2
Applied Linguistics
LANE 423
Introduction

While we all exhibit inherently human traits of learning, every
individual approaches a problem or learns a set of facts or
organizes a combination of feelings from a unique
Styles and Strategies
perspective

This chapter deals with cognitive variations in learning a
second language, i.e. variation in

learning styles that differ across individuals,

strategies used by individuals to attack particular problems
in particular contexts.
1
Lecturer: Haifa Alroqi
3
Process, Styles, and Strategy
Process:


 In
4
All human beings engage in certain universal processes.
Just as we all need air, water, and food for our survival, so do
all humans of normal intelligence engage in certain levels or
SLA, what do we mean by the terms:
types of learning.
 Process?

 Style?
Human beings universally engage in association, transfer,
and generalization.
 Strategy?

We all make stimulus-response connections and are driven
by reinforcement.

5
Style:


Process is characteristic of every human being.
Style:
It is a term that refers to consistent tendencies or preferences
For example:
within an individual.
you might be:
Styles are those general characteristics of intellectual
functioning (and personality type, as well) that

are directly related to a person as an individual,

differentiate him/her from someone else.

6

more visually oriented,

more tolerant of ambiguity,

more reflective than someone else
these would be the styles that characterize a general or
dominant pattern in your thinking or feeling.

So styles vary across individuals.
1
7
Strategies:

8
Learning Styles
They are:


specific methods of approaching a problem or task,

modes of operation for achieving a particular end,

planned designs for controlling and manipulating certain
language you don't speak or read.


meet you.
They might vary from moment to moment, or from one situation
to another, or even from one culture to another.

They vary within an individual


each of us has a number of possible options for solving a particular
problem, and we choose one—or several in sequence—for a given
problem.
You have landed at the airport and your contact
person, whose name you don't know, is not there to
information.

Suppose you are visiting a foreign country whose
To top it off, your luggage is missing.
It's 3:00 a.m. and no one in the airport staff speaks
English or Arabic.

What would you do?
9
Learning Styles
10
Learning Styles

It happened to Brown (2007)! As he tells it:

There is obviously no single solution to this complex problem

With a style that tends to be generally tolerant of ambiguity, I first told myself

Your solution will be based to a great extent on the styles you
happen to have(e.g. tolerant of ambiguity, reflective, field
not to get flustered, and to remain calm in spite of my fatigue and frustration.

My left-brain style told me to take practical, logical steps and to focus only
on the important details of the moment.

Simultaneously, my sometimes equally strong natural tendency to use a rightbrain approach allowed me to empathize with airport personnel and to use
numerous alternative communicative strategies to get messages across.

If you are tolerant of ambiguity, you will not easily get flustered or
nervous by your unfortunate circumstances.

If you are reflective, you will exercise patience and not jump quickly
to a conclusion about how to approach the situation.
I was reflective enough to be patient with miscommunications and my

inability to communicate well,

independent, etc.)

If you are field independent, you will focus on the necessary and
yet impulsive to the extent that I needed to insist on some action as soon as
relevant details and not be distracted by surrounding but irrelevant
possible.
details.
11
Learning Styles

12
Learning Styles
The way we learn things in general and the way we attack a

So, what are learning styles?
problem seem to depend on a rather vague link between

According to Keefe (1979):
personality and cognition.

This link is refereed to as Cognitive style

When cognitive styles are specifically related to an
educational context, where affective and physiological
They are the ―cognitive, affective, and physiological traits
that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive,
interact with, and respond to the learning environment.‖

According to Skehan (199):
factors are mixed, they are usually more generally referred to
A learning style is "a general predisposition, voluntary or not,
as learning styles.
toward processing information in a particular way."
2
13
Learning Styles
14
Learning Styles
Learning styles mediate between:

Emotion

Cognition
 People's
styles are determined by the way they
internalize their total environment.
EXAMPLE:

A reflective style always grows out of a reflective personality
or a reflective mood.

An impulsive style usually arises out of an impulsive emotional
 However,
the internalization process is not strictly
cognitive; it is also physical & affective.
state.
15
Learning Styles
Are styles stable traits in adults?
Ehrman and Leaver (2003) listed the following Learning styles to SLA:
1. Field independence-dependence
It would appear that:

16
Learning Styles
2. Random (non-linear) vs. sequential (linear)
Individuals show general tendencies toward one style or
another
3. Global vs. particular
4. Inductive vs. deductive
5. Synthetic vs. analytic
6. Analogue vs. digital

However, differing contexts will evoke differing styles in the
7. Concrete vs. abstract
same individual.
8. Leveling vs. sharpening
9. Impulsive vs. reflective
17
Field Independence
18
Field Independence
Field Independent(FI) Style:
 It
is a person’s ability to perceive a particular,
relevant item or factor in a "field" of distracting
items.
3
19
Field Independence
In general psychological terms,

Field Independence
An FI style enables a person to:
Field Independent Style:

20
that ―field‖ may be perceptual,

distinguish parts from a whole (Monkey coloring book)

concentrates on something (like reading a book in a noisy
train station)

or it may be more abstract and refer to a set of
analyzes separate variables without the contamination of
neighboring variables
thoughts, ideas, or feelings from which your task
is to perceive specific relevant subsets.
21
Field Independence
Too much FI may result in:

Field Independence
Field Dependent (FD) Style :
cognitive "tunnel vision":
you see only the parts and not their relationship to the
whole.

22
 you
perceive the whole picture, the larger view,
the general configuration of a problem or idea or
―You can't see the forest for the trees" .
event.
23
Field Independence
24
Field Independence
FI/FD Styles
FI/FD Styles
FI/D literature has shown:
It is clear, then, that both FI and FD are necessary for
most of the cognitive and affective problems people
face.

FI increases as a child matures to adulthood

A person tends to be dominant in one mode or the other

FI/D is a relatively stable trait in adulthood.
4
25
Field Independence
26
Field Independence
FI/FD Styles
FI/FD Styles
Cross-culturally, the extent of the development of a

A democratic, industrialized, competitive society with
freer raising norms = (FI)
FI/D style as children mature is a factor of the type
of society and home in which the child is raised.

Authoritarian or agrarian societies, which are usually
highly socialized and utilize strict raising practices = (FD)
27
Field Independence
Persons who are FI tend to be generally more
28
Field Independence
Persons who are FD tend to be:

more socialized
 Independent

derive their self-identity from persons around them
 Competitive

are usually more empathic (being able to understand
other’s feelings and problems) and perceptive of the
 Self-confident
feelings and thoughts of others
29
Field Independence
FI Student Characteristics
30
Field Independence
FD Student Characteristics

They have no problem concentrating amid noise and confusion.

They need a quiet environment in order to concentrate well.

They enjoy analyzing grammatical structures.

They find grammar analysis tedious and boring.

They feel they must understand every word of what they read or

They don't mind reading or listening in the L2 without understanding
hear.
every single word as long as they 'catch' the main idea.

They think classroom study is the key to effective language learning.

They think communication is the key to effective language learning.

They prefer working alone to working with other people.

They really enjoy working with other people in pairs or groups.

Receiving feedback from other people really doesn't affect their

They find feedback useful as a means of understanding their
learning at all.
problem areas.
5
31
Field Independence
32
Field Independence
The 1st Hypothesis:
 How
 Two
does all this relate to SLA?
conflicting hypotheses emerged.
FI is closely related to classroom learning that
involves:

analysis,

attention to details,

and mastering of exercises, drills, and other
focused activities.
33
Field Independence
34
Field Independence
Support for the 1st hypothesis:

Naiman et al. (1978) found in a study of English-speaking 8th,
The 2nd Hypothesis:
10th , and 12th graders who were learning French in Toronto
that FI correlated positively and significantly with language

success in the classroom.
FD persons will, by virtue of their empathy, social
Other studies (Hansen 1984, Hansen & Stansfield 1983, Hansen
outreach, and perception of other people, be
& Stansfield 1981) found relatively strong evidence of a
successful in learning the communicative aspects
relationship between FI and cloze test performance, which
of a second language.
requires analytical abilities.
35
Field Independence
36
Field Independence
Weaknesses with the 2nd Hypothesis:

Very little empirical evidence has been gathered to
 Which
one is important? FD? FI?
support it.

Why?
There are no standardized means of measuring FD.

 Both
This hypothesis has largely been confirmed through
anecdotal or observational evidence.
6
37
Field Independence
38
Field Independence
The two hypotheses deal with two different kinds of language
learning:

In second language learning it may be incorrect to assume
that learners should be either FI or FD as there is no evidence

to prove otherwise.
The1st kind of learning involves the familiar classroom
activities: drills, exercises, tests, and so forth. Takes place


The
2nd
kind of learning implies natural, face-to-face
communication, the kind of communication that does not
It is more likely that persons have general inclinations
(tendency to one of the two styles),
within the constraints of the classroom (FI).

but, given certain contexts, can exercise a sufficient degree
of an appropriate style.
occur in the average language classroom (FD).
39
Field Independence
 The
responsibility of the learner is to use the
appropriate style for the context.
40
Field Independence
 In
a review of several decades of research on FI/D,
Hoffman (1997) concluded that further research
should be pursued before the hypothesis that
 The
responsibility of the teacher is to understand
there is a relationship between FD/I and SLA is
the preferred styles of each learner and to sow
abandoned.
the seeds for flexibility.
41
Left- and Right- Brain Dominance
 As
the child's brain matures, various functions
42
Left- and Right- Brain Dominance

with mathematical and linear processing of information.
become lateralized to the left or right hemisphere
of the brain.
The left hemisphere is associated with logical, analytical thought,

The right hemisphere perceives and remembers visual, tactile, and
auditory images; it is more efficient in processing holistic,
integrative, and emotional information.

Torrance (1980) lists several characteristics of left- and right-brain
dominance. (See Table 5.1., p. 125)
7
43
Left- and Right- Brain Dominance
 Although
there are many differences between left-
44
Left- and Right- Brain Dominance
 The
left-/right-brain construct helps to define
and right-brain characteristics, it is important to
another useful learning style continuum, with
remember that the left and right hemispheres
implications for second language learning and
operate together as a ―team‖.
teaching.
45
Left- and Right- Brain Dominance
46
Left- and Right- Brain Dominance
Stevick (1982) concluded that:
Studies in 2nd Language Acquisition:

left-brain-dominant second language learners
Krashen, Seliger, and Hartnett (1974) found support for the
are better at producing separate words, gathering the specifics of
hypothesis that :
language, carrying out sequences of operations, and dealing with


deductive style of teaching

abstraction, classification, labeling, and reorganization.
left-brain-dominant second language learners preferred a
right-brain-dominant learners appeared to be more
successful in an inductive classroom environment
right-brain-dominant learners
appear to deal better with whole images , with generalizations, with
metaphors, and with emotional reactions and artistic expressions.
47
Left- and Right- Brain Dominance

It can be suggested that there could be a greater need to
perceive the whole meaning in the early stages of learning
the second language, and to analyze and monitor oneself
48
Left- and Right- Brain Dominance
 So
how do left- and right-brain functioning differs
from FI and FD?
more in the later stages.
8
49
Left- and Right- Brain Dominance

50
Ambiguity Tolerance
While few studies have set out explicitly to correlate the two
factors, intuitive observation of learners and conclusions from
studies of both hemispheric preference and FI/D show a

A
third style concerns the degree to which you are
strong relationship.
cognitively willing to tolerate ideas and
SO, conclusions that were drawn for FI and FD generally
propositions that run counter to your own belief
apply well for left- and right-brain functioning, respectively.
system or structure of knowledge.

FI ------ Left brain dominant

FD----- Right brain dominant
51
Ambiguity Tolerance

52
Ambiguity Tolerance
The1st Style (Ambiguity Tolerance):
Some people are relatively open-minded in accepting
ideologies and events and facts that contradict their own
views

 Advantages

and disadvantages are present in
each style.
The 2nd Style (Ambiguity Intolerance):
Some people are closed-minded and dogmatic (someone who
is dogmatic is completely certain of their beliefs and expects
other people to accept them without arguing);

they tend to reject items that are contradictory or slightly
incongruent with their existing system
53
Ambiguity Tolerance
Advantages
54
Ambiguity Tolerance

contradictory information is encountered: words that differ
A person who is tolerant of ambiguity is:


from the native language, exceptions when it comes to rules,
free to entertain a number of innovative and creative
possibilities
In second language learning, a great amount of apparently
etc.

Successful language learning necessitates tolerance of such
not cognitively or affectively disturbed by ambiguity
ambiguities, at least for temporary periods or stages, during
and uncertainty.
which time ambiguous items are given a chance to become
resolved.
9
55
Ambiguity Tolerance
56
Ambiguity Tolerance
Disadvantages:
Too much tolerance of ambiguity can have a damaging effect.
People can become "wishy-washy," (someone who is wishy-washy does

not have firm or clear ideas and seems unable to decide what they want)
accepting virtually every proposition before them, not efficiently
subsuming necessary facts into their cognitive organizational structure.
 Intolerance
of ambiguity also has its advantages
and disadvantages.
Such excess tolerance has the effect of hampering or preventing

meaningful inclusion of ideas.

Linguistic rules, for example, might not be effectively integrated into a
whole system; rather, they may be gulped down in meaningless chunks
learned by rote.
57
Ambiguity Tolerance
58
Ambiguity Tolerance
Advantages
A certain intolerance at an optimal level enables one to:


close off avenues of hopeless possibilities,

reject entirely contradictory material,

deal with the reality of the system that one has built.
A
few research findings are available on ambiguity
intolerance in second language learning.
Disadvantages

If ambiguity is perceived as a threat; the result is a rigid,
dogmatic, stiff mind that is too narrow to be creative.
(This may be particularly harmful in second language
learning)
59
Ambiguity Tolerance

60
Ambiguity Tolerance
Naiman et al. (1978) found that ambiguity tolerance was
one of only two significant factors in predicting the success
of their high school learners of French in Toronto.
These findings suggest that ambiguity tolerance
may be an important factor in second language

Chapelle and Roberts (1986)

measured tolerance of ambiguity in learners of English as a second
learning.
language in Illinois.

They found that learners with a high tolerance for ambiguity were
slightly more successful in certain language tasks.
10
61
Reflectivity and Impulsivity
62
Reflectivity and Impulsivity
 Psychological studies
 It
is common for people to show in their personalities
certain tendencies toward

reflectivity sometimes

and impulsivity at other times.
domain, a person tends to make either

a quick or gambling (impulsive) guess at an
answer to a problem

or a slower, more calculated (reflective) decision.
63
Reflectivity and Impulsivity
David Ewing (1977) refers to two styles that are
64
Reflectivity and Impulsivity

then, after extensive reflection, venture a solution.
dimension:

 Intuitive
Style
Systematic Style: Systematic thinkers tend to weigh all the
considerations in a problem, work out all the loopholes, and
closely related to the reflectivity/impulsivity (R/I)
 Systematic
have been conducted to
determine the degree to which, in the cognitive
Intuitive styles: An intuitive thinker makes a number of
different gambles on the basis of ―hunches/ guesses‖, with
possibly several successive gambles before a solution is
styles
achieved.
65
Reflectivity and Impulsivity
66
Reflectivity and Impulsivity
Studies:

 The
It has been found that children who are conceptually
reflective tend to make fewer errors in reading than
implications for language acquisition are
impulsive children (Kagan, 1965).
numerous.

Impulsive persons are usually faster readers, and
eventually master the "psycholinguistic guessing game"
(Goodman, 1970) of reading so that their impulsive style of
reading may not necessarily deter comprehension.
11
67
Reflectivity and Impulsivity
68
Reflectivity and Impulsivity
Studies:

In another study (Kagan, Pearson & Welch, 1966),
inductive reasoning was found to be more effective with
 Most of
reflective persons, suggesting that generally reflective
style has looked at American, monolingual,
persons could benefit more from inductive learning
English-speaking children.
situations.

the research to date on this cognitive
Matching Familiar Figures Test
69
Reflectivity and Impulsivity
70
Reflectivity and Impulsivity
A few studies have related R/I to second language

learning.

guessers, were better language learners as measured by
learners of ESL in the USA, reflective students were slower
the standardized Test of English as a Foreign Language.
but more accurate than impulsive students in reading.

Jamieson (1992), who conducted a study on adult ESL
learners, found that "fast-accurate" learners, or good
Doron (1973) found that among her sample of adult
In another study of adult ESL students, Abraham (1981)
concluded that reflection was weakly related to

However, Jamieson warned against assuming that
impulsivity always implies accuracy. Some of her subjects
performance on a proofreading task.
were fast and inaccurate.
71
Reflectivity and Impulsivity
72
Reflectivity and Impulsivity

Teachers tend to judge mistakes too harshly, especially in
the case of a learner with an impulsive style who may be
 R/I
has some important considerations for
more willing than a reflective person to gamble at an
answer.
classroom second language learning and
teaching.

On the other hand, a reflective person may require
patience from the teacher, who must allow more time for
the student to struggle with responses.
12
73
74
Reflectivity and Impulsivity

Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Styles
It is also conceivable that those with impulsive styles may
Visual learners tend to prefer reading and studying

go through a number of rapid transitions of
charts, drawings, and other graphic information.
semigrammatical stages of SLA.
Auditory learners prefer listening to lectures and


Reflective persons tend to remain longer at a particular
audiotapes.
stage with "larger" leaps from stage to stage.
Kinesthetic learners will show a preference for

demonstrations and physical activity involving bodily
movement.
75
76
Visual and Auditory Styles

when learners are given some freedom to choose their
preferred way of learning, they will do better than those who
find themselves forced to learn in environments where a
learning style which does not suit them is imposed as the
Visual and Auditory Styles
Joy Reid (1987), who conducted a study of adult learners of
ESL, found a number of significant cross-cultural differences in
visual and auditory styles.

rated their own preferences.
only way to learn

By means of a self-reporting questionnaire, the subjects
Most successful learners utilize both visual and auditory input,

The students rated statements like:
but slight preferences one way or the other may distinguish

"When I read instructions, I learn them better"
one learner from another

"I learn more when I make drawings as I study"
on a five-point scale ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly
disagree."
77
78
Visual and Auditory Styles
Joy Reid’s findings
 Korean
students were significantly more visually
oriented than native English-speaking Americans.
 Japanese
students were the least auditory
students, significantly less auditory than Chinese
Visual and Auditory Styles
Joy Reid’s findings

Some of the preferences of her subjects were a factor of:

gender

length of time in the US

academic field of study

level of education.
and Arabic students.
13
79
80
Strategies
Strategies
The field of SLA has distinguished between
What are strategies?

If styles are general characteristics that differentiate one
two types of strategies:
individual from another, then strategies are those specific
"attacks" that we make on a given problem, and that vary
considerably within each individual.

They are the moment-by-moment techniques that we
 Learning
strategies
 Communication
strategies
employ to solve ―problems‖ posed by second language
input and output.
81
82
Strategies
Strategies
Learning strategies: relate to:
History on the study of second language learners' strategies

input

processing, storage, and retrieval

taking in messages from others

regardless of methods or techniques of teaching.


output

how we productively express meaning

We begun to see the importance of individual variation in
language learning
Communication strategies: relate to:

We saw that many learners seemed to be successful
Certain people appeared to be endowed with abilities to
succeed; others lacked those abilities.
how we deliver messages to others.

Researchers started to describe ―good‖ language learners in
terms of personal characteristics, styles, strategies.
83
Strategies
Rubin (Rubin & Thompson, 1982) later summarized fourteen
such characteristics.
Good language learners:
1.
find their own way, taking charge of their learning.
2.
organize information about language.
3.
are creative, developing a "feel" for the language by experimenting
with its grammar and words.
4.
Make their own opportunities for practice in using the language
inside and outside the classroom
5.
Learn to live with uncertainty by not getting flustered and by
continuing to talk or listen without understanding every word.
84
Strategies
Good language learners:
6.
Use mnemonics and other memory strategies to recall what has
been learned
7.
Make errors work for them and not against them
8.
Use linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of their first
language, in learning a second language
9.
Use contextual cues to help them in comprehension
10. Learn to make intelligent guesses
11. Learn chunks of language as wholes and formalized routines to
help them perform "beyond their competence"
12. Learn certain tricks that help to keep conversations going
13. Learn certain production strategies to fill in gaps in their own
competence
14. Learn different styles of speech and writing and learn to vary their
language according to the formality of the situation
14
85
Learning Strategies

86
Learning Strategies
One of the most comprehensive research of this kind was
They divided strategies into three main categories:
conducted by Michael O'Malley and Anna Chamot and
 Metacognitive
colleagues.
 Cognitive

They studied the use of strategies by learners of ESL in the
United States.
 Socioaffective
87
Learning Strategies
88
Learning Strategies
Metacognitive strategies :
Metacognitive strategies (p. 134)
These strategies involve:

Advanced organizers

planning for learning,

Directed attention

thinking about the learning process as it is taking place,

Selective attention
monitoring of one's production or comprehension,


Self-management

Functional planning

Self-monitoring

Delayed production

Self evaluation

and evaluating learning after an activity is completed
89
Learning Strategies
90
Learning Strategies
Cognitive Strategies (134-135):
Cognitive strategies :

Repetition
These strategies are more limited to specific

Resourcing
learning tasks and involve more direct

Translation

Grouping

Note taking

Deduction

Imagery

Keyword
manipulation of the learning material itself.
15
91
Learning Strategies
92
Learning Strategies
Socioaffective
Socioaffective (p. 135):
These strategies have to do with social-mediating

activity and interacting with others.

Cooperation
Question for clarification
(Note that this is actually a communication strategy)
93
Communication Strategies

While learning strategies deal with the receptive domain of
94
Communication Strategies


communication strategies pertain to the employment of
Research of the last decade focused largely on the
compensatory nature of communication strategies.
intake, memory, storage, and recall,

More recent approaches seem to take a more positive view
verbal or nonverbal mechanisms for the productive
of communication strategies as elements of an overall
communication of information.
strategic competence in which learners bring to bear all the
possible facets of their growing competence in order to send
clear messages in the second language.
95
Communication Strategies
96
Communication Strategies
1.

Perhaps the best way to understand what is meant by
communication strategy is to look at two examples of
Avoidance Strategies
A voidance is a common communication
strategy that can be broken down into several
such strategies:
subcategories and thus distinguished from other

Avoidance Strategies
types of strategies:

Compensatory Strategies

Syntactic or lexical avoidance

Phonological avoidance

Topic avoidance
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Communication Strategies
Syntactic or lexical avoidance
Example:
L: I lost my road.
N: What?
L: I lost my road
N: you lost your road?
L: Ahh, … uh, … I lost myself, … I got lost …
N: Oh, you lost your way.
L: Oh, yeas, … I lost my way.

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Communication Strategies
Phonological avoidance:
Example:
A Japanese learner who wanted to say ―He’s a liar,‖ but with
the difficulty of the initial /l/ sound in English, chose instead
to say ―He did not speak the truth.‖
When a learner could not think of ―I lost my way,‖ he
paraphrased the sentence ―I got lost‖
99
Communication Strategies
Topic Avoidance:
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Communication Strategies
2. Compensatory Strategies
A more direct type of avoidance is topic avoidance, in which a topic
of conversation (say talking about what happened yesterday if the
 There
past tense is unfamiliar) might be avoided entirely:


are many types of strategies under this
category (see Brown, 2007, Table 5.3, p. 138)
changing the subject,
including the following:
pretending not to understand (a classical means for avoiding
answering a question),


simply not responding at all,
or noticeably abandoning a message when a thought
becomes too difficult to continue expressing.
101
Communication Strategies

Circumlocution: Describing or exemplifying the target object
102
Communication Strategies

of action (e.g., the thing you open bottles with = corkscrew)


compound word, or structure from L1 to L2 (e.g. open doors
to many problem‖
Approximation: Using an alternative term which expresses
the meaning of the target lexical item as closely as possible
Literal translation: Translating literally a lexical item, idiom,

Stalling or time-gaining strategies: Using fillers or hesitation
(e.g., monkey for chimpanzee, gorilla, etc)
devices to fill pauses and to gain time to think (e.g., well,
Use of all-purpose words: Extending a general, empty lexical
now let's see, uh, as a matter of fact)
item to contexts where specific words are lacking (e.g., the
overuse of thing, stuff, what-do-you-call-it, thingie)
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103
Communication Strategies
Communication Strategies
Appeal for help:
Prefabricated patterns:

104
Using memorized stock phrases or chunks of language,

which are often found in pocket bilingual phrase books,
 either
without internalized knowledge of their components.

 or
Such phrases are memorized by rote to fit their appropriate
context
don’t speak English‖
directly (e.g. what do you call …?)
indirectly (e.g. rising intonation, pause, eye contact,
puzzled expression).

Examples: ―how much does this cost‖ ―where is the toilet‖ ―I
Asking for aid from the interlocutor
Using this strategy, learners may also venture a possible
guess and then ask for verification from the native speaker
of the correctness of the attempt or appeal to a bilingual
dictionary for help.
105
Communication Strategies
Code-switching:

Often code-switching subconsciously occurs between two
advanced learners with a common first language, but in such a


106
Strategies-Based Instruction
 Much of
the work of researchers and teachers on
case, usually not a compensatory strategy.
the application of both learning and
Learners in the early stages of acquisition, however, might code-
communication strategies to classroom learning
switch to- use their native language to fill in missing knowledge.
has come to be known as :
When it all else fails, when strategies are all incapable of producing
a meaningful utterance – a learner may resort to language switch.
That is, he may simply use his native language whether the hearer
 Strategies-based
instruction (SBI)
knows the native language or not.

Sometimes just a word or two are slipped in, in the hope that the
hearer will get the gist of what is being communicated.
107
Strategies-Based Instruction
 As
we seek to make the language classroom an
effective environment for learning, it has become
increasingly apparent that ―teaching learners
how to learn‖ is crucial.
108
Strategies-Based Instruction
Wenden (1985) was among the first to assert that:
 learner
strategies are the key to learner autonomy
(independence),
 one
of the most important goals of language
teaching should be the facilitation of that
autonomy.
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109
Strategies-Based Instruction
 Teachers
110
Strategies-Based Instruction
can benefit from an understanding of
what makes learners successful and unsuccessful,
and establish in the classroom an environment for
It has been found that students will benefit from SBI
if they:
the realization of successful strategies.
1.
understand the strategy itself
that effort since students often bring with them
2.
perceive it to be effective
certain preconceived notions of what "ought" to
3.
do not consider its implementation to be overly
 Teachers
cannot always expect instant success in
difficult
go on in the classroom.
111
Strategies-Based Instruction
 SO,
it is recommended that we teach students
some technical know-how about how to
tackle a language.
112
Strategies-Based Instruction
 Several
different models of SBI are now being
practiced in language classes around the
world.
113
Thank You
19