stated I
am ‘a proud Barack Obama supporter’21. This is a strength as a strong united
parties creates more active political party and if successful a strong foundation
for government. This can be compared to the UK where at the Liberal Democrat
Conference he says Party declare they are ‘ready to work with’ Labour, although
this is two party’s creating reconciliation, during a coalition government it
shows strengths in the parties as they can work with each in the future if
needed22. Problems with this are that it means more time is added to the process
and may seem fake as grudges may still be held against one another.
Weakness of National Party Conventions
Reduced importance
A major weakness with the National Party Conventions is that they are seen to
be less important now, which means a prolonged process, which could lead to
low turnout as of monotony. The conventions have been seen to have become
over choreographed and as of less media coverage, they lack backing from
voters. The 4 days which the conventions are held over are used with what
Polsby and Wildavsky call ‘Party rituals- welcoming speeches, seating delegates ,
presenting the party platform etc.23’ This shows there is a weakness with the
19
US Politics Today, Edward Ashbee, 2nd Edition, Page 215 U. S. Government and Politics, Curt Lader, 6th Edition, Page 247
US government and Politics Anthony J. Bennett, 4th Edition, Page 67
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http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/lib-dem-conference-party-declare-theyare-ready-to-work-with-labour-8822759.html
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US Government and Politics, Anthony J. Bennett, Annual Survey 2005 Page 27 20
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national party conventions as it shows they are only used as a ritual or
tradition. This can be seen as a problem as without a united front from parties
and the traditions of elections becoming less and less important it creates the
view of weak electoral system.
The Election Campaign
The next stage of the process is the Election Campaign; this is a nine- week of
the two parties campaigning for the voters. Polsby and Wildavsky comment on
the election campaigning in 1995 by saying ‘for the vast majority of citizens in
America, campaigns do not function so much to change minds as to reinforce
previous conviction’. The campaigns are very import in winning the swing
states, for example in 2000 and 2004 close elections the last few weeks of
campaigning was very important.
Strengths of Election Campaign
Recent young Participation
On advantage of the recent election campaigns is that as of the use of internet
and blogging, younger voters and technically savvy voters have become more
involved in politics and political debate. Many young bloggers lean to the left;
they are .loyally partisan and often patient with ideology24. In the 2012 words of
one of the pundits ‘if the 2008 campaign was the ipad1 then the 2012 campaign
was the Ipad 3’. This is a technological quote, which relates to the younger
voters as is up to date knowledge. Also the Pew Research Centre reported that
30% of Americans were encouraged by social media sites to vote. These
examples show that the recent increase of popular use of technologically this is
strength of the US elections as means young voters are encourage voting in
present and future elections. There is a problem with this a media is seem to in
certain election to control the public voting patterns.
Weaknesses of Election Campaign
Expensive
One weakness of the election Campaign is that during the campaigns the
candidates use a lot of money raised from many sources. This money is used to
promote their campaigns, this can be seen as funding democracy and with the
bad economic times in America shows the clear rich poor divide. For example, in
August 2008, Barak Obama raised $66m in one month, which is the largest
amount raised in a single month by a political candidate in American history25.
Elsewhere in August 2008, State and local employment had declined by 655,000,
which is a fall of 3.3%26. Also during the 2008 election McCain raised $10m in 2
and half days after announcing his name of his running mate. The 2008 election
cost in excess of $1billion, which works out $8 a voter27. This shows a major
weakness of the election campaigns as it can be seen as a waste of money
during hard economic times. This can be compared to the Lib Dems who in the
2012 election increased their spending from £4.3m in 2005 to £4.7m this time
around28. The problem with this is that shows large divides of rich and poor and
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Politics Review, September 2006, Volume 16, Number 1, Edward Ashbee, Page 17
Politics Review, November 2009, Volume 19, Number 2, Page 22, Clodagh Harrington
The Economist, March 17th-23nd 2012, The American Economy, Page 27
Politics Review, November 2009, Volume 19, Number 2, Page 22, Clodagh Harrington
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-11901914
also shows how the government are out of touch with the ordinary voter who is
suffering from the economic downfall.
Funding by pressure groups and Super PAC’s
Another weakness of the Election Campaigns are that the campaigns are being
funded by pressure groups and super Pac’s, who can be seen to be an unelected
influence. After the reform the PAC’s were not allowed to give money directly to
the candidate which was established in Citizens United v FEC, no however they
are funding the campaigns of the candidates29. As the Super PAC’s and pressure
groups are donating large amounts to campaign this can be seen to be buying
influence and limiting democracy. For example, Restore our Future is a proRomney Super PAC who spent 142.1million on advertising for Romney’s
campaign; the Washington Post found that 92% of their adverts were negative30.
The Pressure groups the National Education Association was seen to in 20112012 to have given $18 million to the candidates they supported31. These
examples shows that pressure groups and Super PAC’S funding campaigns can
limit democracy as they have influence over the candidate if successful; this
shows a strong weakness in the Election campaigns of the US election process.
This can be compared to the UK where £3.14m was donated to the Labour party
in the three months from April to June, in which the trade union GMB gave
£486,00032.he problem with this is that it creates they idea of elitism in the US
election process as the people who donates the most have more influence.
Strengths of US Elections
Aid democracy
The major strengthen of US elections is that it fulfils its functions of electing a
president and creating a democracy. The elections started as of the articles set
out in the constitution, without the electing the president would not be elected.
Elections aid democracy as elects the president voters choose. For example in
2012 ‘Obama won as the majority of American digested the difficult narrative of
the country’s economic woes and accepted that change comes slower than
hope’33. This shows that the major strength of the elections is that it fulfils
ultimately its role of electing the president.
Weakness of US Elections
Long process
One major weakness seen throughout the stages of the election process is that
it is a lengthy process. The election process takes a long time as of the 7 stages
and as there are many states for the candidates to campaign in. This long
process can have many implications such can voter boredom and low voter
participation. The U.S. ranks 139 of 172 democracies in terms of voter
participation34. This low score of voter participation can be caused by the long
process creating voter apathy. This is compared to the UK where an Electoral
Politics Review, September 2013,Andrew Colclough, Page32
Politics Review, September 2013,Andrew Colclough, Page32
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Politics Review, November 2013, Edward Ashbee Page 11
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http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-23955577
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Politics Review, Febuary 2013, Volume 22, Number3, Page 5, Clodagh Harrington. 34
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/matthew-tolliver/political-discourse_b_1886977.html
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Commission review saw that in 2005, before the 2006 election only 4% said they
knew a ‘great deal’35. This is a problem as low voter participation does not create
a good democratic society as only a small percentage of the country is voting so
the rest would not be completely happy with the president chosen to represent
them.
Conclusion
To conclude, there are many different weaknesses for the elections within the
US, including funding and the time the election process takes. However there
have been changes made to fix problems like the PAC’s have been regulated and
changes are happening. The strengths outweigh the weaknesses as the election
does fulfil their main aim of electing a president and they do educate the voters.
Bibliography
-Understanding American Government and Politics, 2nd Edition, Duncan Watts
-UK Elections and Electoral Reform, Philip Allan Published, Neil Smith
-US government and Politics Anthony J. Bennett, 4th Edition,
-American Presidential Election: Process, Policy and Political Change, Harvey L.
Schantz,
- Politics Review, February 2013, Volume 22, Number3,
- Annual Survey 2005, US Government and Politics, Anthony J. Bennett
-American Politics and Society, 7th Edition, David McKay,
- US Politics Today, Edward Ashbee, 2nd Edition
-AQA Government and Politics, A2, 3A, Colleen Harris, 2nd Edition
-Politics Review, November 2009, Volume 19, Number 2,
-The Economist, March 17th-23nd 2012, the American Economy
-Politics Review, September 2013, Andrew Colclough, (hand out from class)
-Politics Review, November 2007, Volume 17, Number 2
- U. S. Government and Politics, Curt Lader, 6th Edition
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Guardian- http://www.theguardian.com /2013/mar/27/david-miliband-labourlost-big-beast
Independent - http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/lib-demconference-party-declare-they-are-ready-to-work-with-labour-8822759.html
BBC News- http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-11901914
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-23955577
Huffington Post -http://www.huffingtonpost.com/matthew-tolliver/politicaldiscourse_b_1886977.html
35
Politics Review, September 2006, Volume 16, Number 1, Fact File, Page 1