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Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Geography .......................................................................................................... 6
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 6
Geographic Divisions...................................................................................................... 6
Climate ............................................................................................................................ 7
Water Resources ............................................................................................................. 8
Major Cities .................................................................................................................... 8
Cairo............................................................................................................................ 8
Alexandria ................................................................................................................... 9
Port Said .................................................................................................................... 10
Suez ........................................................................................................................... 10
Aswan ....................................................................................................................... 10
Luxor ......................................................................................................................... 11
Environmental Issues .................................................................................................... 12
Natural Hazards ............................................................................................................ 13
Chapter 1 Assessment ....................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 2 History .............................................................................................................. 15
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 15
Ancient History ............................................................................................................. 16
Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt .................................................................... 16
Decline of Imperial Egypt ......................................................................................... 17
Greek and Roman Rule (332 B.C.E.-642 C.E.) ............................................................ 17
The Islamic Conquest and Arab Rule (642–1250) ....................................................... 18
Mamluk Expansion and Ottoman Rule (1250–1805) ................................................... 18
The Dawn of Modern Egypt (1798–1882).................................................................... 19
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British Occupation (1882–1922)................................................................................... 19
The Suez Canal ............................................................................................................. 20
British Colonialism and Egyptian Nationalism ............................................................ 20
Pan-Arabism and the Muslim Brotherhood .................................................................. 21
Movement Toward Independence................................................................................. 22
The Nasser Presidency (1956–1970) ............................................................................ 23
Nationalization of the Suez Canal............................................................................. 23
The Six-Day War (1967 War)................................................................................... 24
The Anwar Sadat Presidency (1970–1981) .................................................................. 24
The Mubarak Presidency (1981–2011) ......................................................................... 25
Opposition to the Government .................................................................................. 25
Reform ...................................................................................................................... 26
Recent Events................................................................................................................ 27
Chapter 2 Assessment ....................................................................................................... 28
Chapter 3 Economy........................................................................................................... 29
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 29
Standard of Living ........................................................................................................ 29
Agriculture .................................................................................................................... 30
Land Reform ................................................................................................................. 31
Cotton............................................................................................................................ 31
Industry ......................................................................................................................... 32
Services ......................................................................................................................... 33
Banking ......................................................................................................................... 33
Tourism ......................................................................................................................... 34
Trade ............................................................................................................................. 35
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Energy ........................................................................................................................... 35
Transportation ............................................................................................................... 36
Investment ..................................................................................................................... 37
Outlook ......................................................................................................................... 38
Chapter 3 Assessment ....................................................................................................... 40
Chapter 4 Society .............................................................................................................. 41
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 41
Ethnic Groups and Languages ...................................................................................... 41
―Egyptians‖ ............................................................................................................... 41
Nubians ..................................................................................................................... 42
Berbers ...................................................................................................................... 42
Dom........................................................................................................................... 42
Religion ......................................................................................................................... 42
Islam .......................................................................................................................... 43
Coptic Orthodoxy...................................................................................................... 44
Cuisine .......................................................................................................................... 44
Traditional Dress ........................................................................................................... 45
Gender Issues ................................................................................................................ 46
Female Genital Mutilation ........................................................................................ 47
Divorce Laws ............................................................................................................ 47
Arts ................................................................................................................................ 47
Literature ................................................................................................................... 48
Music and Dance....................................................................................................... 48
Sports and Recreation ................................................................................................... 49
Chapter 4 Assessment ....................................................................................................... 50
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Chapter 5 Security............................................................................................................. 51
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 51
U.S.-Egyptian Relations................................................................................................ 51
Post-Mubarak Relationship ....................................................................................... 52
Relations with Neighboring Countries.......................................................................... 52
Israel .......................................................................................................................... 53
Palestinian Territories ............................................................................................... 54
Jordan ........................................................................................................................ 54
Sudan......................................................................................................................... 55
Libya ......................................................................................................................... 56
Police Force .................................................................................................................. 57
Military ......................................................................................................................... 58
Army ......................................................................................................................... 59
Air Force ................................................................................................................... 60
Air Defense ............................................................................................................... 60
Navy .......................................................................................................................... 61
Issues Affecting Stability .............................................................................................. 61
Civil Unrest and Civil Rights .................................................................................... 61
Unemployment .......................................................................................................... 62
Corruption ................................................................................................................. 63
Water and Food Insecurity ........................................................................................ 64
Chapter 5 Assessment ....................................................................................................... 65
Final Assessment .............................................................................................................. 66
Further Reading ................................................................................................................ 68
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Chapter 1 Geography
Introduction
Egypt is located in the northeastern part of Africa. To its
south lies Sudan; to its west, Libya; and to its north, the
Mediterranean Sea. Much of Egypt‘s eastern boundary is
the Red Sea, running northward into the Gulf of Suez. At
the northern tip of the Gulf of Suez, the Suez Canal cuts
through Egypt and provides the shortest sea link between
the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. East of the
Suez Canal is Egypt‘s Sinai Peninsula, which is
considered part of the Asian continent. Israel lies east of the Sinai Peninsula; bordering
the southeast edge of the Sinai is the Gulf of Aqaba, which ends at the point where Egypt
and Israel meet.
Ancient Egypt developed into two regional cultures. Upper Egypt encompassed the
southern part of the country extending toward sub-Saharan Africa. The boundaries were
originally between Memphis and Aswan, near the Nubian border in southern Egypt.
Today, Upper Egypt is a smaller region that includes the area between Qena Bend and
Aswan.1 Lower Egypt includes the area between Memphis and the Nile Delta, south of
the Mediterranean Sea. In contrast to Upper Egypt, Lower Egypt (ta-mehu, or ―waterfilled land‖)2 is densely populated. Because of sea trade and interaction with people from
foreign countries, cities in Lower Egypt developed faster than in the south.
Geographic Divisions
About 95% of Egypt is desert. Only 3.5% of Egypt‘s land
is settled.3 Almost all the settled area is along the Nile
River, which bisects Egypt north to south.
The Nile River Valley and Delta is one of Egypt‘s four
main regions. The Nile River enters Egypt at the
Sudanese border and crosses more than 1,200 km (750 mi)
of the country.4 Egyptians rely almost entirely on the Nile
for their water supply. It provides 85% of their water needs for irrigation.5 At Cairo, the
Nile begins spreading into a delta, which is 160 km (99 mi) long. At its widest, the Nile
Delta spans 250 km (155 mi).6
1
Dan Richardson, The Rough Guide to Egypt (New York: Rough Guides, 2003).
Wendy Christensen, Empire of Ancient Egypt (New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2005).
3
Think Quest, Ancient Egypt, 2000, http://library.thinkquest.org/J001769/geography.html
4
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Egypt,‖ 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/180382/Egypt
5
The World Bank, ―Egypt: Irrigation Innovations in the Nile Delta,‖ 8 May 2009,
http://go.worldbank.org/BE3DQ2YJ50
6
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―The Nile River,‖ 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/415347/Nile-River
2
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West of the Nile River is the Western Desert, or Libyan Desert, which makes up about
two-thirds of Egypt‘s land area (approximately 680,000 sq km, or 262,549 sq mi). Large
parts of the Western Desert are uninhabitable.7, 8 The Western Desert rarely receives any
rain and is one of the most arid regions on earth. It is marked by seven depressions or
basins, six of which are oases with freshwater provided by the Nile or groundwater
sources. These areas support small permanent settlements and limited agriculture.
East of the Nile is a third region, the Eastern Desert, or Arabian Desert. Unlike its cousin
to the west, the Eastern Desert is fairly mountainous. It is also a much smaller region,
about 220,000 sq km (84,942 sq mi). Its hills join a rugged mountain chain, known as the
Red Sea Hills, which reach an elevation of 2,187 meters (7,175 ft). There are almost no
permanent settlements in this entire isolated region. Oil is one of its very few natural
resources.
A fourth region, the Sinai Peninsula, lies east of the Red Sea and Suez Canal. This
northeastern section of Egypt covers around 61,100 sq km (23,590 sq mi) and is largely
covered with granite mountains and rocks.9 The Red Sea Hills continue from the Eastern
Desert into the southern Sinai. This range includes Mount Catherine (Jebal Katrinah)
which, at 2,642 meters (8,668 ft), is Egypt‘s highest point. At the northern part of this
region lies a flat coastal plain extending from the Suez Canal into the Gaza Strip and
Israel.
Climate
Egypt, one of the world‘s hottest and sunniest countries,
has two seasons. There are mild winters from
November to April and hot, dry summers the rest of the
year. In coastal regions, the climate is moderate, with an
average low winter temperature of 14°C (57°F), and an
average high summer temperature of 30°C (86°F). In
inland areas (desert), temperatures fluctuate much more.
Summer temperatures vary from 7°C (44°F) at night to
43°C (109°F) in the daytime. Winter temperatures in the desert range from 0°C (32°F) at
night to 18°C (64°F) in daytime.10
Rainfall is light and occurs mainly along the coast. In most areas, Egypt receives less
than 80 mm (3 in) of rain annually. The wettest area is around Alexandria, with about 200
mm (8 in) of annual rainfall. Cairo receives only slightly over 1 cm (0.39 in) of rainfall
annually, although humidity is high. South of Cairo, there is very little rainfall at all;
7
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Egypt: Land,‖ 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/180382/Egypt
8
Helen Chapin Metz, ed., ―Western Desert,‖ in Egypt: A Country Study, Federal Research Division,
Library of Congress, 1990, http://countrystudies.us/egypt/50.htm
9
Helen Chapin Metz, ed., ―Sinai Peninsula,‖ in Egypt: A Country Study, Federal Research Division,
Library of Congress, December 1990, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/egtoc.html
10
Tour Egypt, ―Egypt Climate and Weather,‖ 2007, http://touregypt.net/climate.htm
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some areas go years without rain. These extreme dry spells may be followed by heavy
rainfall and damaging flash floods.
Water Resources
Egypt relies on the Nile River, floods, and rain for its
water. The Nile is Egypt‘s only major river and supports
almost all of its agriculture. The Nile is the longest river
in the world. It is 6,695 km (4,160 mi) long; 1,200 km of
that distance is in Egypt.11 Cutting south to north between
two deserts, the Nile River sustained Egypt as a great
civilization for 5,000 years. The silt contained volcanic
minerals and organic materials, which provided fertilizer.
Arid, empty desert surrounded the river on both sides.
The Nile originates in the high lakes of Ethiopia and Uganda. Its tributaries are the White
Nile (out of Uganda) and Blue Nile (out of Ethiopia). At Khartoum in Sudan, these
tributaries merge into one river, the Nile. It passes through six cataracts, shallow areas of
rapids that historically blocked navigation except during the summer floods. The Nile
then flows through Egypt south to north and empties into the Mediterranean Sea.
At Aswan, the Aswan High Dam harnesses the Nile to create Lake Nasser. Egypt shares
the artificial lake with Sudan and calls it Lake Nubia. Water from the lake provides
irrigation for hundreds of thousands of acres of land and has allowed for more
agricultural rotations per year.12
Major Cities
Cairo
Cairo (al-Qahira), the administrative capital of Egypt, is
one of the largest urban areas in the world. In 2011, an
estimated 16 million people, or 20% of all Egyptians,
lived in Greater Cairo.13 This conurbation (continuous
city that joins with the suburbs) extends along both sides
of the Nile from Hulwan, a suburb in the south to Shubra
el Khaymah in the north.
A major commercial hub in the Arabic world for over 1,000 years, Cairo has been a
trading center for goods shipped to Europe from Africa and India. During the 19th
century, Cairo was revitalized by industry, a rising cotton trade, and the completion of the
Suez Canal in 1869.
11
Yahoo! Education, ―Encyclopedia: Nile,‖ 2006,
http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry/Nile
12
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Lake Nasser,‖ 2010,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/404070/Lake-Nasser
13
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of Defense, ―Background Note: Egypt,‖ 10 November
2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm
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Cairo grew rapidly in the 20th century, especially after World War II and the industrial
development that followed, which drew people to the cities in search of jobs. Because of
the city‘s growth, urban services have been strained. In the 1980s, Cairo‘s population
increased by approximately 300,000 each year.14 Because of the housing shortage, many
people resorted to living in makeshift huts or in cemeteries. Public services such as
transportation, water resources, and trash collection have been seriously overburdened.
Cairo (meaning ―victorious‖ in Arabic) is full of cultural sites, including temples,
churches, museums, an opera house, and over 600 Islamic monuments. This
cosmopolitan city is marked by Arab, European, and African influences, and its medieval
markets coexist alongside the most modern commercial enterprises. The city of Giza,
considered part of Greater Cairo, is home to the famous Giza Pyramids and to Cairo
University. Cairo‘s popularity as tourist destination is mainly due to its proximity to
many of Egypt‘s archeological sites. In January 2011, Cairo‘s Tahrir Square was the
scene of one of the nationwide mass demonstrations that ousted President Hosni Mubarak.
The rallies caused a decline in tourism.15
Alexandria
Egypt‘s second-largest city, Alexandria, lies on the
Mediterranean coastline, just west of the Nile Delta.
Alexandria was founded by Alexander the Great over
2,300 years ago (332 B.C.E.) and has been a major port
ever since. Alexandria‘s sea trade with Europe declined
from the 16th century to the 18th, after the trade route
around the Cape of Good Hope was discovered. However,
trade and export of goods to Europe were revived in the
19th century; with maritime expansion came population growth. Between 1821 and the
end of the 19th century, Alexandria‘s population grew from 12,500 to 320,000.16 Today it
is around 6 million.17
In the ancient world, Alexandria was known to be the center of learning and culture.
Some regard Alexandria as the birthplace of Western science.18
Alexandria remains an important harbor city today. The city‘s industrial base includes oil
refineries, textile mills, chemical and metal plants, and food-processing facilities.19
14
Helen Chapin Metz, ed., ―Major Cities,‖ in Egypt: A Country Study, Federal Research Division, Library
of Congress, 1990, http://countrystudies.us/egypt/57.htm
15
Laura Bly, ―Battered Egyptian Tourism Hopes for Swift Recovery After Protests‖ USA Today, 6 July
2011, http://travel.usatoday.com/destinations/dispatches/post/2011/02/cairo-egypt-travel-guides-mubarakprotests/143001/1
16
Helen Chapin Metz, ed., ―Major Cities,‖ in Egypt: A Country Study, Federal Research Division, Library
of Congress, 1990, http://countrystudies.us/egypt/57.htm
17
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of Defense, ―Background Note: Egypt,‖ 10 November
2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm
18
BBC News, ―Library of Alexandria Discovered,‖ 12 May 2004,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3707641.stm
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Port Said
Located on the northern tip of the Suez Canal on the Mediterranean Sea, Port Said has
been an active port since the late 19th century. Builders of the Suez Canal founded the
city in 1859 as a camp for canal workers. Since then, the population of Port Said has
grown to approximately 600,000.20 Port Said today is a fueling area for ships and a site
for canal maintenance.
During the 1967 and 1973 Arab-Israeli Wars, Port Said was bombed by the Israelis,
which led to closing the harbor to shipping. The city has, however, recovered. Port Said
was rebuilt after the war, and the government supported a tax-free industrial zone.
Industries include computer manufacturing, textiles, glass, clothing, and salt production
from seawater. Port Said also has electrical plants and railway service.
Suez
Suez, located at the southern end of the Suez Canal, lies at the northernmost point of the
Gulf of Suez, the Red Sea‘s western arm. The city of Suez has served as a commercial
port since the 7th century. Today Suez is one of Egypt‘s largest ports and functions as
both a refueling station and holding area for ships traveling through the canal. Oil is
stored and refined and conveyed by pipelines to Alexandria and Cairo. Suez is a
manufacturing center as well for petroleum products, fertilizers, and paper. The opening
of the Suez Canal in 1869 made it possible for ships to travel between Europe and Asia.
Infrastructure associated with the canal helped Suez develop into a modern city. Suez is
linked by rail to Cairo (135 km, or 84 mi, to the west). With a population of around half a
million, the city is slightly smaller than Port Said.21
The Suez Canal was closed during periods that followed the Arab-Israeli Wars, blocking
the shortest link from the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. During the October
War of 1973, almost 80% of the town of Suez was destroyed.22 When the canal reopened
in 1975, Suez became a tax-free industrial zone.
Aswan
Located in southern Egypt on the first cataract (rapids) of
the Nile River, Aswan has for many years been a center
of commerce. In ancient times, it was an ivory market and
a trading gateway from which caravans set forth on long
journeys south to Nubia and Central Africa. Aswan
became an industrial center after 1960 when hydroelectric
production began in the region. More recent industries
include a fertilizer plant and mining operations for
19
BBC News, ―Library of Alexandria Discovered,‖ 12 May 2004,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3707641.stm
20
Encyclopædia Britannica, ―Port Said,‖ 2010, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/470978/PortSaid
21
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Suez,‖ 2010,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571663/Suez
22
Insight Compact Guide Egypt (Singapore: APA Publications, 2003).
© D L I F L C | 10
hematite and iron ore. Aswan has a population of roughly 270,000.23 The Aswan High
Dam is south of the city.
Aswan, one of the driest cities in the world, lies on the east bank of the Nile. Because of
its climate and location, Aswan has been a winter resort for travelers since the early 19th
century. During colonial times, many British vacationed in Aswan in the winter, and it
was a trip here that inspired British writer Agatha Christie to write Death on the Nile, her
best-selling novel. Today visitors sail in feluccas, fish on the Nile, and visit the many
historical sites in the area, including predynastic ruins on Elephantine Island.
Luxor
The name Luxor is from Al-Uqsur, meaning ―the palaces‖ in
Arabic. This name may refer to Luxor‘s location where it sits
amid the ruins of Thebes. Luxor actually comprises three areas:
the city of Luxor, on the Nile‘s east bank, surrounding Thebes,
and Karnak, slightly to the north, across the river. Architectural
remains suggest that people have been living in this area for
about 6,000 years. In 2006, Luxor‘s population was 450,000.24
Located 654 km (406 mi) south of Cairo, Luxor was an
administrative center in antiquity and is also a longstanding
tourist center. Since the the Roman and Greek periods, travelers
have visited Luxor to view the temples and tombs of kings and
queens. The largest surviving ancient monuments in the Nile
valley are here.
On the Nile‘s west bank, across from Luxor, is Thebes, the capital of Egypt from around
2000 to 1075 B.C.E. (Middle and New Kingdoms). From their military campaigns in
Asia and Africa, Egyptian armies brought wealth back to Egypt, and much of it was used
for the upkeep of Thebes and its priesthood.
The Theban Necropolis is dry desert, where the fertile Nile flood plain meets the arid
Western Desert. Just beyond this border between growth and barrenness, Thebes became
a burial ground for kings and queens. Also buried here are priests, nobles, royal children,
and tomb builders.
23
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Aswan,‖ 2010,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/40195/Aswan
24
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Luxor,‖ 2010,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/352358/Luxor
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Environmental Issues
Partly because of its unusual geography, Egypt faces
daunting environmental challenges. The amount of arable
land is severely limited. Around 97% of Egypt‘s entire
population live in the Nile Valley and Delta, which
overburdens the land and river.25 Egypt is almost entirely
desert, and people depend heavily on the Nile River for
water. This fact, when combined with rapid population
growth, has led to overdependence on the Nile River as
well as loss of agricultural land to urbanization. Sandstorms and desertification also
contribute to the loss of agricultural land.
Air pollution is a major challenge for Egypt. Industrial development has contributed to air
pollution in numerous ways: industrial waste, vehicle emissions, and the burning of solid
waste and agricultural residues may all adversely affect the human body.26 Oil pollution
off the coasts threatens beaches and marine habitats. Water pollution, another
environmental problem, results from industrial waste and untreated sewage. Water
pollution also results from pesticides used to manage crop growth. According to 2007
government reports, because of climate change, Egypt may ―be largely vulnerable to
number or risks and threats,‖ including high temperatures, rising sea levels, water
shortages, as well as negative impacts on agricultural productivity and tourism.27
The Aswan High Dam has been a mixed blessing for the country. Built on the Nile
between 1960 and 1970, the dam provides Egypt with hydroelectric power and consistent
irrigation, which guarantees agricultural productivity. However, the Aswan High Dam
blocks the flow of nutrients to the Nile River Delta, which has caused a decrease of
certain fish populations that rely on minerals from the silt. Moreover, the dam causes soil
erosion, and poor drainage of newly irrigated lands leads to saturation and increased
salinization of soils downstream. Over half the already scarce farmland in Egypt has been
harmed by salt from brackish irrigated water; some farmland soil is now rated medium to
poor.28
25
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Rural Poverty Portal, ―Rural Poverty in
Egypt,‖ 7 March 2007, http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/web/guest/country/home/tags/egypt
26
Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, ―Egypt State of
the Environment Report [p.23],‖ 2010,
http://www.eeaa.gov.eg/english/reports/SoE2010En/Egypt%20State%20of%20Environment%20Report%2
02009.pdf
27
Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, ―Egypt State of
the Environment Report [p.74],‖ 2010,
http://www.eeaa.gov.eg/english/reports/SoE2010En/Egypt%20State%20of%20Environment%20Report%2
02009.pdf
28
Matt Rosenberg, ―Aswan High Dam Controls World‘s Longest River,‖ About.com, 2 March 2011,
http://geography.about.com/od/specificplacesofinterest/a/nile.htm
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Natural Hazards
Egypt suffers from hazards associated with its
desert environment. Periodic droughts occur,
sometimes followed by flash floods. Ferocious
sandstorms rage in the desert, rearranging dunes
and blocking the vision of anyone caught in such
a storm. Swirling clouds of dust that can be seen
on satellite imagery blow over Egypt and northern
Africa.
A hot wind, known as khamsin, blows across
Africa‘s north coast, including Egypt, in the spring.29 It usually arrives in April, but it
may be as early as March or as late as May. The winds reach up to 140 kph (87 mph) or
more, carrying dirt and sand from the desert. Such sandstorms can cause rapid
temperature increases of as much as 20°C (68°F) within a two-hour period. In addition,
sandstorms may blow for days, causing illness in people and animals and damage to
crops and buildings.
Egypt is also in a region with a history of high-magnitude earthquakes. The most recent
occurred between the Gulf of Aqaba and the Nile River in September 2008.30 This region
is an active seismic zone; earthquakes have been reported here as early as 1068 C.E.31 A
larger earthquake measuring 7.1 on the Richter scale struck near the same area in
November 1995 and was felt from Sudan in the south to Lebanon and Syria in the
north.32 Some cities reported heavy damage, which was mainly due to the poor quality of
construction along with inadequate building materials and maintenance. Some of the
earthquakes in Egypt have resulted in widespread death and injuries.
29
This wind is known in Europe as scirocco. See Tour Egypt, ―Egypt Climate and Weather,‖ 2007,
http://touregypt.net/climate.htm
30
USGS, ―Last Earthquake in Egypt,‖ 19 March 2011,
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqarchives/last_event/world/world_egypt.php
31
Because the earth‘s crust in the Gulf of Aqaba region is thinner than anywhere else in the world, it is at
risk of seismic activity. Seismic activity could be triggered by human activity such as the possible
construction of a canal linking the Red and Dead seas. This warning was issued by Ahmed Ali Fadel,
chairman of the Egyptian Suez Canal Authority. Source: The Register, Lucy Sherriff, ―Canal Could Cause
Earthquakes, Egypt Warns,‖ 27 July 2005, http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/07/27/earthquakes_canal/
32
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, 2003, http://www.eeri.org/lfe/egypt.html
© D L I F L C | 13
Chapter 1 Assessment
1. Egypt‘s Sinai Peninsula lies west of the Suez Canal.
False
The Sinai Peninsula is east of the Suez Canal. This northeastern section of Egypt
(Sinai) is considered part of the Asian continent.
2. The Suez Canal links the Mediterranean and the Red seas.
True
The Red Sea extends out of the Indian Ocean, and its shortest direct link to the
Mediterranean is via the Suez Canal.
3. The source of the Nile River is in Sudan.
False
The source of the Nile River is in Uganda, where the river is called the White Nile,
and in Ethiopia, where it is called the Blue Nile. In Sudan, the two rivers merge
into one river, the Nile.
4. The city of Alexandria is located in Upper Egypt.
False
Alexandria is in Lower Egypt, in the northern part of the country. Alexandria lies
on the Mediterranean, just west of the Nile Delta.
5. Port Said lies on the northern tip of the Suez Canal.
True
Port Said was founded in 1859 as a camp for laborers who worked on the Suez
Canal. Today the city is a fueling area for ships and a site for canal maintenance.
© D L I F L C | 14
Chapter 2 History
Introduction
Egypt was the site of one of the oldest civilizations in the
world. Settlements in the bountiful Nile River Valley near
Merimde on the western delta date back as far as 7000
B.C.E.33 As settlements grew into agricultural societies,
two kingdoms, Upper and Lower Egypt, emerged and
became unified around 3000 B.C.E. Over the next three
millennia, a series of dynasties witnessed vast cultural
achievements, including hieroglyphic writing and the
pyramids. Internal weakness and bankruptcy left the empire vulnerable to a number of
invasions.34 During Roman rule (31 B.C.E. to 642 C.E.), Egypt established its own
Christian (Coptic) Church. Later, Arabs ruled Egypt for six centuries and introduced
Islam and the Arabic language. During rule by the Mamluks and Ottomans (1250–1798),
Egypt became an Islamic state with an Arabic-speaking majority.35, 36, 37, 38
Modern European influence began with the French invasion of 1798 and continued with
the British occupation in 1882. Egypt gained partial independence in 1922 and full
sovereignty after the army overthrew the British-backed monarchy in 1952. Since then,
Egypt has seen few presidents (only four by 2011) been in three wars with Israel (1948,
1967, and 1973), and seen repressive regimes incapable of managing the country‘s socioeconomic problems. These conditions have led to assassination attempts, terrorist attacks,
and eventually the ouster of former President Hosni Mubarak through a popular uprising
in January 2011. After Mubarak‘s fall, the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces ran the
country and has promised fair and free elections in November 2011 followed by a
presidential poll expected in March or April 2012.39, 40
33
Robert L. Tignor, Egypt: A Short History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 12.
W. Stevenson Smith, William Kelly Simpson, The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt, 3rd edition
(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998).
35
Otto F.A. Meinardus, Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity (Cairo: American University in Cairo
Press, 1999).
36
Roger S. Bagnall, Hellenistic and Roman Egypt: Sources and Approaches (Burlington, VT: Ashgate
Publishing, 2006).
37
Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society (Boston,
MA: Brill, 2004).
38
Robert L. Tignor, ―Chapter Eight: Ottoman Egypt, 1517-1798,‖ in Egypt: A Short History (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 2010), 174-211.
39
Mostafa Ali, ―Finally, Egypt‘s Parties Set to Begin the Battle for Post-Mubarak Parliament,‖ Ahram
Online, 24 October 2011, http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContentP/1/25030/Egypt/Finally,-Egyptsparties-set-to-begin-the-battle-fo.aspx
40
―Egypt: General Elections ‗to begin in November,‖ BBC News, 18 September 2011,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14965279
34
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Ancient History
Hunter-gatherer hominids roamed the area that is now Egypt 400,000
years ago. Climatic changes shifted population settlements to and
from the Nile and surrounding oases as dry and wet periods shrank
and expanded lakes and grasslands.41 Between 8000 and 5000 B.C.E.,
nomads were moving through Upper and Lower Egypt from central
Africa and Asia.42 Settlements began in the Nile Valley, where the
rich silt deposited yearly on the valley floor supported land cultivation.
Agriculture and towns began to develop in the sixth millennium
B.C.E. It was during this late pre-dynastic period that hieroglyphs
(writing symbols) emerged.
Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt
Loosely formed confederations known as Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt were feuding by
the fourth millennium B.C.E. Territorial encroachments and competition between the two
independent regions were the causes of warfare. Upper and Lower Egypt were finally
united under Upper Egyptian King Narmer in 3100 B.C.E. King Narmer‘s strong central
rule in this first Egyptian dynasty was a harbinger of the bureaucratic government to
follow. 43, 44
With the emergence of a centralized government, Egypt‘s economic and political
institutions became subject to the authority of a god-king. The central government
became a bureaucracy that employed state officials, soldiers, public workers, and others
who served the growing state. During this early dynastic period, civil servants and
artisans created the foundations of pharaonic civilization and its traditions of art and
learning. Memphis was established as the capital of the unified country.45
Egypt‘s ancient history includes 31 to 34 dynasties, one of the
longest-lasting civilizations in world history. Vast periods known as
―kingdoms‖ encompass many dynasties and span centuries. During
intermediate periods between kingdoms, Upper and Lower Egypt
were not unified under one king. They were ruled partially or entirely
by foreign powers. The first kingdom in Egypt was the Old Kingdom
between approximately 2625 and 2130 B.C.E.46 This was the age of
the pyramids. The next period was the Middle Kingdom, which lasted
until around 1630 B.C.E. and saw the emergence of a middle class.
The last period was the New Kingdom, lasting until 1075 B.C.E. The
41
Robert L. Tignor, Egypt: A Short History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 12.
Upper Egypt refers to the southern part of the country, and Lower Egypt refers to the northern region.
43
King Narmer is also identified as King Menes, although historical records of this early period are not
entirely clear.
44
Wendy Christensen, Empire of Ancient Egypt (New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2005).
45
Helen Chapin Metz, ed., ―Ancient Egypt: The Predynastic Period and the First and Second Dynasties,
6000–2686 B.C.,‖ in Egypt: A Country Study, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, December
1990, http://countrystudies.us/egypt/5.htm
46
All dates are approximate and not universally agreed upon.
42
© D L I F L C | 16
New Kingdom was the age of great pharaonic conquests and included the promotion of
worship of a single god under Akhenaton and Nefertiti. Tutankhamen restored
polytheistic worship.47
Decline of Imperial Egypt
The New Kingdom was followed by an intermediate period (1075–656 B.C.E.) which
saw the demise of the empire. Egypt was nearly bankrupt by 1000 B.C.E. The country
fragmented into small, constantly fighting fiefdoms. Royal tombs were looted, and the
ruling classes became increasingly corrupt. Nubia took advantage of Egypt‘s internal
weakness, seized the throne, and ruled for over 100 years. Other invaders dominated
Egypt, including Libyans, Persians, and Assyrians from Mesopotamia, until the arrival of
Alexander of Macedonia.48
Greek and Roman Rule (332 B.C.E.-642 C.E.)
In 332 B.C.E., Alexander the Great drove the Persians out of Egypt.
Seen by Egyptians as a liberator, he was crowned pharaoh. He
founded the city of Alexandria, which became the cultural and
economic center of the known world and housed the greatest library
in ancient times.
The period between 332 and 30 B.C.E. marked the end of ancient
Egypt as a political entity. Ptolemy, one of Alexander‘s generals, took
over Egypt after Alexander‘s death. Egyptian and Hellenic culture
fused productively, and the dynasty that Ptolemy founded ruled fairly
successfully for three centuries and held out against Rome‘s growing
power. Internal strife, however, weakened Ptolemaic rule. The last ruler, Cleopatra, and
her husband Marc Anthony committed suicide before being captured by the forces of
Octavian, who became the first Roman emperor Augustus.49
Under Roman rule the final decline of ancient Egyptian culture occurred. The Romans
established trading posts throughout Egypt and demanded that Egyptian farmers provide
them a steady supply of grain and produce. In subduing the population, the Romans
destroyed the native culture and persecuted the population by levying oppressive taxes
and demanding compliance with Roman law. The Egyptian religion gradually
disappeared, along with the spoken language, which eventually merged into Coptic.
Hieroglyphic writing and the knowledge of how to decipher it also disappeared during
this period. The Greek alphabet was used for writing and the library of Alexandria was
destroyed.50, 51, 52
47
David P. Silverman, ed., Ancient Egypt (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 22-35.
David P. Silverman, ed., Ancient Egypt (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 36.
49
Margaret R. Bunson, Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, revised ed. (New York: Facts On File, 2002), 123.
50
Uwe Jochum, ―The Alexandrian Library and Its Aftermath,‖ Library History 15 (1999): 5-12,
http://www.ub.uni-konstanz.de/fileadmin/Dateien/Fachreferenten/Jochum/alexandria-aftermath.pdf
51
Jill Kamil, Christianity in the Land of the Pharaohs: The Coptic Orthodox Church (New York:
Routledge, 2002), 1-11.
52
Richard Alston, Soldier and Society in Roman Egypt: A Social History (New York: Routledge, 1998),
http://books.google.com/books?id=neO6OC_qlkwC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
48
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The Islamic Conquest and Arab Rule (642–1250)
The Arab prophet Muhammad founded Islam in the 7th century and unified the tribes of
Arabia around the new religion. Islam began expanding rapidly into other countries, and
in 642 an army led by Amr ibn al-As arrived from the Arabian Desert and conquered
Egypt. The army‘s encampment, Fustat, was the first capital of Muslim Egypt and later
became part of the Cairo metropolis. From that time forward, the historical capitals of
Egypt (Memphis, Thebes, and Alexandria) declined. Their temples and monuments fell
into ruin and became quarries mined for buildings of the new Islamic regime.53
The Arab invasion occurred at a time when Egyptians were resentful of their Eastern
Roman Empire rulers. Thus, Egyptians were more willing to accept the new language and
religion of their conquerors. The Arabic language became increasingly popular. Sunni
Islam gradually replaced traditional polytheism and coexisted alongside the Coptic
Orthodox strain of Christianity. It was not until the 13th century, however, a Muslim
majority emerged in Egypt.54
The Christian armies of the West went to war against Islam, trying to reclaim sites
associated with Biblical events. When the Crusaders reached Egypt, they were driven
back by a Muslim army led by Salah al-Din (Saladin). Saladin restored Sunni rule in
Egypt, ending two hundred years of Shi‘ite Fatimid rule. Saladin established the Ayyubid
dynasty, which ruled from 1171 to 1250. During his rule, he began to build a wall
surrounding Cairo, and he built the Citadel, which still stands today. Egypt became a
center for theological studies and experienced cultural growth and prosperity during this
dynasty.55, 56
Mamluk Expansion and Ottoman Rule (1250–1805)
For the next two centuries, Egypt was ruled by the
Mamluks (a militaristic group who had originally
been Turkish slaves), followed by the Turkish
Ottomans. Under the Mamluks‘ ruthless
leadership, Egypt conquered Syria and Palestine
and controlled the thriving Mediterranean trade in
partnership with Venice. In the 15th century,
however, the power of this partnership weakened.
Vasco da Gama‘s discovery of a sea route around
the Cape of Good Hope meant European
merchants could now bypass Cairo on their voyages. This development resulted in less
wealth for Egypt and a decline in commercial and political power.57 The Ottomans, a
53
Lonely Planet, Egypt (Footscray, Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2002).
Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, ―Chapter One: The Arab Conquest of Egypt,‖ in A History of Egypt: From
the Arab Conquest to the Present, 2nd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 1-30.
55
Doris Behrens-Abouseif, ―Chapter Six: Architecture of the Ayyubid Period,‖ in Islamic Architecture in
Cairo: An Introduction (New York: E.J. Brill, 1989), 78-93.
56
Carole Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (New York: Routledge, 2000).
57
Thomas Philipp and Ulrich Haarmann, eds., The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1998).
54
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Turkish dynasty that ruled throughout Egypt‘s decline between 1517 and 1805, filled the
void. The Ottoman rulers of Egypt sent revenues and taxes back to Constantinople, the
Turkish capital, leaving Egyptians impoverished. As the Ottoman Empire itself went into
decline, its hold over Egypt weakened. Ottoman rule was followed by a brief period of
French rule.58
The Dawn of Modern Egypt (1798–1882)
In 1798, Napoleon invaded Egypt, competing with developing British interests in the
country. His army fought to gain control of Cairo. Unfortunately for Napoleon, England‘s
Admiral Horatio Nelson sank the French fleet at Abu Qir. Because of an Anglo-Ottoman
alliance, the French were forced to retreat. Although their time in Egypt was short, the
French brought to Egypt an educational influence that divided the population and lasted
through two centuries of British colonialism. Many members of the Egyptian power elite
still consider it prestigious to acquire fluency in French as well as in English. Egypt‘s
judicial system today is also partly based on French law, the Napoleonic Code.59, 60
In 1805, Mohammed Ali Pasha, an opportunistic Ottoman officer considered the founder
of modern Egypt, stepped into the power vacuum that was left after the French. He
modernized Egypt and created an institutional state structure. His government built canals,
introduced public education, and reshaped the military after the French model. Ali also
introduced the lucrative cotton industry to Egypt. His heirs continued reforms, including
establishing a railway system and one of the world‘s first postal and telegraph systems. It
was also during this time of political expansion that tourists began discovering Egypt and
its ancient treasures.61
British Occupation (1882–1922)
Ali‘s most consequential project was planting
long-staple cotton and ordering farmers to
cultivate this valuable cash crop. Ali owned the
cotton and made a fortune by buying it from
farmers, marking up the price, and selling it to
manufacturers. Ali‘s introduction of cotton as a
mainstay of the economy had enormous long-term
repercussions for future trade and relations with
Great Britain and the United States.62
Many historians believe it was primarily Egypt‘s cotton industry that led to Great
Britain‘s eventual control of Egypt. Following the Industrial Revolution, Great Britain
58
Michael Winter, Egyptian Society under Ottoman Rule (New York: Routledge, 1992).
Terry Crowdy, French Soldier in Egypt 1798-1801: The Army of the Orient (Osceola, WI: Osprey
Publishing, 2003).
60
Niloofar Haeri, The Sociolinguistic Market of Cairo: Gender, Class and Education (New York: Kegan
Paul International, 1997).
61
Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1994).
62
Roger Owen, Cotton and the Egyptian Economy, 1820-1914: A Study in Trade and Development (Oxford:
Claredon Press, 1969).
59
© D L I F L C | 19
needed raw cotton to supply its markets with finished fabric. After America‘s decline in
the cotton market following the Civil War, Egypt‘s cotton industry boomed. Egypt
became Britain‘s main a supplier. The British could then spin the raw cotton and sell it
back to its colonies, including Egypt, as manufactured goods.63
Great Britain became more deeply invested in the Egyptian economy, giving Egyptian
business partners high-interest loans that the borrowers could not pay back. The
Egyptians needed money to develop the booming cotton industry and undertake
expensive modernization projects. Debt recovery accompanied by financial reform was
the convenient excuse the British gave for their occupation of Egypt in 1882. After the
outbreak of World War I in 1914, Egypt was declared independent of Turkey. The British
legitimized their presence in Egypt by claiming it a British Protectorate, thus
repossessing Egypt and turning it into a productive colony.64
The Suez Canal
The Suez Canal increased British vested interest in Egypt by
providing a strategic shipping channel. Built between 1859 and 1869
by a French-owned company that used Egyptian forced labor, the
canal turned out to be powerful politically. By linking the Red Sea to
the Mediterranean, the canal eliminated the need to circumnavigate
Africa. It gave Great Britain a direct shipping link to its colonies in
India and the Far East. After 1875, the Suez Canal came under British
financial control.65
By agreement, the canal was to remain open to marine traffic of all
nations in war or peace. However, such use has at times been denied.
In World War II, for instance, Great Britain controlled the canal and closed it to German
shipping, and Egypt later blocked its use to Israel for a few years. Because of its strategic
importance, the Suez Canal has also been subject to attacks. Both the Suez Crisis of 1956
and the Arab-Israeli War of 1967 closed the canal to shipping in the aftermath of war.
Throughout its history, the Suez Canal has indeed served the interests of other nations as
much as it has served those of Egypt.66
British Colonialism and Egyptian Nationalism
The British were committed to ensuring control over trade and the continued use of the
strategic Suez Canal. They ruled Egypt indirectly, using their tested policy of divide and
conquer. For instance, they allowed Mohammed Ali‘s heirs to remain on the throne and
63
Richard Bulliet, et al, The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History, Volume C: Since 1750, 5th ed.
(Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011), 688.
64
WWI pitted Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey against France, Britain, Russia, Italy, and Japan.
Egypt was nominally part of the Ottoman Empire at that time.
65
Zachary Karabell, Parting the Desert: The Creation of the Suez Canal (New York: Vintage Books, 2004).
66
David Tal, ―Chapter 9: The 1956 Sinai War: A Watershed in the History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict,‖ in
Reassessing Suez 1956: New Perspectives on the Crisis and Its Aftermath, ed. Simon C. Smith (Burlington,
VT: Ashgate, 2008), 133-148.
© D L I F L C | 20
used other local rulers and officials as intermediaries for British rule. This had the effect
of dividing and weakening the population by pitting their interests against each other.67
Indirect rule, however, could not hide British control of the legal
system, schools, army, and economy. Britain‘s rigid colonial
regime and its policies of control in every aspect of life planted
the seeds of a nationalist movement. The positive things
associated with British rule could not offset the people‘s desire to
control their own destiny. It is true that the British modernized
the country and instituted reforms such as abolishing Nile tolls,
which had a positive economic effect. The British expanded the
Egyptian infrastructure, built canals, railway and telegraph lines,
and improved the ports. Still, the economic benefits accrued
mainly to the British overlords and the Egyptian landowners
ruling in their name. The majority of Egyptians did not benefit
from British colonialism.68
A nationalist movement known as Pan-Arabism that originated in the late 19th and early
20th centuries gave impetus to rebellion against British rule. As literacy increased in the
Middle East, political views became more widely shared and discussed. The Arab world
began moving toward political unification and renewed interest in a caliphate form of
government.69 Pan-Arabism found expression in various nationalist groups, some radical
and some moderate. One example was the nationalist Wafd Party, whose leader, Saad
Zaghlul, was elected prime minister for a period of 10 months in 1924. His demands for
Egyptian independence led to his persecution by the British, and he is still considered a
national hero in Egypt today.70
Pan-Arabism and the Muslim Brotherhood
One of the Pan-Arabism offshoots was the fundamentalist Muslim
Brotherhood, which was formed in 1928. Its founder was Hasan alBanna, an elementary school teacher. Sayyid Qutb, later executed by
Egyptian President Nasser, created the group‘s philosophy. The
Brotherhood mixed religion with politics, charitable institutions, and
education, and promoted social cohesion around Islamic principles.
Its integrated social approach of providing avenues of assistance to
the common people made it popular, and the organization grew
quickly. In 1948, the official political arm of the Brotherhood was
legalized but limited strictly as a religious organization only.71
67
Efraim Karsh and Inari Karsh, Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, 17891923 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999).
68
Robert T. Harrison, Gladstone’s Imperialism in Egypt: Techniques of Domination (Westport, CT:
Greenwood Publishing, 1995).
69
The term caliphate refers to a theocratic ruler with spiritual and worldly authority.
70
Michael Doran, Pan-Arabism before Nasser: Egyptian Power Politics and the Palestine Question (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
71
Jon Armajani, ―Chapter 2: Egypt,‖ in Modern Islamist Movements: History, Religion, and Politics
(Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012), 37-84.
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After World War II, the nationalist Pan-Arabism movement found expression in other
groups, some of which still exist today. One example is the Arab League, whose
headquarters are in Cairo. The League was opposed to the creation of a Jewish state in
Palestine where Muslims were the majority, and when the state of Israel was created in
1948, League countries joined to attack it. Although the Israelis defeated the Arab forces,
the Gaza Strip came under Egyptian administration through a United Nations treaty. 72
Yet another sign of Egyptian nationalism was the pan-Arabist United Arab Republic
(UAR), a union of Egypt and Syria created in 1958, with Nasser as president. This new
unified government abolished Egyptian and Syrian citizenship and considered the
combined territory to be an Arab homeland. In 1961, Syria withdrew from the UAR.73, 74
Movement Toward Independence
Egypt‘s move toward independence is revealed by several events.
In 1922, after World War I, Egyptians achieved partial
independence as a parliamentary monarchy with a constitution.
Britain, however, had installed King Fu‘ad, a weak monarch
whom they were able to influence, to make sure he upheld
British interests. Britain also remained responsible for defense of
the Suez Canal. The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, signed in 1936,
required Britain to withdraw all troops from Egypt, yet allowed
for two additional decades of British control of this strategically
important waterway. In reaction to continued British occupation,
Egyptian officer Gamal Abdel Nasser formed the Free Officers
Movement within the army. They began plotting to overthrow
the pro-British government, now headed by King Fu‘ad‘s
successor, King Faruq.75, 76
On 26 January 1952, ―Black Saturday,‖ anti-British riots broke out in Cairo. Then, on 23
July 1952, in a drive to set a nationalist direction, Nasser and his army officers seized
power and deposed King Faruq in a bloodless coup. The officers appointed Mohammad
Naguib as the country‘s new leader. In June 1953, the monarchy and political parties
were abolished and Egypt was declared a republic, with Naguib as prime minister. Real
power, however, was in the hands of the Revolutionary Command Council, headed by
Nasser. When Naguib and Nasser diverged in their views on reform, Naguib was
removed from power and Nasser took over in 1954. A treaty with the British that year led
72
Oroub el-Abed, Unprotected: Palestinians in Egypt since 1948 (Washington, DC: Institute for
Palestinian Studies, 2009), 19.
73
Michael Scott Doran, ―The Heirs of Nasser: Who Will Benefit from the Second Arab Revolution?‖
Foreign Affairs 90, no. 3 (May/June 2011): 17-25, http://jftnewspaper.aub.edu.lb/reserve/data/s11251/s11251.pdf
74
James P. Jankowski, Nasser’s Egypt, Arab Nationalism, and the United Arab Republic (Boulder, CO:
Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002).
75
James P. Jankowski, Nasser’s Egypt, Arab Nationalism, and the United Arab Republic (Boulder, CO:
Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002), 14-25.
76
Cynthia Farahat, ―The Arab Upheaval: Egypt‘s Islamist Shadow,‖ Middle East Quarterly XVIII, no. 3
(Summer 2011): 19-24, http://www.meforum.org/2887/arab-upheaval-egypt-islamist
© D L I F L C | 22
to British withdrawal from the country. Finally, in January 1956, Nasser declared Egypt a
socialist state and himself as president. He also introduced a new constitution but retained
the one-party political system. Thus, the revolution Nasser had launched on pan-Arabist
grounds succeeded in its initial phase.77
The Nasser Presidency (1956–1970)
Nasser was a popular leader in Egypt and
throughout the Middle East. His support of Arab
nationalism and anti-colonial movements
endeared him to many. He supported Algerian and
sub-Saharan struggles for independence and
cofounded the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
Under his leadership, a new middle class emerged,
women gained more rights, corruption was
reduced, land reforms were made, and
industrialization was accelerated. Nasser ruled for
18 years, but his autocratic ways gained him some enemies within Egypt and his staunch
nationalism made him enemies in the West. Even in the beginning, in 1954, a member of
the Muslim Brotherhood tried to assassinate Nasser but failed. Six members of the
Brotherhood were put to death; 4,000 were arrested; and thousands escaped to Saudi
Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan.78 The West, fearing Egypt‘s influence in their
regional interests, increased support of Israel and found ways of checking Egypt‘s
power.79, 80
Nationalization of the Suez Canal
Nasser‘s relations with the West turned unexpectedly sour over his plans to finance a dam
that could control Nile floods and increase the generation of electrical power. Britain, the
United States, and the World Bank withdrew loans they had promised for the
construction of the dam because of Nasser‘s economic ties with the Soviet Union, which
threatened the Western bloc‘s regional control. Nasser then decided to nationalize the
Suez Canal to secure funds for the dam, which he did in 1956. By this act of standing up
to British imperial pressure, Nasser became the symbolic leader of Arab nationalism. The
Soviet Union and its allies also supported him. Britain and France, however, maneuvered
with Israel to attack Egypt and reestablish British control. Great Britain bombed and
77
Ahmed S. Hashim, ―The Egyptian Military, Part One: From the Ottomans through Sadat,‖ Middle East
Policy 18, no. 3 (Fall 2011): 63-78.
78
Federation of American Scientists (FAS), ―Muslim Brothers,‖ Intelligence Resource Program, 08
January 2002, http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/mb.htm
79
John Gelineau, ―Threat and Political Opportunity and the Development of the Egyptian Muslim
Brotherhood‖ (master‘s thesis, Global and International Studies, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS,
2011),
http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/bitstream/1808/7880/1/Gelineau_ku_0099M_11499_DATA_1.pdf
80
Nezar al Sayyad, Cairo: Histories of a City (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
2011), 235-236.
© D L I F L C | 23
destroyed the Egyptian Air Force, and British, French, and Israeli forces invaded the
Canal Zone and the Sinai Peninsula.81, 82
The United States opposed Soviet intervention. The Americans were also angered at not
being informed of the planned invasion. Thus, U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles
took Egypt‘s side at this critical moment. In response, England and France withdrew
troops, and Israel removed its troops from Sinai. The UN sent troops to restore peace, and
they remained in Egypt until 1967. Egypt reopened the Suez Canal after the war to all
ships except those of Israel, and Nasser nationalized remaining British and French assets
in Egypt.83
The Six-Day War (1967 War)
By the end of the 1960s, Israel was well armed
while Palestinians conducted guerrilla raids from
Gaza. In 1967, Israel responded to ongoing
hostility and in a surprise attack destroyed
Egypt‘s air force. Six days later, Israel had control
of the entire Sinai Peninsula. This defeat was
humiliating for Egypt and a blow to Arab
nationalism. The Suez Canal remained closed for
eight years, and Israel took over control of the
Gaza Strip (from Egypt), the Golan Heights (from
Syria), the West Bank (from Jordan), and East Jerusalem (also from Jordan).84
The Anwar Sadat Presidency (1970–1981)
Anwar Sadat, president after Nasser‘s death in 1970, promoted a
fundamental shift toward peace with Israel, believing it key to
Egypt‘s development. He saw that endless war with Israel would only
damage Egypt‘s economy, stability, and growth as a nation. He first
offered a concession based on a UN resolution that called for the
return to pre-1967 borders. Egypt would enter into a peace agreement
with Israel if Israel withdrew from Sinai and Gaza. This attempt to
reach a settlement, however, was rejected by both the United States
and Israel. After Egyptian forces attacked Israeli occupation forces in
the Sinai in 1973, Sadat began to negotiate for peace.85
81
Rose MacDermott, ―Chapter 6: The 1956 Suez Crisis,‖ in Risk-taking in International Politics: Prospect
Theory in American Foreign Policy (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998), 135-164,
http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/0472108670-06.pdf
82
Andr Beaufre, The Suez Expedition 1956 (New York: Praeger, 1969).
83
Laura M. James, ―Chapter 10: When Did Nasser Expect War? The Suez Nationalization and Its
Aftermath in Egypt,‖ in Reassessing Suez 1956: New Perspectives on the Crisis and Its Aftermath, ed.
Simon C. Smith (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2008), 149-178.
84
Richard B. Parker, ed., The Six-Day War: A Retrospective (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida,
1996).
85
Mary Ann Fay, ―Chapter 1: Historical Setting: October 1973 War,‖ in Egypt: A Country Study, ed. Helen
Chapin Metz (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1990),
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+eg0051%29
© D L I F L C | 24
In the 1979 Camp David accords promoted by the U.S. government and signed in
Washington, DC, Israel agreed to return the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt. In return, Egypt
recognized Israel‘s right to exist as a nation. This negotiation for a separate peace
agreement with Israel was seen by the Arab world as a betrayal because it weakened their
collective power to confront Israel. For this negotiation, along with the economic
hardship, government corruption, and high inflation that characterized his presidency,
Sadat paid with his life. On 6 October 1981, four soldiers, who were members of an
Islamist group, shot and killed Sadat.86, 87
The Mubarak Presidency (1981–2011)
Hosni Mubarak, a former air force commander, succeeded Sadat as
president and remained in office for 30 years. Under his leadership,
Egypt‘s peace with Israel was upheld, and at the same time, Mubarak
consolidated his status as a leader of the Arab world.88
Opposition to the Government
Egypt‘s relative calm during the first decade of Mubarak‘s rule was
followed by political turmoil. A population explosion in the 1980s led
to joblessness and worsening standards of living. In addition, the
government increasingly blocked any opposition to its policies.
Radical Islamists turned to force to change society. They made
frequent attempts to kill the president and members of his cabinet, and they began to
attack tourism, one of the major sources of revenue, to weaken the state. Several attacks
took place, the most well known being the killing of 58 tourists in Luxor in 1997. The
Mubarak regime reacted with repression and mass arrests, trying to stabilize the
country.89
The government reacted to internal pressures, cracking down on anti-Western and antigovernment Islamist elements. In doing so, the government curtailed democratic
freedoms. Bloggers who criticized the president or the government were arrested.90 Abdel
Kareem Soliman was sentenced to four years in prison in 2007 for insulting the president
and Islam and inciting sedition in a blog. He was the first person to stand trial in Egypt
86
William B. Quandt, ―Chapter Nine: Success,‖ in Camp David: Peacemaking and Politics (), 237-248.
Mark Jones and Peter Johnstone, History of Criminal Justice (Waltham, MA: Anderson Publishing,
2012).
88
Yaacov Bar-Siman-Tov, Israel and the Peace Process, 1977-1982: In Search of Legitimacy for Peace
(Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1994), 218.
89
Gerrie Swart, Hussein Solomon, and Anneli Botha, ―Egypt: Pharaohs and Fundamentalists?‖ (paper,
Centre for International Political Studies, University of Pretoria, 21 February 2007),
http://www.cips.up.ac.za/files/pdf/uafspublications/Egypt%2520Pharaohs%2520and%2520Fundamentalist
s.pdf
90
―Egypt Arrests Another Blog Critic,‖ BBC News, 20 November 2006,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6164798.stm
87
© D L I F L C | 25
for expressing his views online, an early sign of the importance that online social media
would later play in expressing anti-government sentiment.91
Reform
In response to ongoing demands for political reform, the
government changed its constitution in 2005 to allow more
activity by opposition parties. This plan to liberalize backfired,
however, and resulted in substantial electoral gains for the
Muslim Brotherhood. Although the Mubarak regime maintained
a ban on religious parties because they could deepen sectarian
divisions, members of the Brotherhood avoided this restriction
by running as independents. They won a record number of seats
in the 2005 election. The fact that President Mubarak‘s National
Democratic Party won over 88% of seats did not lessen
observers‘ shock over the Brotherhood‘s electoral gains.92, 93
President Mubarak won his fifth consecutive term in 2005, but
there was growing concern over the increasing power of the
Muslim Brotherhood. On 15 February 2007, security forces arrested several of its
members on various charges, including possession of anti-government literature,
belonging to an illegal group, terrorism, and money laundering. The Brotherhood
responded to threats of being excluded from the political process by announcing its plans
to register as a legal political party.94, 95
In 2007, the Egyptian Parliament approved changes to the constitution, and on 27 March
2007, controversial amendments were voted on and approved. The constitution as
amended strengthened police powers and removed judicial supervision of elections. It
also prohibited all political activity based on religion, which barred the Muslim
Brotherhood from its intended legal status as a political party.96
91
Heba Saleh, ―Egypt Bloggers Fear State Curbs,‖ BBC News, 22 February 2007,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6386613.stm
92
―Egypt Profile: Timeline,‖ BBC News, 22 January 2007,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/790978.stm
93
Yoram Meital, ―The Struggle over Political Order in Egypt: the 2005 Elections,‖ The Middle East
Journal 60, no. 2 (Spring 2006): 257-279.
94
―Egypt Cracks Down on Muslim Group,‖ CNN, 15 February 2007, http://articles.cnn.com/2007-0215/world/egypt.arrests_1_muslim-brotherhood-egypt-cracks-muslim-group?_s=PM:WORLD
95
―Egyptian Police Arrest 73 Muslim Brotherhood Members,‖ The Guardian (UK), 15 February 2007,
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/feb/15/egypt
96
Ashraf Khalil, ―Few Egyptians Vote on Amendments,‖ Los Angeles Times, 27 March 20007,
http://articles.latimes.com/2007/mar/27/world/fg-referendum27
© D L I F L C | 26
Recent Events
Inspired by the popular uprising that ousted
former President Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali in
Tunisia on 14 January 2011, Egyptians began
their own mass movement against unemployment,
poverty, and corruption. Egyptians shared many
of the same concerns as Tunisians. Ben Ali and
Mubarak were both military men turned autocratic
leaders who led repressive regimes for decades.
The protests in Egypt, orchestrated partly through social media, were much larger and
longer lasting than those seen in Tunisia. On 25 January, hundreds of thousands of
protesters gathered in Tahrir Square in Cairo and across the nation in a ―day of rage.‖ For
18 days, they protested, calling for the resignation of Mubarak and his National
Democratic Party. Defying government curfews, hundreds were arrested and in the end,
over 800 people died. Mubarak, trying to appease the masses, dismissed his cabinet,
appointed a vice president, and promised to step down at the end of his term in
September. However, demonstrators demanded his immediate resignation even as they
clashed with Mubarak supporters on the streets. The Muslim Brotherhood and Mohamed
El Baradei (former director of International Atomic Energy Agency) joined the protests.
When Mubarak resigned on 11 February, he transferred power to the army.
The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces suspended the constitution and dissolved the
assembly. The military government also drafted constitutional amendments on which
Egyptians voted in a referendum on 19 March. The referendum revealed that Egyptians
approved the reforms that would pave the way for parliamentary elections, followed by a
presidential poll. The constitutional reforms include limiting presidential terms to two
four-year terms, requiring the president to select a deputy within 30 days of his election,
and specifying new qualifications for the presidency.97
In the meantime, Mubarak and his two sons, Gamal and Alaa, were detained and charged
with corruption and premeditated murder. A series of trials against the defendants began
in late May 2011, and an early verdict found the former President guilty of damaging the
country‘s economy, fining him USD 33.6 million.98 Other trials continue at the time of
this writing.
97
BBC News, ―Egypt Referendum Strongly Backs Constitutional Changes,‖ 20 March 2011,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12801125
98
Molly Hennessy-Fiske and Amro Hassan, ―Mubarak, Other Former Egypt Officials Fined $91 Million
for Blocking Cellphones, Internet,‖ Los Angeles Times, 29 May 2011,
http://articles.latimes.com/2011/may/29/world/la-fg-egypt-mubarak-fines-20110529
© D L I F L C | 27
Chapter 2 Assessment
1. Alexander the Great drove the Persian rulers out of Egypt.
True
In 332 B.C.E., Alexander the Great was seen by Egyptians as a liberator and was
crowned pharaoh after he drove the Persians from Egypt.
2. Islam was introduced to Egypt in 642 C.E.
True
An Arab army invaded Egypt in 642 and brought a new religion, Islam. The Sunni
branch of Islam gradually replaced Egypt‘s traditional polytheism.
3. The ability to travel through the Suez Canal eliminated the need for ships to
circumnavigate Africa.
True
Opened in 1869, the Suez Canal linked the Red Sea to the Mediterranean,
eliminating the need to circumnavigate Africa.
4. Egypt‘s president Gamal Abdel Nasser supported British control of his country.
False
President Nasser successfully led the effort to overthrow British rule. Egypt
gained independence and was declared a republic in 1953.
5. The mass protests against the regime of President Hosni Mubarak in January 2011
were orchestrated by the Muslim Brotherhood.
False
The demonstrations that led to the resignation of Hosni Mubarak were
orchestrated by the Egyptian people.
© D L I F L C | 28
Chapter 3 Economy
Introduction
Historically, the Egyptian economy has been based on
agriculture, mainly cotton. Agricultural production,
however, has been limited by the small amount of arable
land in Egypt (less than 3% of the total area) and has not
kept pace with the growing population. In addition,
peasants‘ lives and their land traditionally have been
controlled by powerful commercial families of the ruling
class. Attempted land reform has failed to redress this
imbalance, and most peasants remain landless and poor. Although industrialization in
Egypt began in the 19th century, the economy remained dependent on agriculture until
the mid-20th century. At that time, hydrocarbon products began to play a larger role.
In recent years, Egypt‘s economy has become decentralized and market-oriented and
foreign investment has increased. With increasing revenues from natural gas and foreign
investment, Egypt‘s real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grew about 7% between 2005
and 2008. The global financial crisis in 2008, however, negatively affected Egypt in
many ways. Unemployment, inflation, and the level of poverty increased, capital inflows
declined, and the trade deficit grew. Egypt‘s stimulus package, including increased
spending on social benefits and subsidies, helped the economy recover. Egypt‘s GDP
grew 5.3% in fiscal year (FY) 2010. GDP grew 4.7% in FY 2009.99 Still, economic
recovery has been offset by increased food and fuel prices and the global recession. The
political upheaval of 2011 will continue to sap an already weak economy.
Egypt‘s economy today is hampered by government intervention, state-run industries, a
bloated public sector, and substantial subsidies. Egypt‘s resources are insufficient to
provide jobs and food for a growing population. For many, the standard of living remains
low. The country‘s main sources of hard currency are tourism, gas and oil exports,
remittances from Egyptian workers abroad, foreign aid, and Suez Canal tolls—almost all
of which are vulnerable to outside shocks and/or controlled by the government.
Standard of Living
Egypt‘s high birthrate has strained the country‘s economy, resources,
and social services. Although economic reforms have been in effect
for two decades, Egypt remains plagued by low standards of living
and poverty related to its ever-increasing population. The sluggish
economy that emerged after the mid-1980s has not yet achieved the
growth needed to reduce unemployment. The International Monetary
Fund estimates that the unemployment rate in past two decades has
99
The World Bank, ―Egypt: Country Brief,‖ March 2011, http://go.worldbank.org/VCSFSEB5H0
© D L I F L C | 29
remained around 12%.100 Although GDP grew an average of 7% per year from FY 2006
to 2008, 18% of the urban and 40% of the rural population live below the poverty line.101
The government has continued to subsidize food and fuel, but many see subsidies as
ineffective. A World Bank report in 2010 indicated that 45% of total subsidies go to the
richest 60% in Egypt.102 Fuel subsidies help the rich more than the poor. Poor people in
rural areas do not necessarily get food they are entitled to because they live beyond
administrative reach.103 Leakage and theft also make subsidies inefficient.104 Subsidies
amount to three times the budget for education, which is also seeing a decline.
People have migrated from rural areas to the cities, seeking jobs and higher wages.
However, the cities cannot absorb all these people. In large cities such as Cairo, squatters
live in mud huts, the demolished remains of buildings, and even in cemeteries. Public
transportation and public services such as trash pickup, water, and sewage systems are
inadequate. The majority of Egypt‘s poor live in rural areas, mostly in Upper Egypt. The
economy in rural Egypt is based on agriculture, and poverty is extreme because of the
limited availability of agricultural land. Most of the rural poor do, however, have access
to adequate sanitation and safe water.105
Agriculture
Agriculture constitutes 13.5% of GDP but employs 32%
of the labor force.106 Serious problems affect agriculture
in Egypt. Egypt‘s permanent arable land is limited to the
Nile Valley and Delta.107 Although the region is highly
fertile and cropped more than once a year, farming land
in this area is being lost to soil salinity, erosion, and
urbanization. The amount of land available for
cultivation is shrinking and land quality is declining.
Food output is not meeting the needs of the population,
and food shortages are increasing. Since the mid-1980s,
the country has had to import 40% of its food and 60%
100
Yasser Abdih, ―Closing the Jobs Gap,‖ International Monetary Fund, June 2011,
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/06/abdih.htm
101
The World Bank, ―Egypt: Country Brief,‖ March 2011, http://go.worldbank.org/VCSFSEB5H0
102
Mohamed Abdel Salam, ―World Bank: Nearly Half of Egypt Subsidies Go to Wealthiest,‖ Bikya Masr,
17 October 2010, http://bikyamasr.com/18766/world-bank-nearly-half-of-egypt-subsidies-go-to-wealthiest/
103
The Economist, ―Egypt‘s Economy: Light, Dark and Muddle,‖ 23 June 2011,
http://www.economist.com/node/18864693?story_id=18864693&fsrc=rss
104
The Economist, ―Egypt‘s Economy: Light, Dark and Muddle,‖ 23 June 2011,
http://www.economist.com/node/18864693?story_id=18864693&fsrc=rss
105
World Health Organization, ―Egypt: Health Profile,‖ 4 April 2011,
http://www.who.int/gho/countries/egy.pdf
106
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Egypt: Economy,‖ in The World Factbook, 5 July 2011,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html
107
The other major irrigated agricultural production area is Fayoum Oasis in the Western Desert.
© D L I F L C | 30
of its wheat, much of which comes from the United States, its largest supplier.108, 109
Most agricultural production in Egypt is done on a commercial rather than subsistence
level. Traditional farms are about one acre and canal-irrigated along the Nile River.110
Cooperatives help farmers by distributing fertilizer, seed, and farm implements. To boost
production, agriculture (with the exception of cotton and sugar production) has been
privatized and deregulated to increase efficiency. Privatization is seen by the government
as a way to encourage competition and innovation, and improve products and services.
To privatize the agricultural sector, pricing controls, the crop quota structure, and
government control of crop rotation were removed. Today, field crops such as cotton,
wheat, corn, rice, broad beans, and millet make up about three-fourths of the total
agricultural production. The remainder comes from fruits, vegetables, and livestock
products.
Land Reform
Because arable land is so scarce, land prices are high and the government has attempted
land redistribution. President Nasser was considered a hero to the peasant class when he
instituted land reform in 1952 to correct an imbalance in land ownership. Before Nasser‘s
reforms, 70% of all arable land was owned by 1% of the population.111 Nasser‘s reforms
limited the amount of acreage large landowners could own and compensated them for
land seized by the government. Seized land was then redistributed in small plots to
peasants. In exchange for the land, peasants were required to join agricultural
cooperatives where they could obtain credit, fertilizer, and seed. Although this reform
shifted political power from wealthy landowners into the hands of many enterprising
villagers, most of the rural population remained landless. Furthermore, population
increases continued to erode any gains made through land distribution.
Cotton
After the Civil War curtailed U.S. production of cotton,
European cotton mills used large amounts of raw cotton
from Egypt. Thus began a process that would make the
economy dependent on a single crop and the country a
colony. The cotton industry introduced a system of credit
to Egypt as demand grew and borrowing intensified to
expand the industry. Such borrowing at high interest rates
left Egypt vulnerable and beholden to European banks.
108
Joe Weisenthal, ―Egypt‘s Food Problem in a Nutshell,‖ Business Insider, 31 January 2011,
http://www.businessinsider.com/egypts-food-problem-in-a-nutshell-2011-1
109
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Background Note: Egypt,‖ 10 November
2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm#econ
110
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Background Note: Egypt,‖ 10 November
2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm#econ
111
Peter N. Stearns, ed., The Encyclopedia of World History, Sixth Edition (New York: Houghton-Mifflin,
2001), 988, http://www.nmhschool.org/tthornton/land_reform_under_nasser.php
© D L I F L C | 31
Until the mid-2000s, cotton was a major Egyptian export. 112 In the last decade, the
Egyptian government promoted the decentralization of the industry and privatized many
public sector gins and weaving mills, which has resulted in greater competition. Cotton
prices have been brought into line with world market prices. However, lower cotton
prices have forced farmers to switch to other crops such as corn, wheat, and vegetables,
particularly after the global downturn when cotton production fell worldwide.113 By 2009,
cotton exports had fallen by 15%. The Egyptian Ministry of Trade and Industry
recognizes that the Egyptian cotton industry faces stiff competition from Asia and the
United States and is working on revitalizing this sector.114
Industry
Before the 1930s, there was little industrialization in
Egypt because of the tariff restrictions imposed by Great
Britain. After that, local investors working with bankers,
landowners, and foreign investors with capital began
branching out, investing in textiles, building materials,
and food processing. In addition, the government added
tariffs on imported goods and extended loans to
entrepreneurs, thus encouraging Egyptian manufacturing.
The post-coup Nasser state of the 1950s, however, failed to provide incentives for
investors to develop industry and investments were restricted to those in top state
leadership positions.
After 1952, the industrial base in Egypt expanded with the development of the petroleum,
construction, and service sectors. Growth was slow because of the heavily centralized
economy. Government access remained privileged, and there were shortages of
investment capital. These conditions persisted for decades; industry developed unevenly
until the government privatized some state-owned businesses. Heavy industry, however,
is still owned by the government and controlled by the public sector, which is constrained
by debt.115 Egypt‘s growth rate for industrial production for 2010 (est.) was 5.5%.116
Egypt‘s major industries, in addition to hydrocarbons, include textiles, tourism, chemicals,
pharmaceuticals, food processing, and construction. Most of the manufacturing takes
112
The Saudi Gazette, ―Egypt‘s ‗White Gold‘ Cotton Losing Its Luster,‖ n.d.,
http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentID=2009100550658
113
Alex Dziadosz, ―Egyptian Cotton Production Falls, Sparking Protectionist Calls,‖ Daily News Egypt, 9
March 2009, http://www.thedailynewsegypt.com/egyptian-cotton-production-falls-sparking-protectionistcalls.html
114
Ministry of Industry and Foreign Trade, Cotton Arbitration and Testing General Organization,
―Egyptian Cotton Towards a Better Future,‖ n.d., http://www.egyptcottoncatgo.org/menu/egyptian%20cotton.html
115
Global Security.org, ―Egypt: Economy,‖ 9 July 2011,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/egypt/economy.htm
116
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Country Comparison to the World: Industrial Production Growth Rate
(%),‖ in The World Factbook, 11 July 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/fields/2089.html
© D L I F L C | 32
place in Cairo, Alexandria, Port Said, and Suez. Industry constitutes 38% of GDP and
17% of the labor force.117
Services
Services, including banking, tourism, and government services, account for close to 50%
of GDP and the labor force.118 The government itself is one of the largest employers in
the country. In fact, when compared with the private sector, the public sector is
significantly overstaffed.119 Construction projects, in particular, receive the most
government spending and are a major source of employment. Banking and tourism
sectors have undergone privatization.
Banking
After the Suez Canal was nationalized in 1956, foreign
banks refused to provide financing for Egypt‘s cotton
production. This led to the nationalization of Egypt‘s
financial institutions into four large banks: the National
Bank of Egypt, the Bank of Cairo, the Bank of
Alexandria, and the Bank Misr. Private and foreign
banks were allowed to operate again in 1974. Gains did
not materialize, however, and during the 1970s and
1980s, public savings dropped because of the growth of
foreign debt, the high cost of subsidies, and military
expenditures. This period also witnessed banking
corruption, embezzlement, and currency smuggling.
In 2004 the government began systematic reform and privatization policies.120 The results
have been mixed. However, some improvements have taken place. Acquisitions and
mergers are easier and competition is enhanced by the elimination of the previous
distinction between business, commercial, and specialized banks.121 In 2002, the AntiMoney Laundering Law was passed to prohibit illegal financial practices related to
terrorism, narcotics, kidnapping, and arms trafficking. Banking liberalization has led to
greater competition in that the ―initial privatization of large banks has removed some of
the extensive ownership links between banks—one likely cause of uncompetitive
117
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Egypt: Economy,‖ in The World Factbook, 5 July 2011,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html
118
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Egypt: Economy,‖ in The World Factbook, 5 July 2011,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html
119
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, ―2011 Investment Climate Statements: Egypt,‖
March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157271.htm
120
Many investors opposed privatizing banks because they feared economic instability could result from
lack of transparency and unstable regulations. They also believed the public sector‘s strong dominance
could lead to undue influence over markets. Supporters of privatization believed it would lead to better and
more transparent management from decision makers who would not be tied to past practices. Supporters
also believed that privatization would have the positive effect of involving the private sector in economic
reform policies without a hidden agenda.
121
American Chamber of Commerce in Egypt, Banking Sector Developments in Egypt, July 2005,
http://www.amcham.org.eg/BSAC/StudiesSeries/Report47.asp
© D L I F L C | 33
banking.‖122 Benefits of reform that have begun to appear include capital flows into the
economy, inflation control, and increased stock market activity. Also, the country has
experienced an increase in retail banking and e-banking.
Today, Egypt has Islamic banks, international banks, capital markets, a national
investment bank, and a stock exchange that is becoming a major source of financing. The
Bank of Alexandria (now called AlexBank) is now fully privatized and the remaining
three state banks control 40% of all financial assets.123 Despite high inflation (16%) and
the recent global financial crisis, modernization of the financial sector continues to
progress.124
Tourism
Tourism is one of Egypt‘s top sources of revenue. It
contributes significantly to GDP as well as the job market.
In recent years, the number of visitors and the amount of
money they spend have increased. In FY 2010, for
example, Egypt had 14 million visitors, bringing USD
11.5 billion in revenues.125 The Ministry of Tourism
seeks to expand the sector and attract more foreign
investment. New investment laws now allow foreign
property ownership in certain tourist areas such as Hurghada (a Red Sea beach resort),
Sidi Abdel-Rahman and Ras Al-Hekma (Mediterranean beach resorts), and in the
Matrouh Governorate (along the Mediterranean Sea).126
In a volatile region like the Middle East, however, tourism can be a risky business. After
the attack on tourists in Luxor in 1997, and the attacks on the United States on 11
September 2001, the tourism industry suffered a decline. Tourism also dropped in 2004
and 2005, after terrorist attacks on Sinai Peninsula resorts. By 2007, tourism had
recovered and was close to pre-September 2001 levels.127 The mass uprising in the spring
of 2011 again dampened tourism and created a downturn of 35% from the previous
year.128
122
Tosson Nabil Deabes, ―Competition and Privatization of the Egyptian Banking,‖ Social Science
Research Network, January 2006, http://papers.ssrn.com/so13/papers.cfm?abstract_id=970017
123
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―2011 Investment
Climate Statement: Egypt,‖ March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157271.htm
124
The Heritage Foundation, ―2011 Index of Economic Freedom: Egypt,‖ 2011,
http://www.heritage.org/index/country/egypt
125
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―2011 Investment
Climate Statement: Egypt,‖ March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157271.htm
126
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, ―2011 Investment Climate Statement: Egypt,‖
March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157271.htm
127
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Background Note: Egypt,‖ 10 November
2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm#econ
128
Molly Hennessy-Fiske, ―On Egyptian Tour Guides‘ Itinerary Today? Nothing,‖ Los Angeles Times, 7
June 2011, http://articles.latimes.com/2011/jun/07/world/la-fg-egypt-tourism-20110608
© D L I F L C | 34
Trade
Egypt has tended to have a trade deficit since World War
II. During the early and mid-1960s, the deficit was
particularly high because of development expenditures.
The deficit was also high during the early to mid-1980s
when petroleum exports declined and food imports
increased. The trade deficit is offset in part by tourism
and other foreign exchange revenues, remittances from
abroad, and foreign aid.129 The government has taken
steps to open Egypt to international markets, but a number of nontariff barriers, including
import bans and restrictions and government bureaucracy, add to trade costs.130 In the
past few years, the global downturn further reduced GDP, which plummeted from an
estimated 7.2% in 2008 to 4.7% in 2009. GDP grew in 2010 to an estimated 5.1% but
lessened in 2011 because of the political crisis.131
In 2009, Egypt exported goods worth USD 23.06 billion.132 Roughly 40% of those
earnings came from the export of petroleum products.133 Other export commodities
include cotton, chemicals, textiles, metal products, and processed food. Egypt‘s largest
export partners in 2009 were the European Union (35.4%), India (6.3%), the United
States (4.9%), Saudi Arabia (4.8%), and Japan (3.3%). Egypt traded an additional USD
21.3 billion in commercial services, related mainly related to travel.
Egypt imported commodities worth USD 44.94 billion in 2009, including machinery and
equipment, wood products, foodstuffs, and fuels.134 Major suppliers in 2009 were the
European Union (27.1%), the United States (10.8%), China (8.4%), Saudi Arabia (5.9%),
and the Russian Federation (4.3%). Commercial services imports stood at USD 12.77
billion.
Energy
Energy, including crude oil, petroleum products, and
natural gas, has played an important role in Egypt‘s
economy. Although net exports of petroleum products
have declined since the peak in 1996 of 935,000 barrels
per day (bbl/d), oil and gas still account for 12% of
129
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Egypt: Economy,‖ 2010,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/180382/Egypt
130
The Heritage Foundation, ―2011 Index of Economic Freedom: Egypt,‖ 2011,
http://www.heritage.org/index/country/egypt
131
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Egypt: Economy,‖ in The World Factbook, 5 July 2011,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html
132
World Trade Organization, ―Egypt: Country Profile,‖ March 2011,
http://stat.wto.org/CountryProfile/WSDBCountryPFView.aspx?Language=E&Country=EG
133
International Trade Centre, ―Trade Performance HS: Exports of Egypt (2009, in USD Thousands,‖ n.d.,
http://legacy.intracen.org/appli1/TradeCom/TP_EP_CI.aspx?RP=818&YR=2009
134
World Trade Organization, ―Egypt: Country Profile,‖ March 2011,
http://stat.wto.org/CountryProfile/WSDBCountryPFView.aspx?Language=E&Country=EG
© D L I F L C | 35
GDP.135, 136 In addition, revenues from the Suez Canal and Sumed Pipeline and rising
prices on world markets pushed oil revenues upward. In January 2005, Egypt also began
to export liquefied natural gas, which has added to its revenue from hydrocarbons.
Most of Egypt‘s oil is produced in the Gulf of Suez and the Nile Delta, but the Western
Desert, the Eastern Desert, and the Mediterranean Sea also have oil fields. Together,
Egypt‘s proven reserves stand at 4.4 billion barrels. In 2009, Egypt produced 678.30
bbl/d of oil and consumed approximately 716.00 bbl/d, which created a deficit of 37.70
bbl/d.137 Thus, Egypt must import oil to meet growing domestic demand. Nevertheless,
Egypt exported 145,000 bbl/d of crude oil in 2010, mainly to India, Italy, and the United
States.
Although oil production in Egypt has declined, natural gas production has increased
because of major new discoveries. Production increased four-fold between 1998 and
2009; reserves are currently estimated to be 77 trillion cubic feet (Tcf). The increase in
production and recent higher estimates of reserves (Egypt could have 40–50 Tcf in
additional reserves) may make natural gas the biggest driver of growth in the energy
sector.138 Most of the reserves and production are in the Mediterranean and Nile Delta.
Although natural gas production associated with oil has decreased, there is continued
exploration and production in all areas rich in hydrocarbon. In 2009, natural gas exports
totaled 6.4 billion cubic feet (Bcf), mostly in the form of liquefied natural gas; the
remainder was exported through pipelines.139
Transportation
Not all modes of travel in Egypt are safe or
reliable. State-owned Egypt Air provides both
domestic and international service. Although the
carrier is expanding its fleet and routes to become
a major regional transportation hub, flights are
often delayed and overbooked.140 Other charter
airlines offer domestic air service. Egypt has
5,500 km (3,400 mi) of railway.141 The main line
includes Alexandria, Aswan, and the Suez Canal.
The intercity road network is well maintained and
135
U.S. Energy Information Administration, ―Egypt: Analysis,‖ February 2011,
http://www.eia.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=EG
136
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Background Note: Egypt,‖ 10 November
2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm#econ
137
U.S. Energy Information Administration, ―Egypt: Overview/Data,‖ 14 July 2010,
http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=EG
138
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Background Note: Egypt,‖ 10 November
2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm#econ
139
U.S. Energy Information Administration, ―Egypt: Overview/Data,‖ 14 July 2010,
http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=EG
140
Jailan Zaylan, ―Travel, Health, and Safety,‖ in Culture Smart! Egypt: The Essential Guide to Customs &
Culture (London: Kuperard, 2010), 134.
141
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Background Note: Egypt,‖ 10 November
2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm#econ
© D L I F L C | 36
covers 47,500 km (29,515 mi), including the Nile River and Delta areas, the Sinai, the
Western oases, and the Mediterranean and the Red seacoasts. The Nile River system and
its canals are used for local transportation. The Suez Canal, linking the Mediterranean
and the Red seas, is an important domestic and international waterway used for
commerce and navigation. Egypt‘s major ports are in Alexandria, Port Said, Ain El
Sukhna, Suez, and Safraga.
Driving in Egypt can be stressful. Although Egyptians generally observe speed limits,
drivers do not always follow traffic rules.142 In fact, Egypt has one of the world‘s highest
road fatality rates per mile. Furthermore, rural roads are not well maintained and are often
unmarked. Working-class Egyptians and students mostly take public transportation,
which is reliable and inexpensive. Cairo and Alexandria have tram networks; Cairo also
has a metro. Public minibuses and microbuses are not safe, but taxis are both convenient
and inexpensive. 143, 144
Investment
Despite its socialist economy, Egypt has made
significant progress in attracting investment. In
1952, 76% of investment in Egypt occurred
within the private sector. Throughout the next few
decades, however, the government accounted for
80–90% of total investments; all but small-scale
agriculture and businesses were owned by the
state.145 In 1973, a new policy began when Sadat
tried to stimulate economic growth by
encouraging limited private investment. But the
state monopoly over imports, exports, and pricing continued until 1976 when the private
sector gained the right to trade in most goods. (Cotton remained an exception to this
policy.) This shift led to limited economic growth. However, bureaucratic regulations
continued to block business development, and foreign investment remained small.
During the 1990s, the Egyptian government began encouraging foreign investment.
Between fiscal years 2004 and 2008, it privatized 316 companies and 59 joint-venture
companies.146 The establishment of the Qualifying Industrial Zones (QIZ) program in
142
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Egypt: Country Specific Information,‖ 31
January 2011, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1108.html
143
Jailan Zaylan, ―Travel, Health, and Safety,‖ in Culture Smart! Egypt: The Essential Guide to Customs &
Culture (London: Kuperard, 2010), 134.
144
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Egypt: Country Specific Information,‖ 31
January 2011, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1108.html
145
Privatization Coordination Support Unit (PCSU), Carana Corporation under the USAID Coordinating
and Monitoring Services Project, Special Study, ―The Results and Impacts of Egypt‘s Privatization
Program,‖ August 2002,
http://www.aucegypt.edu/src/wsite1/Pdfs/Results%20and%20Impacts%20of%20Privatization%20in%20Eg
ypt.pdf
146
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―2011 Investment
Climate Statement: Egypt,‖ March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157271.htm
© D L I F L C | 37
2004 led to a larger export market and increased investment.147 The program was based
on a free trade agreement with the United States and Israel in which the United States
waives import duties on Egyptian products containing 10.5% Israeli components. In
addition, export-oriented companies can now operate in public and private free zones
using foreign currency. These companies ―are exempted from customs duties, sales taxes
or taxes and fees on capital assets and intermediate goods.‖148
Nevertheless, Egypt‘s economic dependence on imports continues, compounded by both
external and internal shocks. With the global financial crises, exports declined and
foreign direct investment in the country was reduced by 39%.149 During the 2011 political
crisis, revenues dropped again. To help the economy, the United Arab Emirates, along
with other Arab nations and the United States, announced an aid package worth USD 3
billion.150, 151 The United States is the leading foreign direct investor in Egypt and has
provided over USD 50 billion in aid since the mid 1970s.152, 153
Outlook
The full economic and social impact of the spring
2011 revolution that led to the resignation of
president Hosni Mubarak remains to be seen. As
of July 2011, Egypt‘s economic future continues
to weaken; the protests that began in January are
ongoing. The Egyptian cabinet approved the
budget for FY 2011–12 in June, in line with
protester demands for more social spending. The
international community and the International
Monetary Fund have pledged USD 20 billion in
aid for economic recovery. This will allow Egypt to allocate more resources for social
services and cut some of the trade deficit.154 Institutional reforms are necessary for
147
Madeleine Wells, ― ‗Trade for Peace with Israel‘ Falls Short,‖ The Century Foundation, 28 March 2007,
http://www.bilaterals.org/spip.php?article7679
148
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―2011 Investment
Climate Statement: Egypt,‖ March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157271.htm
149
The World Bank, ―Egypt: Country Brief,‖ March 2011, http://go.worldbank.org/VCSFSEB5H0
150
Reuters Africa, ―UAE Offers $3 Bln Aid Package to Egypt: WAM,‖ 5 July 2011,
http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE76401Y20110705
151
Bloomberg, ―Arab States‘ Aid to Egypt Seen as Effort to Block Iran Influence,‖ 5 July 2011,
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-07-05/arab-states-aid-to-egypt-seen-as-effort-to-block-iraninfluence.html
152
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―2011 Investment
Climate Statements: Egypt,‖ March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157271.htm
153
Sarah Lynch, ―Egypt‘s Budding Entrepreneurs Get Boost from US,‖ Christian Science Monitor, 27 June
2011, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2011/0627/Egypt-s-budding-entrepreneurs-get-boostfrom-US
154
Sarah El Deeb, ―Egypt Approves $83 Billion Budget with Increased Social Spending to Meet Popular
Demands,‖ Yahoo News Canada, 22 June 2011, http://ca.finance.yahoo.com/news/Egypt-approves-83billion-capress-420619584.html?x=0
© D L I F L C | 38
sustained, long-term economic growth and development. Reforms include reducing
corruption, protecting property rights, and improving the judicial system.155
155
The Heritage Foundation, ―2011 Index of Economic Freedom: Egypt,‖ 2011,
http://www.heritage.org/index/country/egypt
© D L I F L C | 39
Chapter 3 Assessment
1. For a long time, soybeans were Egypt‘s most important agricultural product.
False
Until the mid-2000s, cotton was the mainstay of Egypt‘s agriculture and a major
export.
2. A land reform program was undertaken in Egypt in the mid-20th century.
True
Before President Nasser‘s land reforms in 1952, 70% of arable land was owned
by 1% of the population. Under Nasser‘s reforms, seized land was redistributed to
peasants. Even so, the majority of the rural population remained landless.
3. After the Suez Canal was nationalized, foreign banks financed Egypt‘s cotton
crops.
False
Foreign banks refused to finance Egypt‘s cotton production, which led to the
nationalization of Egypt‘s financial institutions into four large banks.
4. In the near future, natural gas is expected to be the main source of growth within
Egypt‘s energy sector.
True
An increase in production and the recent higher estimates of reserves may make
natural gas the biggest driver of growth in the energy sector. Egypt could have
40–50 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) in additional reserves, on top of its estimated 77
Tcf in current reserves.
5. Egypt‘s economy has fully recovered from the global financial crisis of 2008.
False
Egypt‘s economic gains following the implementation of its stimulus package
have been offset by increased food and fuel prices, the continued global recession,
and the political turmoil of 2011.
© D L I F L C | 40
Chapter 4 Society
Introduction
While demographic data typically depicts the Egyptian population as
a homogenous community of Arabic-speaking ―Egyptians,‖ this
belies deeper distinctions within Egyptian heritages. Many Egyptians
trace their lineage to Arab settlers who poured into the region in the
wake of the Islamic conquest of Egypt in 642 C.E. Another segment
of the modern Egyptian population is of mixed heritage, descended
from the same Arab settlers but also from the peoples who populated
the region prior to the Arab conquest. The various peoples of the
Mediterranean and the European colonialists also added their DNA to
the hybridity of Egyptian identity. Other Egyptians are descended
from Nubians, a people who have a long history associated with
Egypt and Sudan. In the Western Desert, a very small population of Berbers, an
indigenous North African people, ekes out a meager existence. In the Sinai Peninsula and
along the Red Sea coast, the Bedouin nomads continue to follow a their traditional
lifestyle.156, 157, 158
Egypt‘s official language is Arabic and over 99% of all Egyptians speak an Arabic
dialect.159 Literary Arabic, known as Modern Standard Arabic, is used for writing. A
vernacular form of Arabic, called Egyptian Arabic dialect, is commonly spoken. The
educated classes are well versed in English and French. The Nubians are the largest of the
country‘s minority ethnic groups. Additionally, the Dom, Egyptian gypsies, are
descended from wandering South Asian immigrants.
Ethnic Groups and Languages
“Egyptians”
Egyptians, a catchall demographic category for those of Arab and mixed Arab descent,
comprise over 99% of the country‘s population. The central elements binding these
peoples together are the Arabic language and the religion of Islam. Around 90% of all
Egyptians are Muslim.160
156
Eamonn Gearon, ―The Arab Invasions,‖ History Today 61, no. 6 (June 2011): 47-52
E. Bosch, et al, ―Population History of North Africa: Evidence from Classical Genetic Markers,‖ Human
Biology 69, no. 3 (June 1997): 295-311.
158
―The Bedouin of Sinai: Free but Dangerous,‖ Economist, 23 June 2011,
http://www.economist.com/node/18867450
159
M. Paul Lewis, ed., ―Languages of Egypt,‖ in Ethnologue : Languages of the World (Dallas, TX: SIL
International, 2009): http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=EG
160
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Egypt: People and Society: Religions,‖ in The World Factbook, 21
October 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html
157
© D L I F L C | 41
Nubians
Culturally and racially distinct from other Egyptian ethnic groups, the
Nubians are more akin to the peoples of Sudan and sub-Saharan
Africa. They speak two Nubian languages, Kenuzi-Dongola and
Nobiin. Other linguistic minorities include Berber speakers in Siwa
and a small number of Beja east of Aswan.161, 162 They reside
primarily in the southern extremes of the country.163
Berbers
The Berbers are an indigenous people of North Africa apparently
related to the pre-Islamic Egyptians. Scholars have labored to define
their ethnicity and linguistics, the former to little avail. Thus, Berber languages most
clearly define Berber identity. In Egypt, the Berbers live primarily in the eastern desert
and in the Siwa oasis.164, 165
Dom
The Dom gypsies, who number around 2,280,000, speak Domari, an Indo-Aryan
language. They live primarily north of Cairo in the Dakahlia governate.166 Some Dom
travel the Nile River in large floating communities, trading livestock and practicing folk
medicine and divination.167
Religion
Although Egypt‘s government is officially secular, the
government nonetheless recognizes Islam as the official
religion. Intolerance, discrimination, and human rights
violations against other religious groups and minorities
are common.168 Egypt‘s 1971 constitution guarantees
freedom of religion, although only Islam, Christianity,
and Judaism are officially recognized. Religion is widely
practiced throughout the country amid rising political
polarization made evident by religious fundamentalism. The majority of Egyptians are
Muslim, mostly Sunni, representing 90% of the population. Another 9% are Coptic
161
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Egypt: People and Society: Languages,‖ in The World Factbook, 21
October 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html
162
M. Paul Lewis, ed., ―Languages of Egypt,‖ in Ethnologue : Languages of the World (Dallas, TX: SIL
International, 2009): http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=EG
163
Encyclopædia Britannica, ―Egypt: People: Ethnic Groups,‖ 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/180382/Egypt/43464/People
164
Nicholas S. Hopkins and Reem Saad, ―Egypt,‖ EveryCulture, 2011, http://www.everyculture.com/CrGa/Egypt.html
165
Michael Brett and Elizabeth Fentress, The Berbers (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2002), 23.
166
M. Paul Lewis, ed., ―Domari,‖ in Ethnologue : Languages of the World (Dallas, TX: SIL International,
2009): http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=rmt
167
David J. Phillips, Peoples on the Move: Introducing the Nomads of the World (Pasadena, CA: William
Carey Library, 2001), 236.
168
U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom, ―Annual Report 2011,‖ 2011, 49,
http://www.uscirf.gov/images/book%20with%20cover%20for%20web.pdf
© D L I F L C | 42
Christians. Approximately 1% are Christians who belong to Catholic, Protestant, or
Levantine (Maronite or Greek Orthodox) churches.169 In the 19th and early 20th centuries,
Jews emigrating from Europe found acceptance within Egypt‘s ancient Jewish
community. Since that time, however, this group has experienced discrimination and has
become considerably smaller.170
Islam
Islam was introduced to Egypt in 642. It eventually
replaced the polytheistic religion of the ancient Egyptians
and supplanted Coptic Orthodox Christianity among the
country‘s elite. The Arab prophet Muhammad founded
Islam in the 7th century C.E. After Muhammad died,
Muslims were unable to agree upon his successor and
split into two sects. The Sunnis favored electing religious
leaders based on merit, and the Shi‘ites preferred naming
religious leaders from descendants of Muhammad‘s family.
Mainstream Islamic religious practice in Egypt emphasizes Islam‘s core tenets. Islam
requires one to live in accordance with the laws of Allah (God) as set forth in the Quran.
Daily life ought to be conducted in accordance with God‘s will.
The Sufi variety of Islam is a mode of religious expression commonly referred to as
Islamic mysticism. Sufism is a term for an eclectic and assorted group identified by a
number of unique practices and approaches to their religion. Sufis stress local custom and
direct spiritual insight, leaving little need for formal religious leaders. They seek a
personal encounter with the divine that may come through meditation, chanting, or even
dancing.171 Sufis are also known for “saint worship.”That is, they revere those whom
they view as endowed with divine grace.172 These venerated individuals, known as
marabouts, may be teachers, scholars, healers, or people known for their piety or
spirituality.173 Today, in Egypt more than 70 Sufi orders exist with an estimated 3-4
million members.174
Although Egyptians are predominantly Sunni, a strong undercurrent of Shi‘a Islam
permeates religious expression. Additionally, a veneer of Sufi influence creates a unique
blending of Muslim traditions. This is seen most clearly in rural areas, where folk beliefs
169
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Egypt: People and Society: Religions,‖ in The World Factbook, 21
October 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html
170
Joel Beinin, the Dispersion of Egyptian Jewry: Culture, Politics, and the Formation of a Modern
Diaspora (Cairo, Egypt: The American University of Cairo, 2005).
171
A. J. Arberry, Aspects of Islamic Civilization: The Moslem World Depicted Through Its Literature (Ann
Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1967), 218.
172
Sossie Andezian, ―The Significance of Sufism in Algeria in the Aftermath of Independence,‖ PASSIA,
12 December 2002, http://www.passia.org/meetings/rsunit/2002/Sufism-minutes3.htm
173
Encyclopedia Britannica Online, ―Algeria,‖ 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/15001/Algeria
174
Adam Morrow and Khaled Moussa al-Omrani, ―Historically Apolitical, Sufis Now Side With the State,‖
Inter Press Service News, 21 May 2010, http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=51527
© D L I F L C | 43
are transmitted through oral tradition. Folk practices include belief in saints. People visit
shrines where ―saints‖ are buried, in order to seek cures or intercession for problems such
as crop failure. Such shrines can be found in both villages and cities. Foremost among
shrines are the ones associated with the Prophet Muhammad‘s family in Cairo.175
Coptic Orthodoxy
Belonging to the Jacobite branch of the Eastern Orthodox
Church, the Copts believe Mark the Evangelist founded their
church in Alexandria. The head of the church is the Pope of
Alexandria. Copts are expected to pray seven times daily. Priests
are permitted to marry prior to ordination; however, they are not
permitted to remarry after the passing of a spouse. Monks and
nuns are celibate.176, 177, 178, 179
The largest religious minority, the Copts are the remnant of a
faith that once was prevalent in Egypt. Although the constitution
affords them freedom of religion, the government fails to protect
them from discrimination and attack by extremists. Coptic
Christians are counted among the most influential people in
Egypt, but they are also among the poorest. Nonetheless, they
have survived as a strong religious group in Egypt since the 1st century and have resisted
attempts to marginalize their religion. Repression of their religion by militant Islamists,
however, has increased in recent years. The lack of tight security since the February 2011
revolution has made minorities increasingly vulnerable. Islamists have attacked
Christians, burnt churches, and otherwise oppressed Egyptian Christians. Scores have
been killed. In the wake of such violence, the military rulers quickly created new laws
aimed at protecting minorities, but the effectiveness of such legislation has proven
questionable as violence continues.180, 181
Cuisine
Eating customs in Egypt have roots in Lebanon, Syria,
Turkey, Greece, Palestine, and Egypt‘s own agricultural
past. In the modern urban business districts, people order
175
Edward Bradley Reeves, ―The Wali Complex at Tanta, Egypt: An Ethnographic Approach to Popular
Islam‖ (doctoral dissertation, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 1981).
176
Betty Jane Bailey and J. Marin Bailey, Who are the Christians in the Middle East? (Grand Rapids, MI:
William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003), 144-149.
177
Otto Friedrich August Meinardus, ―Chapter 2: The Coptic Church: Its History, Traditions, Theology,
and Structure,‖ in Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity (Cairo, Egypt: The American University in
Cairo Press, 1999).
178
Christian Cannuyer, ―Chapter 5: The Copts in the Modern Era,‖ in Coptic Egypt: The Christians of the
Nile (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2001), 93-112.
179
E. Royston Pike, Encylopaedia of Religion and Religions (New York: Meridian Library, 1958), 112-113.
180
Voice of America, ―Egypt Government Proposes Anti-Discrimination Law,‖ 10 August 2011,
http://blogs.voanews.com/breaking-news/2011/08/10/egypt-proposes-anti-discrimination-law/
181
Kurt J. Werthmuller, ―Copt‘s Murder a Test of Egypt‘s New Anti-Discrimination Law,‖ National
Review Online, The Corner, 31 October 2011, http://www.nationalreview.com/corner/281728/coptsmurder-test-egypts-new-anti-discrimination-law-kurt-j-werthmuller
© D L I F L C | 44
meals at fast-food franchises. Out of economic necessity, the poor in Egypt eat mostly
grains and vegetables. Even a teacher‘s salary seldom allows the purchase of meat. The
diets of those who are more prosperous, however, include meat on a more regular basis.
Popular traditional foods include fuul (mashed fava beans), which is very inexpensive
and available both in restaurants and at outdoor food stands. It is commonly eaten with
pita bread (aysh baladi). Other popular traditional foods include falafel (also known as
ta’amiyya), made out of mashed beans mixed with spices and fried. Combinations of
these foods make up breakfast, lunch, and dinner for many Egyptians. Specialty
restaurants are common in the cities, serving shawarma, skewered strips of lamb or
chicken stuffed into pita bread, and feteer, a kind of pizza-like pastry smothered in honey.
Two of the most popular main meals are kofta (ground meat) and kebab (grilled lamb or
chicken). In accordance with Muslim restrictions, pork is not eaten. A popular dessert is
kunafa, which has thin strands of pastry arranged on top of a soft cheese or cream base. It
is eaten at feasts, including those that end Ramadan.182, 183
In villages, women bake unleavened bread (aysh) in clay ovens. They also make sun
bread (aysh shams), which is set in the sun to rise before baking. A typical main meal
consists of rice, vegetables, and fuul. If meat is available for special occasions, villagers
will prepare fattah, layers of meat, bread, and rice seasoned with garlic and vinegar with
nuts and yogurt for garnish. Food is scooped up with small pieces of bread dipped into
the serving bowls.184
Traditional Dress
Access to international trade routes in Egypt encouraged the use of
various fabrics from around the world, which contributed to the
development of a variety of regional styles. The Siwa region near the
Libyan border, for example, is known for silver ornaments and a
distinctive ―sunburst‖ design of embroidery traditionally used on
shawls and clothing, including wedding dresses.185 Another original
style of dress is found in the Sinai, where heavily embroidered cotton
dresses are worn in the north. Dresses in the south are often
unadorned or decorated with beads. Contemporary veils often worn in
this area are decorated with plastic beads imported from China rather
than with the traditional elaborate beadwork of earlier years.186
Clothing in rural areas tends to be functional. For instance, among peasants (fellahin), a
man typically wears a long robe (galabeya) made of wool in winter and cotton in summer.
182
Mohamed El Hebeishy, Frommer’s Egypt (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing, 2010), 42, 139.
Daniel Jacobs and Dan Richardson, The Rough Guide to Egypt, 8th edition (London: Rough Guides,
2009), 39-41.
184
Gary Hoppenstand, ed., The Greenwood Encylopedia of World Popular Culture, Volume 4 (Westport,
CT: Greenwood Press, 2007).
185
Andrea B. Rugh, Reveal and Conceal: Dress in Contemporary Egypt (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse
University Press, 1986),71-75.
186
Andrea B. Rugh, Reveal and Conceal: Dress in Contemporary Egypt (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse
University Press, 1986),71-75.
183
© D L I F L C | 45
He often protects his head from the heat or cold with a scarf wound like a turban. A
married woman in this environment traditionally wears a brightly colored housedress
covered with a black outer layer. She covers her hair with a long veil that often sweeps
the ground. Both sexes wear robes which cover the entire body, but the looseness of the
robes allows cooling air to circulate. Bedouins dress for the harsh desert climate by
wearing robes that, although they do absorb the sun‘s heat, are loose enough to allow
cooler air to circulate. Men wind a cloth around their head and neck to prevent loss of
moisture, which helps prevent heatstroke. The cloth also acts as a shield against harsh
sand blowing in the air.187, 188
In cities, traditional dress exists alongside the contemporary. A head covering (hijab) is
still popular among white-collar workers and students. It has also spread to the working
class. Many immigrants have also adopted it because it helps them avoid harassment in
the streets. Women of all classes often wear long black veils and men wear flowing robes.
Alternatively, some people choose to wear chic or modern Western clothing, such as
casual jeans and tennis shoes. There can be risk associated with the casual, Western look,
however. Although a scarf tucked under the collar is worn more often than an enveloping
head garment, and the wearing of a face veil (niqab) is rarer than in the early 1990s,
women still tend to dress conservatively. Islamists have vocally and openly opposed some
Western styles of dress, and unveiled women in public are sometimes harassed.189, 190
Gender Issues
In the late 20th century, Egyptian women made some
gains in areas of education and professional employment.
The constitution of 1956 established equal rights for
women in the public sphere, extending to women the
right to vote and the right to hold public office. Women in
Egypt have been elected to public office or appointed to
important government positions, and women are in top
leadership positions in the television industry. However,
family law in Egypt reinforces women‘s unequal status, and increasing religious
conservatism is making the situation worse.191
Women‘s rights were weakened when the Sadat government amended the Egyptian
Constitution in 1980 and made shari‘a the primary source of legislation in Egypt.
Although the Egyptian Constitution guarantees equal rights for all citizens, the shari‘a
provision undercuts those rights by denying equality to women in areas of marriage,
187
Christian Fraser, ―The Decline of Egypt‘s Traditional Galabeya,‖ BBC News, 02 May 2010,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8657027.stm
188
Retrotraveller, ―Walk Like an Egyptian… Wearing the Galabeya,‖ Retrospective Traveller, 02 October
2011, http://www.retrospectivetraveller.co.uk/2011/10/egypt-archive/walk-like-an-egyptian-galabeya.html
189
Aliaa Hamed, ―Islamists Poised to Fill Egypt Vacuum,‖ Hurriyet Daily News, 01 April 2011,
http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=islamists8217-show-up-triggers-concern-in-egypt-2011-04-01
190
David E. Miller, ―Post-Mubarak Egypt Has Islamists Calling for Modesty Police,‖ The Jerusalem Post,
04 April 2011, http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=215050
191
Ursala Lindsey, ―The Women‘s Revolution,‖ The Daily Beast, 25 September 2011,
http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2011/09/25/egypt-s-women-still-fighting-for-their-rights.html
© D L I F L C | 46
divorce, child custody, and inheritance. The debate about women‘s issues also includes
the practice of female genital mutilation (FGM), censorship that limits the printed
discussion of gender issues, and discriminatory laws that affect land ownership and travel
rights. A woman, for instance, cannot obtain a passport without written consent from her
husband, who may reverse his consent at any time. A backlash has arisen against women‘s
rights advocates who oppose these laws and practices and are often accused of being proWestern and anti-Islamic.192, 193
Female Genital Mutilation
Although many oppose it, female genital mutilation (FGM) is still widely practiced in
Egypt. The majority of girls subjected to FGM are often from rural areas and from
families whose socioeconomic status is modest to low. For most girls from poor families,
the only way to secure their futures is through marriage. A girl who is not circumcised
will have difficulty finding a partner and will face a future of almost certain poverty. In a
study published in 1985, almost 8 out of 10 Egyptian women reported having undergone
genital mutilation. Other estimates, however, place the figure lower, at 50–60 percent.194
Divorce Laws
The government reformed divorce laws throughout the early years of this millennium,
making it easier for women to initiate divorce. At the same time, increased poverty and
financial strains caused by inflation and other factors weaken women‘s ability to enforce
their rights and make independent decisions.195, 196
Arts
Because ancient Egyptian civilization was highly religious,
much of the art of that early period centers on gods,
goddesses, and pharaohs, who were divine in nature.
Paintings have survived because of the dry climate. They
often depict the afterlife of the deceased or the journey
through the underworld. The funerary text known as the
Book of the Dead was buried with entombed persons to
introduce them to the afterlife. Writers from ancient times
192
Ursala Lindsey, ―The Women‘s Revolution,‖ The Daily Beast, 25 September 2011,
http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2011/09/25/egypt-s-women-still-fighting-for-their-rights.html
193
Salah M. Rasheed, Ahmed H. Abd-Ellah, and Fouad M. Yousef, ―Female Genital Mutilation in Upper
Egypt in the New Millennium,‖ International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics 114, no. 1 (July 2011):
47-50.
194
Mohamed Badawi, ―Epidemiology of Female Sexual Castration in Cairo, Egypt,‖ (paper, First
International Symposium on Circumcision, Anaheim, California, 1–2 March 1989),
http://www.nocirc.org/symposia/first/badawi.html
195
Yasmine Saleh, ―Egypt Prepares New Law for non-Muslims,‖ Reuters, 14 June 2010,
http://in.reuters.com/article/2010/06/14/idINIndia-49275520100614
196
Nadia Abou el Magd, ―Divorce Rate Surges in Egypt,‖ The National (UAE), 10 September 2008,
http://www.thenational.ae/news/worldwide/africa/divorce-rate-surges-in-egypt
© D L I F L C | 47
also created imaginative stories with characters or plots intended to entertain, and wrote
treatises on medicine, math, astronomy, and agriculture.197
Literature
A strong literary tradition exists in Egypt, with short stories first appearing in the 19th
and early 20th centuries. Egyptian writers have experimented with the novel form, and
drama and poetry have a broad and sophisticated audience as well. In 1988, Egyptian
novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arab writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature.
His classic work, Midaq Alley, brought international attention to gaps between rich and
poor and other aspects of life in urban Cairo.198, 199 Other famous writers are Taha
Hussein, who wrote an autobiography called Al-Ayyam; Tawfiq al-Hakim, author of
Return of the Spirit, and Yusuf Idris, a master of the Arabic short story form.200
Music and Dance
Egypt‘s musical and dance traditions have endured over
the centuries. Lutes, harps, and stringed instruments are
still used much as they were in ancient times. Classical
music is popular, as are folk songs celebrating traditions
or the different seasons. Dancing is always part of
celebrations and weddings. Traditions from other
countries have blended with those of Egypt. For instance,
it was Russian influence combined with Egyptian
tradition that led to the development of the Cairo Opera Ballet Company.201, 202
One of Egypt‘s well-known artists is the legendary Umm Kulthum, the most celebrated
singer in the Arab world in the 20th century. With a musical style rooted in traditional
classical Arab music, Umm Kulthum often donated the proceeds of her concerts to the
Egyptian government or to charities. President Nasser admired her, and she often
entertained heads of state. She also identified with Egyptian commoners and village life.
She was a spokesperson for Arab culture and a supporter of nationalism after the 1952
197
John L. Foster, trans., Ancient Egyptian Literature : An Anthology (Austin: University of Texas Press,
2001).
198
Naguib Mahfouz, Midaq Alley: A New Translation, trans., Humphrey Davies (American University in
Cairo Press, 2011).
199
Mona Takieddine-Amyuni, ―Images of Arab Women in Midaq Alley by Naguib Mahfouz, and Season of
Migration to the North by Tayeb Salih,‖ International Journal of Middle East Studies 17, no. 1 (1985): 2536.
200
Peggy Bieber-Roberts and Elisa Pierandrei, ―Cafe Riche: Memory in the Formation of Egyptian
National Identity‖ (paper, 23rd Conference and General Assembly, International Association for Media and
Communication Research, Barcelona, Spain, 22 July 2002),
http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:IshiFyjPHXIJ:scholar.google.com/+Taha+Hussein+
Tawfiq+al-Hakim+Yusuf+Idris&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5
201
Randa Baligh, ―Some Inherited Customs and Habits from Ancient Egypt,‖ in The Horizon: Studies in
Egyptology in Honour of M.A. Nur el-Din, ed., Basem el-Sharkaway (Cairo: American University in Cairo
Press, 2009), 109-130,
202
Amal Choucri Catta, ―On the Road,‖ Al-Ahram Weekly Online, 19-25 August 2004,
http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2004/704/cu1.htm
© D L I F L C | 48
revolution. Even though Umm Kulthum has been dead since 1975, she is still highly
regarded in Egypt and in Arab countries.203
Sports and Recreation
Following the 1952 revolution, the Egyptian government promoted sports and sports
culture. As such, schools at all levels incorporated sports into their curricula. Sporting
clubs emerged. Emphasis was placed upon sports that were traditional to Egypt‘s historic
past: weightlifting, wrestling, and swimming. Egyptian weightlifters have won several
Olympic medals. However, soccer emerged as the most popular sport of contemporary
Egypt, and the national team has met with success in international venues, including
championships in the African Cup of Nations and qualifying for the 1934 World Cup.
The domestic soccer league attracts tens of thousands of spectators at matches.204
203
Virginia Danielson, The Voice of Egypt: Umm Kulthūm, Arabic Song, and Egyptian Society in the
Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
204
Encyclopædia Britannica, ―Egypt: Sports and Recreation,‖ 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/180382/Egypt/261339/Sports-and-recreation
© D L I F L C | 49
Chapter 4 Assessment
1. Egypt‘s constitution guarantees freedom of religion.
True
The constitution does guarantee freedom of religion; however, the government
frequently fails to protect religious minorities from sectarian violence.
2. Egyptian novelist Yusuf Idris won the Nobel Prize in Literature.
False
In 1988, Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz became the first Arab writer to win
the Nobel Prize for Literature.
3. Umm Kulthum is a famous Egyptian poet.
False
The Egyptian Umm Kulthum, who died in 1975, was the most celebrated singer
in the Arab world in the 20th century.
4. Grains and vegetables are the most widely eaten foods among Egypt‘s poor.
True
Even a teacher‘s income in Egypt seldom allows the purchase of meat. Most poor
people eat grains and vegetables out of economic necessity.
5. Ancient Egyptian civilization did not have a literary tradition.
False
Egyptian writers from ancient times created imaginative stories with plots
intended to entertain and wrote treatises on medicine, math, and astronomy.
© D L I F L C | 50
Chapter 5 Security
Introduction
One of the first Middle Eastern countries to open up to the West,
Egypt has been buffeted by competing political forces. For
example, Egypt‘s 1956 nationalization of the Suez Canal led to
war with England, Israel, and France, threats of Soviet
intervention, and involvement of the United States. Egypt
continues to face serious challenges. This U.S. ally and regional
powerbroker is struggling domestically while trying to build
stability through promises of constitutional reform. Establishing
a more democratic government, responsive to Egypt‘s unique
political and social conditions, is a stated goal of Egypt‘s interim
government.
U.S.-Egyptian Relations
The U.S.-Egyptian relationship is strategic and mutually beneficial. Anwar Sadat and his
government‘s support of the peace process with Israel led Egypt to a closer relationship
with the United States. American administrations invest in Egypt because the country is
seen as a moderating influence in a volatile region, a voice that can persuade other Arab
nations to be part of the peace process. After Israel, Egypt is the largest recipient of U.S.
aid, having received an annual average of more than USD 2 billion in economic and
military assistance since 1979.205 Ongoing U.S. goals for Egypt include greater
democratization and the promotion of stronger free trade
throughout the region. Through expanded commerce, the
United States sees the possibility of achieving greater
regional stability and protecting national interests in the
area. A stable relationship with Egypt will continue to
sustain the March 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty,
which is important for resolution of the Palestinian
conflict. Both Egypt and the United States want to
achieve peace throughout the region.
Egypt has been a strong U.S. ally. In recent years it has cooperated with U.S. intelligence
services in providing information related to Afghanistan. The Egyptian government is
also helping to train Iraqi security forces, although it opposed the 2003 U.S. military
intervention in Iraq and has refused to send troops to Iraq.206 Multinational exercises,
205
Susan Cornwell and Jim Wolf, ―FACTBOX: Most U.S. Aid to Egypt goes to Military,‖ Reuters, 29
January 2011, http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/01/29/us-egypt-usa-aid-idUSTRE70S0IN20110129
206
Jeremy M. Sharp, ―Egypt-United States Relations‖ (report, Congressional Research Service, Library of
Congress, Washington, DC, 15 June 2005), 3-4, http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/ib93087.pdf
© D L I F L C | 51
U.S. aid in modernizing Egypt‘s military, and Egypt‘s UN peacekeeping contributions all
reinforce U.S.-Egyptian relations.
Post-Mubarak Relationship
The U.S. government is encouraging Egypt to move more toward democracy and
political reform, following the mass uprisings that led to the resignation of former
president Hosni Mubarak on 11 February 2011. Egypt has a weak human rights record
and has taken repressive measures in the past against Egyptian scholars, feminists, and
human rights activists. Efforts of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, currently in
charge of the government as of late 2011, to pave the way for fair and free elections by
the end of the year are complicated by internal conditions and continuing protests. There
have been some indications that the military may attempt to retain power, despite pledges
to return the country to civilian control.207
Relations with Neighboring Countries
Egypt‘s geopolitical importance, Arab-Islamic
character, and championing of the Non-Aligned
Movement (NAM) have shaped its foreign policy.
Egypt‘s geographical position at the crossroads of
Africa and the Middle East and its links to Europe
and Asia through the Suez Canal have made
national security vital. This need led Egypt to
seek and maintain diplomatic relations with
neighboring countries such as Israel and Sudan.
Furthermore, Egypt‘s extensive history, large population, and military strength give it
considerable political influence in the Middle East and the NAM. Egypt was one of the
founding members of the Arab League (officially the League of Arab States), which also
includes 21 other member states from North and East Africa and the Middle East. The
Arab League is headquartered in Cairo.208
207
Associated Press, ―Posters Supporting Egypt‘s Military Ruler for President Pop Up on Streets,‖
Washington Post, 26 October 2011, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle-east/rights-groupwarns-of-egyptian-military-cover-up-in-killing-of-christianprotesters/2011/10/25/gIQAiOfRFM_story.html
208
General Secretariat of the League of Arab, ―Member States,‖ League of Nations Online, n.d.,
http://www.arableagueonline.org/wps/portal/las_en/inner/!ut/p/c5/vZLLjoJAFES_xQ8wDQ0oLNEG5B1o
RGRDAAEBpRWNPL5MJnFbHQ2xlvLSt1TiwIhmNTEj7KI7yVp4hMIQLiIkOC4PusyFI8lgVIhUm1Th5Cymcnfv_b55T_pHQgo
NsLVcFHHenSrEY8WSntv3HYmkgbP28IbWhm4cgYs3XWrLuT1sYgVv71yI7nqhSra88wg3WwGcNZ
M_8J3xGefp0-9OJECexAu_-Q5maZUB_POSllD1YfA-2DjtyyZ_iKLR7Lpz7K0kBYnEgyLXW32Q89ImaHxF10TKU2r6xEgNyhWPt6p5C2356kQAzmTdkai8BDfGoY_aI3V5
LWJnmnbJLsdpSt6krcgdNgl0UWlLF8s8O6ZpeBEXud1xA-UPM2ZrHj5mYRpSO8xBpCdC6Ii1nTGuE7CFOgLUh5wxczttH6fL0r5hCnM1AH9YDmg!/dl3/d3/L2dBISEvZ0FBIS9nQSEh/?pcid=69747e00425e3086ba20fbc0e4251219
© D L I F L C | 52
Israel
Egypt was the first Arab country to recognize Israel. Egypt, along with other Arab
nations, opposed the creation of a Jewish homeland and fought in four wars (1948, 1956,
1967, and 1973) with Israel before making peace with its neighbor. In 1979, the
Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty, signed by Anwar Sadat and Menachem Begin, was a
milestone in Arab-Israeli relations. The treaty helped establish borders, full diplomatic
relations, and bilateral trade agreements between Israel and Egypt. Today, Egypt remains
Israel‘s key ally in the Middle East.
Peace between Israel and Egypt has come at a
price. For Egypt, the 1979 peace agreement led to
a 10-year suspension from the Arab League and
the assassination of President Anwar Sadat. One
of the reasons Arabs felt betrayed by the peace
agreement with Israel was that it did not resolve
outstanding issues stemming from the 1967 War.
Israel emerged victorious from that war, having
captured the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the
West Bank, East Jerusalem, and the Golan
Heights.209 Although the Sinai Peninsula was returned to Egypt as part of the 1979 treaty,
the rest of the territories are still occupied.210 President Hosni Mubarak, who succeeded
Sadat, continued to play an important role in facilitating talks between Israeli and
Palestinian leaders.211 In 1995, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated by
a Jewish radical who opposed the declaration of the Oslo Accords.212
Trade between Egypt and Israel is minimal and controversial. It is minimal because
Israel‘s main export markets are in the United States, Southeast Asia, and Asia.213 It is
controversial because some Arabs still distrust Israel. Still, peace with Egypt keeps
Israel‘s military spending low and its business environment safe. Israel owns factories in
Egypt. These factories employ thousands of Egyptians and produce clothing for export.214
In addition, in 2008, Egypt began exporting gas to Israel under a 20-year contract signed
in 2005.215 Today, Egypt exports nearly 40% of Israel‘s natural gas through an
209
Israel took over control of the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, the Golan Heights from Syria,
and the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan.
210
BBC News, ―History of Mid-East Peace Talks,‖ 27 August 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddle-east-11103745
211
Linda L. Putnam and Martin Carcasson, ―Communication and the Oslo Negotiation: Contacts, Patterns,
and Modes,‖ International Negotiation 2, no. 2 (1997): 251-278.
212
Ehud Sprinzak, Brother Against Brother: Violence and Extremism in Israeli Politics from Altalena to
the Rabin Assassination (New York: Free Press, 1999).
213
Reuters Africa, ―FACTBOX-Israel-Egypt Relations in Their Post-War Era,‖ 31 January 2011,
http://af.reuters.com/article/egyptNews/idAFLDE70U0MU20110131
214
Joshua Mitnick, ―Israel-Egypt Trade Links May Help Limit Any Rupture in Ties,‖ Christian Science
Monitor, 10 February 2011, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2011/0210/Israel-Egypt-tradelinks-may-help-limit-any-rupture-in-ties
215
Yolande Knell, ―Egypt Lifts Ban on Gas to Israel,‖ BBC News, 27 February 2011,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/8540715.stm
© D L I F L C | 53
underwater pipeline operated by an Egyptian-Israeli company.216 Bilateral trade
amounted to USD 502 million in 2010.
Palestinian Territories
In 2005, Israel withdrew its troops from the Gaza
Strip, with which Egypt shares a border 11 km
(6.8 mi) long. The Gaza Strip is 40 km (25 mi)
long and from 6 to 12 km (4 to 8 mi) wide. It has
a population of 1.6 million. Since 2007 Hamas
has been the governing body. Hamas is designated
as a terrorist organization by the United States and
Israel. Gaza is home to the second-largest
registered Palestinian refugee population after
Jordan, with 1.1 million refugees of the 4.8
million who were displaced between 1946 and 1948, the year of the first Arab-Israeli
war.217, 218 Gaza‘s borders are closed to trade, and its inhabitants are facing a
humanitarian crisis.219
Gaza remains under Israeli blockade in order to weaken Hamas.220 Israel, relying on
Egypt to keep its border with Gaza Strip secure, maintains Egypt does not do enough to
keep Palestinians from smuggling weapons from Egypt into Gaza. Recently, in an effort
to curb migration from sub-Saharan Africa, Israel sealed half its 250-km (160-mi) desert
border.221 Thus, Egypt‘s relation to Israel is one of ―cold peace.‖222 Unresolved issues
include the status of the occupied territories, refugees‘ right of return, Israeli settlements
in the occupied territories, and the Palestinian bid for statehood.223, 224
Jordan
The Kingdom of Jordan is a key ally of Egypt, Israel, and the United States. A country
with few natural resources, it emerged out of the defeat and breakup of the Ottoman
Empire in the Middle East in the aftermath of World War I. In 1922, the year Egypt
216
Reuters Africa, ―FACTBOX: Israel-Egypt Relations in Their Post-War Era,‖ 31 January 2011,
http://af.reuters.com/article/egyptNews/idAFLDE70U0MU20110131
217
UN Agency for Palestinian Refugees, ―Fields of Operation,‖ January 2010,
http://www.unrwa.org/userfiles/2011011352710.pdf
218
UN Agency for Palestinian Refugees, ―Overview,‖ n.d., http://www.unrwa.org/etemplate.php?id=86
219
UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs-Occupied Palestinian Territory, ―Humanitarian
Situation in the Gaza Strip,‖ July 2011,
http://www.ochaopt.org/documents/ocha_opt_Gaza_Fact_Sheet_July_2011.pdf
220
BBC News, ―Guide: Gaza Under Blockade,‖ 6 July 2010,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7545636.stm
221
Reuters Africa, ―FACTBOX: Israel-Egypt Relations in Their Post-War Era,‖ 31 January 2011,
http://af.reuters.com/article/egyptNews/idAFLDE70U0MU20110131
222
In Time Magazine, 20 October 1952, ― a cold peace‖ was defined as a conflict in which ―there is a truce
without a settlement,‖ or as a frozen conflict that may thaw in the future.
223
BBC News, ―Middle East Peace Talks: Where They Stand,‖ 27 September 2010,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-11138790
224
BBC News, ―Q&A: Palestinian Statehood Bid at the UN,‖ 16 June 2011,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13701636
© D L I F L C | 54
gained partial independence from Britain, Jordan, then called
Transjordan, came under British supervision. Beginning in 1948,
two years after Jordan gained independence, Palestinians started
to migrate to Jordan to escape the Arab-Israeli conflicts. The
Arab-Israeli wars have resulted in Jordan losing territory such as
the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Moreover, Palestinian
refugees have emerged as the demographic majority in Jordan. In
1994, Jordan signed a peace treaty with Israel, the only Arab
country other than Egypt to do so.
In 1984, Jordan was the first country in the League of Arab
States to reestablish relations with Egypt after Egypt‘s
suspension from the League in 1979. Diplomatic relations have
been cordial ever since. In particular, Egypt and Jordan have
established the Eastern Gas Company to export natural gas from al-Arish, Egypt, to
Jordan‘s capital, Amman. Today, Egypt supplies 80% of Jordan‘s electricity needs. 225
In the wake of the popular uprising that took place in Tunisia and then Egypt, thousands
of Jordanians took to the streets with similar protests against poverty, unemployment,
corruption, and high prices. In addition, demonstrators protested restricted press freedom,
human and labor rights, and a weak democracy. King Abdullah, in response, created a
National Dialogue Committee, replaced the prime minister and government, and
proposed economic assistance packages. While the demonstrations in Jordan have been
generally smaller and more peaceful compared with protests in other parts of the Arab
world, the political upheaval in Egypt has resulted in disruptions in the natural gas
pipeline. Egyptians attacked the pipelines on four separate occasions, forcing Jordanians
to ration their energy consumption and creating hundreds of millions in loss.
Sudan
The Republic of the Sudan was embroiled in a civil conflict from
the time joint British-Egyptian rule ended in 1956 until 2005.
The root of this conflict, which dates back to before Sudanese
independence, lies in the economic, political, and social
domination of the largely Christian, animist, and Black south by
the mostly Muslim Arab north. After two civil wars (1955–1972
and 1983–2005), decades of conflict that displaced 4 million
people and killed 1.5 million others finally ended with a ceasefire in 2002.226 After the north and south reached a peace
agreement in January 2005, the south became an autonomous
region in October 2005. In January 2011, the south voted in a
referendum in favor of independence from Sudan. South Sudan
became its own nation in July 2011. The two nations must now
decide on their new borders, how to divide the country‘s debt
225
BBC News, ―Egypt: Gas Pipeline to Israel and Jordan Hit by Blast,‖ 11 July 2011,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14116590
226
BBC News, ―South Sudan Profile,‖ 8 July 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14069082
© D L I F L C | 55
and vast oil wealth (located on the north-south border), and how to deal with the
remaining active rebel groups.
Egypt-Sudan relations after Sudanese independence have been at times strained. Sudan
supported Egypt‘s peace treaty with Israel and helped Egypt‘s reintegration into the Arab
League. After President Omar al-Bashir‘s Revolutionary Command Council for National
Salvation (RCC-NS) military coup in 1989, however, relations began to sour. Egypt gave
political asylum to al-Bashir‘s opposition, such as the Sudan People‘s Liberation
Movement (SPLM) and the National Democratic Alliance, with which the SPLM
eventually merged. Sudan, in turn, harbored Egyptian Islamists and terrorist
organizations, actions that placed it on the United States‘ list of state sponsors of
terrorism in 1993.227 Relations deteriorated further when Sudan supported Iraq during the
Gulf War (1990–91). Finally, in 1995, an assassination attempt on President Mubarak in
Addis Ababa nearly sent the two countries into war.228
Relations improved following a 2001 meeting in which Mubarak pledged his support in
ending civil conflict in Sudan. Cairo has recently indicated that it will not detain alBashir on Egyptian territory even after Egypt ratifies the Rome Statute of the
International Criminal Court (ICC).229 Sudan‘s president is wanted by the ICC on charges
of crimes against humanity, war crimes in Darfur, and genocide. Egypt was Sudan‘s
second-largest import partner prior to South Sudan‘s secession.230
Libya
Egyptian-Libyan relations are based on a long
shared history and have sometimes been strained.
Muammar Qadhafi, Libya‘s president for more
than four decades, was strongly anti-western and
pro-Arab nationalist and attempted several
unsuccessful unity schemes with other Arab
states, including Egypt, Syria, Tunisia, and
Morocco. All such attempts at pan-Arab unity met
with failure.231, 232, 233
227
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State, ―State Sponsors of
Terrorism,‖ n.d., http://www.state.gov/s/ct/c14151.htm
228
Stephen W. Smith, ―Sudan: In a Procrustean Bed with Crisis,‖ International Negotiation 16, no. 1
(2011): 169-189.
229
All Africa, ―Sudan: Egypt Promises Bashir Immunity Once It Joins ICC,‖ 8 May 2011,
http://allafrica.com/stories/201105090362.html
230
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Sudan: Economy,‖ in The World Factbook, 11 July 2011,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/su.html
231
Robert O. Collins, ―The Disaster in Darfur in Historical Perspective,‖ The Journal of Conflict Studies 26,
no. 2 (2006): 25-43, http://journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/JCS/article/view/4511/5321
232
Helen Chapin Metz, ed., ―Libya and Arab Unity,‖ in Libya: A Country Study, Federal Research Division,
Library of Congress, 1987, http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-8147.html
233
Tony Wheeler, Tony Wheeler‘s Bad Lands: A Tourist on the Axis of Evil (Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet,
2007), 191.
© D L I F L C | 56
Qadhafi‘s meddling in the internal affairs of other countries, subversion, and threats in
pursuing his agenda alienated him from the rest the Arab world. In the mid-1970s, as
Egyptian President Anwar Sadat sought peace with Israelis and ended Egypt‘s Friendship
Treaty with the Soviet Union, Qadhafi was turning to the Soviet Union for weapons and
was suspicious of Sadat‘s peace initiatives. A brief border war erupted in July 1977, and
Libya broke off diplomatic relations with Egypt when the Arab-Israeli peace treaty was
signed.234
Egyptian-Libyan relations improved after Hosni Mubarak came to power in 1981.
Mubarak was an ally to Qadhafi for both security and economic reasons. Unlike Sudan,
which was a safe haven for Egyptian Islamists, Libya turned militants over to Egypt. 235 In
addition, about 1 million Egyptians work in Libya, and the two countries are major
trading partners. After the UN imposed sanctions and a flight ban on Libya in the wake
the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, Egypt kept its borders with
Libya open, thus helping sustain Libya‘s economy.236
During the Arab Spring of 2011, the ripples of antigovernment mass protests across the
Middle East and North Africa reached Libya in February 2011. Protesters demonstrated
throughout Libya, calling for Qadhafi to step down. The protests escalated into armed
conflict, which led to harsh military crackdown on protesters. The United Nations
sanctioned NATO airstrikes in support of the rebel forces. On 20 October 2011, rebel
forces captured and killed Qadhafi.237, 238 This leaves both Egypt and Libya under the
control of interim governments, and relations between the two are likely to be reassessed
as time passes.
Police Force
The Ministry of Interior is in direct control of law
enforcement in Egypt. It supervises all
paramilitary and police functions. The military
and paramilitary are conscripted. The paramilitary
units include the Central Security Forces (CSF),
the largest branch, and the National Guard, Border
Guard Forces, and the Coast Guard. CSF living
conditions are meager and the pay is low.239, 240
234
Helen Chapin Metz, ed., ―Libya and Arab Unity,‖ in Libya: A Country Study, Federal Research Division,
Library of Congress, 1987, http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-8147.html
235
Barak Barfi, ―Saudi Approval Will Continue to Shape Egypt‘s Foreign Policy,‖ Daily Star, 17 June
2011, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Opinion/Commentary/2011/Jun-17/Saudi-approval-will-continue-toshape-Egypts-foreign-policy.ashx#axzz1Ro7FJjFr
236
Jane‘s Defence, ―Libya: External Affairs,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – North Africa, 30
March 2011.
237
Barry Malone, ―Gaddafi Killed in Hometown, Libya Eyes Future,‖ Reuters, 20 October 2011,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/10/20/us-libya-idUSTRE79F1FK20111020
238
Daniel Tovrov, ―Gadhafi and Loyalists ‗Executed‘: Who is Worse, the NTC or Gadhafi?‖ International
Business Times, 26 October 2011, http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/238237/20111026/gadhafi-dead-photokilled-evil.htm
239
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Egypt: Law Enforcement,‖ 2010,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/180382/Egypt
© D L I F L C | 57
Egypt‘s modern police force emerged after the 1952 revolution that overthrew the
British-backed monarchy. Under President Nasser, who belonged to the Free Officers
Movement that ousted the monarchy, the police became a force to be feared. Egypt
became a police state and remained so until Mubarak‘s resignation in February 2011.
In July 2011, the Egyptian caretaker government fired nearly 700 police officers for their
involvement in the killing of protesters during the mass uprising earlier in the year. Major
generals, brigadier generals, and colonels were among the officers fired.241 Although
nearly 900 people died and thousands of others were injured during the 18-day uprising,
only one police officer has been convicted. Bringing the police to justice for their
brutality and restructuring of the police force was a key demand of the protesters.242, 243
The military council began the transition to democracy from three decades of
authoritarian rule by dissolving parliament, suspending the constitution, and calling for a
referendum to pave the way for fair and free elections. Egyptian voters approved the
measures in the referendum. The council has expressed its commitment to honoring
existing international treaties.244
Military
Following the overthrow of the monarchy in the
coup of 1952, all four of Egypt‘s presidents
emerged from the armed forces.245 The armed
forces also control much of the economy,
including the tourism sector.246 After the
resignation of Hosni Mubarak amid mass protests
against his regime, the Supreme Council of the
Armed Forces took control of the government but
vowed to supervise a transfer of power to a
civilian government. Egypt has the largest armed forces in the Arab world and among all
African states.
240
Jane‘s Defence, ―Egypt: Security and Foreign Forces,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – North
Africa, 19 January 2010.
241
Leila Fadel, ―Egypt Fires Nearly 700 Top Police Officers,‖ Washington Post, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
14 July 2011, http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/11195/1160316-82-0.stm
242
Jane‘s Information Group, ―Egypt Sacks Police Officers and Delays Elections,‖ Country Risk Daily
Report, 14 July 2011.
243
Jane‘s Information Group, ―Former Egyptian Interior Minister to Stand Trial with Mubarak,‖ Jane’s
Intelligence Weekly, 26 July 2011.
244
BBC News, ―Egypt Referendum Strongly Backs Constitutional Changes,‖ 20 March 2011,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12801125
245
The four presidents were Mohammad Naguib (1953–1954), Gamal Abdel Nasser (1954–1970), Anwar
Sadat (1970–1981), and Hosni Mubarak (1981–2011).
246
Alex Blumberg, ―Why Egypt‘s Military Cares About Home Appliances,‖ NPR, 4 February 2011,
http://www.npr.org/blogs/money/2011/02/10/133501837/why-egypts-military-cares-about-homeappliances
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Egypt‘s armed forces include the army, air force, air defense, and navy.247 Egyptian
males from 18–30 years of age are conscripted for 12–36-month terms and a further 9
years in the reserves. In 2010, an estimated 21,012,199 men and 20,145,021 women aged
16–49 were available for military service. Over 1,532,000 are estimated to reach military
age every year. The equipment used by the armed forces comes from the United States,
Italy, France, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union; Soviet equipment is slowly
being replaced with more modern equipment. Egypt‘s budget for military expenditures
constitutes 3.4% of GDP.248 Egypt is one of a few nations in the region to have a military
industrial complex.249
Egyptian personnel have participated in a number of UN peacekeeping missions. As of
June 2011, more than 5,000 Egyptians served in missions around the world. These
include missions in Congo (MONUSCO), Côte d‘Ivoire (UNOCI), Darfur (UNAMID),
Haiti (MINUSTAH), Liberia (UNMIL), South Sudan (UNMISS), Timor-Leste (UNMIT),
and Western Sahara (MINURSO). The largest contribution is in UNAMID.250, 251
Army
Egypt‘s army is the largest of the armed forces,
with approximately 340,000 active duty personnel
and 375,000 reservists.252 The order of battle is
composed of 2 regular infantry brigades, 2
motorized infantry brigades, 31 mechanized
infantry brigades, 21 armor brigades, 15 artillery
brigades, 2 heavy mortar brigades, a
commando/counterterrorism unit (approximately
1,300 strong), 2 mobile air brigades, and 1
airborne brigade. Major installations are located in Alexandria, Assiut, Aswan, Cairo, ElArish, Hawamidiya, Ismailiya, Luxor, Mersa Matruh, Port Said, Sidi Buraimi, Sharm alSheikh, and Suez.253
Egypt has an impressive array of sophisticated and modern weaponry in its arsenal
garnered both from manufactures around the globe and produced domestically. The
army‘s main battle tanks include more than a thousand U.S.-modeled M1A1 Abrams
tanks, a couple hundred T-54E Ramses II tanks (the schematics for this Soviet-made tank
were reverse engineered by the U.S. military and then manufactured by Egyptian firms),
247
Jane‘s Defence, ―Egypt: Armed Forces,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – North Africa, 07
September 2011.
248
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Egypt: Military,‖ in The World Factbook, 5 July 2011,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html
249
Jane‘s Defence, ―Egypt: Armed Forces,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – North Africa, 07
September 2011.
250
United Nations Peacekeeping, ―Contributors to United Nations Peacekeeping Operations‖ June 2011, 1
http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/contributors/2011/jun11_1.pdf
251
United Nations Peacekeeping, ―UN Missions Summary Detailed by Country‖ 30 June 2011, 10–11,
http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/contributors/2011/jun11_3.pdf
252
Egyptian Armed Forces, ―History: Pharaonic,‖ 2002, http://www.mmc.gov.eg/
253
Jane‘s Defence, ―Egypt,‖ Jane’s World Armies, 07 September 2011.
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more than 800 Soviet-manufactured T-54/55 tanks, roughly 500 Soviet-made T-62 tanks,
more than 900 American-made M60A3 and 700 M60A1 tanks. Additionally, the army
utilizes more than 1,300 reconnaissance vehicles and infantry fighting vehicles of
American- and Soviet-designs, and nearly 5,000 armored personnel carriers of Soviet,
Czech, American, British, and domestic make.254
Air Force
A highly professional, efficient, and well-trained
organization, the Egyptian Air Force is composed
of approximately 30,000 active duty personnel. Its
order of battle is comprised of 7 fighter regiments,
3 attack helicopter regiments, 3 transport
regiments (including commando units), 3
helicopter regiments (including commando units),
1 transport helicopter regiment, 1 air
expeditionary wing brigade, and 1 electronic
countermeasures brigade. Major installations are located at Abu Suwayr, al-Mansurah,
Almaza, Al-Zaqaziq, Beni Suef, Bilbays, Birma, Cairo, al-Minya, Fayid, Gebel al-Basur,
Hurghada, Inshas, Jiyanklis, Kom Awshim, Mersa Matruh, and Wadi al-Jandali.255
Air Force equipment is composed of high-end Western- and Chinese-designed aircraft
and a smattering of Soviet-era relics. Multi-role fighters include U.S.-manufactured
multiple variants of the F-16, totaling roughly 200 aircraft, and around 60 Frenchmanufactured Mirage 5SDE and 5E2 aircraft. Ground attack craft are 52 Chengdu F-7B
interceptors, 28 McDonnell Douglas F-4E Phantom II fighter bombers, and 40 Sovietmade MiG-21MF Fishbed-J fighters. Additionally, a dozen German/Frenchmanufactured Alpha Jet MS2 light attack aircraft provide counter insurgency capabilities.
Transport aircraft are primarily composed of various Western-manufactured craft. Rotary
wing aircraft of Soviet, British, French, and American models including the AH-64D
Apache and SA 3342L Gazelle attack helicopters, the Mi-8 Hip assault helicopters, the
CH-47D Chinook transports, WS-61 Commando utility helicopters, and Kaman SH2G(E) Seasprite anti-submarine helicopters.256
Air Defense
Frequently discussed as though it were part and parcel of the Air Force, the Egypt‘s Air
Defense actually represents a separate command structure. This branch of the service has
approximately 70,000 active personnel. It is comprised of 3 fighter regiments stationed at
al-Mansurah, Mersa Matruh, and Fayid. Its primary assets are around a dozen Frenchmanufactured Mirage 2000EM interceptors, a handful of Mirage 5SDR
reconnaissance/fighter bombers, and 4 Beechcraft 1900C electronic
intelligence/surveillance turboprop aircraft.257 Additionally, the Air Defense recently
upgraded its radar capabilities, adding the U.S.-manufactured AN/TPS-63 and AN/TPS254
Jane‘s Defence, ―Egypt,‖ Jane’s World Armies, 07 September 2011.
Jane‘s Defence, ―Egypt: Air Force,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – North Africa, 15 July 2011.
256
Jane‘s Defence, ―Egypt: Air Force,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – North Africa, 15 July 2011.
257
Jane‘s Defence, ―Egypt: Air Force,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – North Africa, 15 July 2011.
255
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93 systems and procuring more than two dozen MIM-72A Chaparral surface-to-air selfpropelled rocket launcher system, which utilizes the AIM-9 Sidewinder missile.258, 259, 260
Other assets include surface-to-air systems of various manufacture and origin.
Navy
Traditionally the most underdeveloped of Egypt‘s
armed forces, the navy has been undergoing
significant upgrading in the past few decades.
Comprised of roughly 18,500 active duty
personnel, including coast guard, and 14,000
reservists, the navy is divided into 2 fleets: the
Mediterranean Fleet, with bases at Abu Qir,
Alexandria, Mersa Matruh, Port Said, and Suez,
and the Red Sea Fleet, with bases at Hurghada,
Safaqa, and Berenice. Additionally, the navy has
2 naval aviation squadrons: the 11th Squadron, tasked with anti-ship operations, and the
75th Squadron, tasked with anti-submarine operations. Both are stationed in Alexandria.
The navy is equipped with 2 Knox-class frigates, 4 Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates, 2
Jianghu I (Type 053) frigates, 2 Descubierta-class corvettes, and a wide array of fast
attack craft, landing craft, minesweepers, and swift boats.261
Issues Affecting Stability
Civil Unrest and Civil Rights
Prior to January 2011, terrorists were the
instigators of civil disturbances. Terrorists tried to
undermine the Mubarak regime through several
attacks in recent years. Most of the attacks have
been on the tourism sector, including attacks in
Cairo in April 2005 and February 2009, Dahab in
2006, Sharm al-Sheikh in 2005, and Taba in
2004.262
In 2011, civil unrest emerged in Egypt as part of the wave of antigovernment mass
protests that began in Tunisia and ousted its president in January of that year. Throughout
Egypt, thousands of protesters took to the streets, demanding an end to the repressive
Mubarak regime and his immediate resignation. During Mubarak‘s 30-year rule, Egypt
was not an electoral democracy (elections were designed to ensure the success of the
258
GlobalSecurity.org, ―An/TPS-63,‖ 07 July 2011,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/systems/an-tps-63.htm
259
Jane‘s Defence, ―Egypt: Procurement,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – North Africa, 03 October
2011.
260
Jane‘s Defence, ―Egypt: Air Force,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – North Africa, 15 July 2011
261
Jane‘s Defence, ―Egypt: Navy,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – North Africa, 07 September 2011.
262
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―2011 Investment
Climate Statement: Egypt,‖ March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157271.htm
© D L I F L C | 61
ruling party), and freedom of press, assembly, and association were restricted. After 18
days of unprecedented mass demonstrations, Mubarak stepped down and placed the
military in charge of the government.
The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces has made important concessions in meeting
protesters‘ demands. It suspended the constitution, dissolved the assembly, and
investigated crimes committed by Mubarak and his sons. A referendum was held in
which Egyptians approved constitutional reforms. Reforms include limiting presidential
terms to two 4-year terms, requiring the president to select a deputy within 30 days of
election, and specifying new qualifications for the presidency.263 The referendum paves
the way for parliamentary and presidential elections later this year. Parliament will then
appoint members of an assembly that will rewrite the constitution.
Continued protests focus on the new government‘s slow pace of political and economic
reform, the fact that only a handful of officials from Mubarak regime have been replaced,
and the lack of justice for the hundreds of thousands who were killed and injured in
January and February. The Muslim Brotherhood, an Islamist organization, and the
fundamentalist Salafists and their al-Noor political party took part in the demonstrations
in July. Some youth and political groups also support a ―Constitution First‖ platform in
which revisions of law would take priority over elections.. Scores of political parties have
formed since February, but none is as organized as the Muslim Brotherhood.
Unemployment
Although Egypt‘s labor force grows steadily every year,
unemployment continues to grow as well. Every year 600,000
people enter the work force, mainly in the public sector.264 The
public sector and government bureaucracy are overstaffed.
Skilled labor is in short supply. Universities graduate large
numbers of students, yet official unemployment rates stood at an
estimated 11.9% as of May 2011.265 In 2009, when the
unemployment rate was already high at 9.4%, 2.34 million
Egyptians out of a workforce of 25 million were unemployed.266
Since then, the economy has not grown fast enough to create jobs
for those entering the labor force. Unemployment rates among
young people and young women are particularly high at 24% and
50%, respectively.267 Given that the median age in Egypt is 24,
263
BBC News, ―Egypt Referendum Strongly Backs Constitutional Changes,‖ 20 March 2011,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12801125
264
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―2011 Investment
Climate Statement: Egypt,‖ March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157271.htm
265
Ahmed Feteha, ―Egypt Unemployment Highest in 10 Years,‖ Ahram Online, 25 May 2011,
http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/3/12/12895/Business/Economy/Egypt-unemployment-highest-in-years.aspx
266
Yara Bayoumy, ―Unemployment Rises in Egypt on Low Growth,‖ Reuters, 16 May 2009,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/05/16/us-wef-egypt-unemployment-idUSTRE54F1AZ20090516
267
The World Bank, ―World Bank Group Announces Up to %6 Billion for Egypt and Tunisia,‖ 24 May
2011, http://go.worldbank.org/W6I4IBM8M0
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these unemployment rates are of serious concern.
According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), regulations and the shortage of
skilled labor are hampering the labor market.268 Nepotism in the private sector and the
high cost of firing are also to blame. Egypt must accelerate the growth of the private
sector, reduce inflation and public debt, and better manage spending (subsidies, etc.) in
order to create more jobs. Integration of the Egyptian economy with the global economy
can increase trade and investment as well as know-how, capital, and technologies. The
―youth bulge‖ in Egypt, as in other Middle Eastern countries, can contribute significantly
to the growth and development of the economy in the long run.
Corruption
Although two agencies have been established to handle
corruption cases against government employees, corruption in
the government is perceived as being widespread.269 In 2010,
Egypt ranked 98th out of 178 countries in Transparency
International‘s Corruption Perception Index, which gauges the
population‘s perception of public sector corruption.270 Because
of impunity, weak accountability, and lack of transparency,
corruption has infiltrated all levels of society.271 Even though
bribery is a criminal act, the public‘s perception is that such
behavior continues in businesses, public sector, and government
ministries.
Since 2002, a number of high-profile corruption cases have
resulted in convictions. Some of these convictions may be
politically motivated.272 Among those charged and convicted were the former finance
minister, the former governor of Giza, the former commissioner of the Egyptian Customs
Authority, and several bankers and businessmen. After Mubarak‘s resignation in
February 2011, over 20 ministers from his regime were detained on various charges.273
Among others, former tourism minister Zohair Garranah, former trade minister Rachid
Mohamed Rachid, and former finance minister Youssef Boutros-Ghali have been
268
Ian Talley, ―IMF Warned of Egyptian Youth Jobless Rate Ahead of Protests,‖ Wall Street Journal, 1
February 2011,
http://blogs.wsj.com/economics/2011/02/01/imf-warned-of-egyptian-youth-jobless-rate-ahead-of-protests/
269
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―2011 Investment
Climate Statement: Egypt,‖ March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157271.htm
270
Transparency International, ―Corruption Perceptions Index 2010: Visualising the 2010 Corruption
Perceptions Index, 2010,
http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/interactive
271
The Heritage Foundation, ―2011 Index of Economic Freedom: Egypt,‖ 2011,
http://www.heritage.org/index/country/egypt
272
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―2011 Investment
Climate Statements: Egypt,‖ March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157271.htm
273
BBC News, ―Egypt‘s ex-Tourism Minister Zuhair Garranah ‗Jailed,‘‖ 10 May 2011,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13345416
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sentenced. Hussein Salem, a close associate of former president Mubarak, was detained
on a record-setting bail.274
Water and Food Insecurity
Egypt faces significant challenges in water and
food security. Even with the Nile River and
fertility of the Nile Valley, only 3% of Egypt‘s
land is arable. Of this land area, about 3.1 million
hectares (7,660,266 acres), 11,736 hectares
(29,000 acres) are lost every year because of
desertification, rapid population growth,
construction work, and rising sea levels.275
Egyptians use 85% of the Nile‘s water for
agricultural purposes. Middle and northern sections of the Nile Delta have started to dry
up. Over 750,000 hectares (1,853,290 acres) in the Delta have been lost because of rising
groundwater and poor farming practices. Egypt now imports 60% of its food.
A 1959, accord between Egypt and Sudan allocates 87% of the Nile‘s water yearly to
Egypt, with Sudan receiving the remaining 13%.276 Neither Egypt nor Sudan signed the
2010 agreement on water sharing between six upstream Nile nations; they have called
instead for further talks.277, 278
274
BBC News, ―Spanish Court Sets Huge Bail for Mubarak Associate,‖ 17 June 2011,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13818009
275
IRIN News, ―Egypt: Desertification Threat to Local Food Production,‖ 11 July 2011,
http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93193
276
Yolande Knell, ―A Growing Thirst for the Nile,‖ BBC News, 7 August 2009,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/8187984.stm
277
Aaron T. Wolf and Joshua T. Newton, ―Case Study of Transboundary Dispute Resolution: the Nile
Waters Agreement‖ (case study, Program in Water Conflict Management and Transformation,
Institute for Water and Watersheds, College of Science, Oregon State University, n.d.),
http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/research/case_studies/Nile_New.htm
278
Mike Pflanz, ―Egypt, Sudan Lock Horns with Lower Africa Over Control of Nile River,‖ Christian
Science Monitor, 04 June 2011, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2010/0604/Egypt-Sudan-lockhorns-with-lower-Africa-over-control-of-Nile-River
© D L I F L C | 64
Chapter 5 Assessment
1. Former president Mubarak left a newly elected government in charge after his
resignation in February 2011.
False
President Mubarak left the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces in charge of the
government.
2. Egypt‘s economy continues to grow fast enough to create jobs for those entering
the work force.
False
Unemployment continues to grow in Egypt and the economy is not growing fast
enough to create jobs for those entering the work force. Unemployment rates are
especially high among young people.
3. Jordan is a key ally of Israel and Egypt.
True
In 1984, Jordan was the first country in the League of Arab States to reestablish
relations with Egypt. (Relations with Egypt were severed when Egypt was
suspended from the League of Arab Nations for signing a peace treaty with Israel
in 1979.) In 1994, Jordan signed a peace treaty with Israel, the only Arab country
other than Egypt to do so.
4. Neither Sudan nor Libya has aided Egypt in fighting terrorism.
False
Sudan has harbored Egyptian Islamists within in its borders; Libya has turned
militants over to Egypt.
5. Egypt is the largest recipient of U.S. aid.
False
After Israel, Egypt is the largest recipient of U.S. aid, having received an annual
average of more than USD 2 billion in economic and military assistance since
1979.
© D L I F L C | 65
Final Assessment
1. Alexandria is the largest city in Egypt.
False / True
2. Half of the Egyptian population lives in the desert areas.
False / True
3. The Eastern Desert contains several freshwater oases.
False / True
4. The Nile is the world‘s longest river.
False / True
5. The Arabian Desert is also called the Western Desert.
False / True
6. Egypt‘s oil production is increasing.
False / True
7. Cairo experienced an economic downturn in the 19th century.
False / True
8. Being an agricultural country, Egypt produces more food than it needs.
False / True
9. Cotton is a major export product for Egypt.
False / True
10. Most of Egypt‘s poor people live in the large cities.
False / True
11. The Aswan High Dam has failed to provide hydroelectric power for Egypt.
False / True
12. Ancient Egypt was divided into the kingdoms of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt.
False / True
13. After the Arab invasion of 642, Egypt did not attain a Muslim majority until the
13th century.
False / True
14. The Ottoman officer Mohammed Ali Pasha is considered the founder of modern
Egypt.
False / True
© D L I F L C | 66
15. Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak was the first Egyptian president to negotiate
for peace with Israel.
False / True
16. Almost one-fourth of Egypt‘s population is Bedouin.
False / True
17. Egypt‘s government is officially organized around a state religion.
False / True
18. Women in Egypt have equal rights according to the constitution.
False / True
19. Grains and vegetables form the basis of the Egyptian diet.
False / True
20. Sufi brotherhoods have been outlawed in Egypt.
False / True
21. The Muslim Brotherhood Islamic organization is still banned in Egypt.
False / True
22. The police was used as an instrument of repression by previous Egyptian
administrations.
False / True
23. Unemployment was not a complaint during the mass demonstrations that led to
the resignation of President Mubarak in February 2011.
False / True
24. President Anwar Sadat‘s recognition of and peace treaty with the state of Israel
was well received by other Arab states.
False / True
25. Egypt and Israel have had no trade relations.
False / True
© D L I F L C | 67
Further Reading
BBC News. ―Egypt Country Profile.‖ 1 March 2011.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/737642.stm
BBC News. ―Egypt‘s Revolution.‖ 21 February 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddle-east-12315833
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State. ―Egypt: Country Specific
Information.‖ 4 October 2010.
http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1108.html
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. ―2010
Human Rights Report: Egypt.‖ 8 April 2011.
http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1108.html
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State. ―2011
Investment Climate Statement: Egypt.‖ March 2011.
http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157271.htm
Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, U.S. Department of State. ―Background Note:
Egypt.‖ 10 November 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm
Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office, WHO. ―Country Profiles: Egypt.‖ August 2010.
http://www.emro.who.int/emrinfo/index.aspx?Ctry=egy#Socioeconomic_Conclud
ed
Encyclopedia of Earth. ―Egypt Country Profile.‖ 29 April 2008.
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Egypt_country_profile
Human Rights Watch. ―Egypt.‖ n.d. http://www.hrw.org/middle-eastn-africa/egypt
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State. ―Chapter 2:
Country Reports: Middle East and North Africa.‖ In Country Reports on
Terrorism 2009. 5 August 2010.
http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2009/140886.htm
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State.
―Trafficking in Persons Report 2010: Country Narratives: Countries A Through
F.‖ 2010. http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2010/142759.htm
Reuters. ―FACTBOX: Egypt‘s Constitutional Referendum.‖ 20 March 2011.
http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/20/us-egypt-referendum-constitutionfactbox-idUSTRE72J2TT20110320
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Reuters. ―Timeline: Egypt Since Protested Hosni Mubarak.‖ 14 April 2011.
http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/14/us-egypt-mubarak-events-timelineidUSTRE73D5R320110414
UCLA Language Materials Project. ―Arabic.‖ n.d.
http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=210&menu=004
UN Development Programme, POGAR. ―Country Theme: Elections: Egypt.‖
http://www.undp-pogar.org/countries/theme.aspx?t=3&cid=5
UNESCO World Heritage Convention. ―Egypt.‖ n.d.
http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/eg
University Libraries, University of Colorado. ―Egypt.‖ n.d.
http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/egypt.htm
U.S. Energy Information Administration. ―Egypt Country Profile.‖ February 2011.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=EG
The World Bank. ―Egypt, Arab Rep.‖ 2011. http://data.worldbank.org/country/egyptarab-republic
World Trade Organization. ―Country Profile: Egypt.‖ March 2011.
http://stat.wto.org/CountryProfile/WSDBCountryPFView.aspx?Language=E&Co
untry=EG
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