Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
(FRONT COVER)
REVISED DRAFT
Environmentally Sound Technologies
for Sustainable Development
May 21, 2003
International Environmental Technology Centre
Division of Technology, Industry and Economics
United Nations Environment Programme
Revised 21/09/03
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
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(INSIDE FRONT COVER)
Environmentally Sound Technologies
The definition of Environmentally Sound Technologies (ESTs) is based on Agenda 21, which
arose from the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), otherwise known as
the Earth Summit, held in 1992. Chapter 34 of Agenda 21 defines ESTs as technologies which:
•
protect the environment;
•
are less polluting;
•
use all resources in a more sustainable manner;
•
recycle more of their wastes and products; and
•
handle residual wastes in a more acceptable manner than the technologies for which they
are substitutes.
ESTs are therefore technologies that have the potential for significantly improved environmental
performance relative to other technologies.
Agenda 21 also contains several other important statements to guide interpretation of this
definition, with emphasis on facilitating the accessibility and transfer of technology, particularly
in developing countries, as well as the essential role of capacity building and technology
cooperation in promoting sustainable development. It states that:
New and efficient technologies will be essential to increase the capabilities (in particular
of developing countries) to achieve sustainable development, sustain the world’s
economy, protect the environment, and alleviate poverty and human suffering. Inherent
in these activities is the need to address the improvement of technology currently used
and its replacement, when appropriate, with more accessible and more environmentally
sound technology.
ESTs are not just individual technologies. They can also be defined as total systems that include
know-how, procedures, goods and services, and equipment, as well as organisational and
managerial procedures for promoting environmental sustainability. Based on these
characteristics, the definition of ESTs:
•
applies to the transition of all technologies in becoming more environmentally sound;
•
captures the full life cycle flow of the material, energy and water in the production and
consumption system;
•
covers the full spectrum from basic technologies that are adjunct to the production and
consumption system, to fully integrated technologies where the environmental technology is
the production or consumption technology itself;
•
includes closed system technologies (where the goal is zero waste and/or significant
reductions in resource use), as well as environmental technologies that may result in
emissions; and
•
considers technology development within both the ecological and social context.
The adoption and use of ESTs must be underpinned by the concomitant development of more
holistic environmental management strategies, taking into account the need for culturally
appropriate, ecologically sustainable solutions. Transparency and accountability are fundamental
prerequisites. Baselines, benchmarks, codes of practice and indicators of sustainable
development are tools for assessing the performance of technological systems on a continuous
basis and for modifying future strategies.
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Executive Summary
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It is a process of change
in which the use of resources, investment strategies, technological development, and institutional
change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and
aspirations. Because sustainable development is a context-driven concept, different societies tend
to define it based on their own values, needs and expectations.
Our global interdependence and vulnerability have never been more pronounced. We are now
experiencing an extraordinary period of innovation, when a combination of new technologies and
new lifestyle choices can help us to reduce dramatically the environmental “footprint” each of us
imposes on the world. New and emerging technologies offer enormous opportunities for raising
productivity and living standards and for improving health, while at the same time reducing
consumption and conserving the earth’s natural resources. Ecology is at the centre of these
interactive natural, social and technological forces, and for the survival of society the very highest
priority must be given to maintaining the integrity of the ecosystem as a whole. The scale of a
particular technology or technological system, the intensity and dynamics of its application and
its interaction with society all have to be taken into account. Our human capacity to understand
the workings of our ecosystem confers upon us the responsibility to do this.
Better policies and procedures are urgently needed to reduce the extent of damage to the
biosphere until more adequate, ecologically sound approaches can be provided. Two strategies
for change are required – a near term, adaptive strategy to manage current conditions; and a long
term, reconstructive strategy to establish comprehensive goals for sustainable development and to
implement the necessary actions for their attainment. These strategies must be designed to
prevent high risk, irreversible decisions that might result in the foreclosure of future possibilities.
If the determination of priorities is to reflect sound judgement, a precondition must be the
integration of ecological factors within the decision-making process. Improved means of
measuring and forecasting ecological changes are certainly needed, as are ecological monitoring
and observation techniques to identify what should and should not be done. Avoiding
unnecessary foreclosure of future opportunities and avoiding unwanted irreversible effects, based
on a precautionary approach, is often more effective than remedial measures or complex
programmes that may not be operationally viable.
Environmentally Sound Technologies (ESTs) are technologies that have the potential for
significantly improved environmental performance relative to other technologies. ESTs protect
the environment, are less polluting, use resources in a sustainable manner, recycle more of their
wastes and products, and handle all residual wastes in a more environmentally acceptable way
than the technologies for which they are substitutes. ESTs are not just individual technologies.
They can also be defined as total systems that include know-how, goods, services, and equipment,
as well as organisational and managerial procedures.
The environmental performance of a technology is reflected in its impacts on specific human
populations and ecosystems, and is influenced by factors such as the availability of supporting
infrastructure and human resources for the management, monitoring and maintenance of the
technology. The environmental soundness of technology is also influenced by temporal and
geographical factors. What could be environmentally sound in one country or region might not
be in another. It is also important to recognise that the development and implementation of
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complex, sophisticated, and very expensive new technologies may exacerbate existing
inequalities between rich and poor nations, or create new ones. This makes it important to ensure
that the adoption and use of technologies reflects local circumstances and meets local needs and
priorities, to increase the likelihood of successful application.
The environmental performance of technologies is not well understood by many decision-makers,
largely due to the inadequacy of information and decision support tools used to quantify and
qualify their benefits. Linking environmental practices to commercial success in a financially
credible manner can have profound implications on how environmental performance information
is collected, analysed, and communicated. Unfortunately, uniform reporting measures remain
elusive, and the variety of approaches for reporting environmental performance information often
makes it difficult, if not impossible, to compare technologies, products and services. The
challenge is even greater in the context of developing countries, given the complexity of factors
that influence and determine investment decisions.
Encouraging the adoption and use of ESTs requires a combination of voluntary approaches and a
regulatory framework that nurtures both innovation and environmental accountability. There
needs to be greater clarification of existing environmental rules and regulations, as well as better
coordination and harmonisation with international standards. Enacting policies that lower costs
and stimulate a demand for ESTs is also necessary to achieve the environmental benefits that
otherwise might not be realised.
The effectiveness of ESTs depends on having both broad-based and expert input into their
development, adoption and ongoing monitoring. Governments, the private sector and citizens
must all be involved. Systems for collecting, synthesising and feeding back information and
knowledge on ESTs must be developed and maintained. By focusing public and private interests
on the needs of developing countries, substantial progress could be made. To guide this process,
actions are urgently needed now to establish policy objectives and priorities within a strategic
framework which are supportive of environmentally sound technologies, ultimately leading to
their adoption and use.
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Table of Contents
Preface ............................................................................................................................................. 1
1. Technology and Sustainable Development ............................................................................. 2
1.1
The Emergence of Technology ....................................................................................... 2
1.2
Technology and Society .................................................................................................. 2
1.3
Technology and Science.................................................................................................. 3
1.4
Environmentalism and Sustainable Development ........................................................... 3
1.5
Technological Innovation................................................................................................ 5
1.6
Technological Diversity .................................................................................................. 5
1.7
Technology Dissemination and Globalisation................................................................. 7
2. Technology Applications and Market Drivers ........................................................................ 8
2.1
Enabling Technologies .................................................................................................... 8
2.1.1
Information and Automation ................................................................................... 8
2.1.2
Biotechnology.......................................................................................................... 8
2.1.3
Advanced Materials and Processes.......................................................................... 9
2.2
Energy ............................................................................................................................. 9
2.2.1
Renewable Energy................................................................................................. 10
2.2.2
Energy Efficiency.................................................................................................. 10
2.3
Water ............................................................................................................................. 11
2.4
Urbanisation .................................................................................................................. 12
2.4.1
Buildings and Infrastructure .................................................................................. 13
2.4.2
Transportation........................................................................................................ 14
2.4.3
Waste Management ............................................................................................... 14
2.5
Eco-Efficiency............................................................................................................... 14
3. Environmentally Sound Technologies .................................................................................. 16
3.1
Defining Environmentally Sound Technologies ........................................................... 16
3.2
Technology Development Cycle ................................................................................... 18
3.3
Appropriateness of Technology..................................................................................... 18
3.4
Ecological Engineering ................................................................................................. 19
3.5
Cleaner Production and Zero Emissions ....................................................................... 20
3.6
Ecological Services ....................................................................................................... 21
3.6.1
Valuation of Ecological Services .......................................................................... 21
3.6.2
Managing Ecological Services .............................................................................. 22
4. Factors Influencing the Adoption and Use of ESTs .............................................................. 24
4.1
Technology Transfer and Cooperation .......................................................................... 24
4.2
Building Capacity.......................................................................................................... 25
4.3
Science and Technology Investment ............................................................................. 27
4.4
Budgeting and Procurement .......................................................................................... 28
4.5
Balancing Voluntary and Regulatory Approaches ........................................................ 29
4.6
International Standards.................................................................................................. 30
4.7
Ecosystems Integrity ..................................................................................................... 30
4.8
Risk Management.......................................................................................................... 31
4.9
Political and Institutional Considerations...................................................................... 32
4.10
Stakeholder Involvement........................................................................................... 33
5. EST Performance .................................................................................................................. 37
5.1
Linking Environmental and Financial Performance...................................................... 37
5.2
A Framework for EST Selection ................................................................................... 39
5.3
Environmental Performance Indicators ......................................................................... 40
5.4
EST Criteria................................................................................................................... 42
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Monitoring and Reporting ............................................................................................. 43
5.5
Applying Various Assessment Tools .................................................................................... 45
6.1
Technology Assessment ................................................................................................ 47
6.2
Environmental Risk Assessment ................................................................................... 47
6.3
Life Cycle Assessment .................................................................................................. 48
6.4
Ecosystems Valuation ................................................................................................... 48
6.5
Third Party Conformity Assessment ............................................................................. 48
6.5.1
Verification............................................................................................................ 49
6.5.2
Certification........................................................................................................... 50
6.5.3
Accreditation ......................................................................................................... 50
6.6
Examples of Conformity Assessment............................................................................ 50
6.6.1
Product Labelling .................................................................................................. 50
6.6.2
Technology Verification........................................................................................ 51
6.6.3
GHG Emissions Verification................................................................................. 52
6.6.4
Environmental Management Systems ................................................................... 52
6.6.5
Environmental Benchmarking and Reporting ....................................................... 53
6.6.6
Environmental Technology Information Systems ................................................. 53
6.7
EST-PA: An Integrated Approach to EST Performance Assessment ........................... 54
7. EST Action Plan .................................................................................................................... 56
7.1
Establishing Objectives and Priorities for ESTs............................................................ 57
7.2
Implementing EST Policies and Programmes ............................................................... 58
7.2.1
Social Systems....................................................................................................... 59
7.2.2
Corporate Systems................................................................................................. 59
7.2.3
Legal Systems........................................................................................................ 59
7.2.4
Financial Systems.................................................................................................. 59
7.2.5
Technological Systems .......................................................................................... 60
7.2.6
Information Systems.............................................................................................. 60
7.3
EST Initiative - Partner Organisations........................................................................... 60
7.4
EST Initiative – Next Steps ........................................................................................... 61
7.5
Anticipated Benefits ...................................................................................................... 62
Appendix A – Proposed Checklists for Identifying and Selecting ESTs ...................................... 63
Appendix B -- Selected EcoLabelling Programs........................................................................... 67
Appendix C -- Selected Environmental Technology Verification Programs ................................ 76
Appendix D -- Selected GHG-Related Verification Initiatives..................................................... 81
Appendix E -- Selected EMS Programs ........................................................................................ 87
Appendix F -- Selected Reporting and Benchmarking Initiatives................................................. 91
Appendix G -- Selected Environmental Technology Information Systems .................................. 95
Appendix H – EST Initiative: Commitments of Partner Organisations ...................................... 100
Bibliography................................................................................................................................ 103
6.
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Preface
Many of the world’s environmental problems are due to a lack of understanding of the impact of
human activity upon the environment. New management methods and decision support tools
must therefore be developed and applied. The implementation of sustainable solutions must be
part of an integrated management and governance framework which addresses the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED
1987). This involves improving the quality of human life while living within the limits of
supporting ecosystems (IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1991). It involves transforming decision-making
and basing it upon the triple imperative of long-term ecological, social and economic security
(“the triple bottom line”), specifically:
•
living within the limits of local and global biophysical carrying capacity and biodiversity
(the ecological imperative);
•
ensuring that basic needs are met through democratic systems of governance and equity
(the social imperative); and
•
ensuring a vibrant economy based on eco-efficiency and sustainability (the economic
imperative).
Sustainable development is central to the mandate of the International Environmental Technology
Centre (IETC) of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). This document has been
prepared to highlight the importance of environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) in achieving
sustainable development objectives. It provides a foundation for the UNEP Initiative on ESTs.
The initiative arose from Agenda 21 of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) and has subsequently evolved in support of the implementation plan of
the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD). In launching this initiative,
UNEP is seeking to promote the application of ESTs in developing countries and countries with
economies in transition. This involves improving access to information on ESTs and helping to
build global capacity for their identification, adoption and use.
This document can be considered in two parts. The first, consisting of Sections 1 through 4,
provides a perspective on the role of technology in sustainable development. Section 1 offers an
introductory perspective on technology, science and society in relation to sustainable
development and globalisation. Section 2 examines the emergence of the “enabling
technologies” and some key areas such as energy, urbanisation and waste, where eco-efficient
technology applications are needed. Section 3 focuses on the definition of environmentally sound
technologies and some of the related concepts which offer the potential for integrated solutions
which take into account social, economic, and environmental factors. Section 4 reviews some of
the factors which influence the adoption and use of ESTs, and examines the transfer and diffusion
of environmentally sound technologies and the nurturing of technological capacity in developing
countries.
The second part, consisting of Sections 5, 6 and 7, focuses on tools and methodologies for
promoting the adoption and use of environmentally sound technologies, as well as recommended
actions for moving forward. Section 5 provides an overview of the key indicators and criteria for
determining the environmental performance of technologies. Section 6 focuses on the application
of various decision support tools to facilitate the selection of ESTs. Section 7 outlines some of
the areas where actions are required to facilitate the adoption and use of ESTs.
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1.
1.1
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Technology and Sustainable Development
The Emergence of Technology
The word “technology” refers to the application of science and engineering to study problems and
provide solutions. It is derived from the Greek word tekhne, which means art, craft or skill.
Today, technology is usually defined more broadly to include tools, extensions of humankind’s
capabilities and the evolution of societal and ecological systems.
Basic tools, such as the early hunting tools of humans, were originally used to serve simple needs,
characterised by sameness and repetition. Over time, some of these tools were refined, but their
functions generally remained unchanged. When the quantities of tools produced were relatively
small, humans could remain detached and anything that seemed dangerous and unsatisfactory
could be abandoned. Humans simply moved to new hunting grounds or pastures and nature had
the capacity to absorb the minor interferences of humans over time. In this early stage of human
evolution, needs were thought of as a collection of independent parts which could be dealt with
separately, and hence adequate control of the immediate environment seemed to be achievable.
Technology and population growth transformed the search for enough to the quest for more. The
Industrial Revolution is illustrative of this. It produced a cluster of interrelated changes, from
new technologies to political-economic-social reforms . The invention of the steam engine
resulted in new production processes which in turn generated new production units and work
patterns. Factories were built, resulting in the movement of people from country to city. Capital
resources were used to intensify mechanisation and automation, eventually leading to new social
structures and cultural changes driven by technological and economic demands.
More recently over the past 50 years, global markets began to open up and trans-national
corporations began to decentralise. Older industrial centres declined, while new plants were
constructed, often in poorer countries with cheaper labour and fewer regulations. Capital was
freed from its traditional dependence on labour, and a new international economic order surfaced.
In many countries, the trading and industrial production activities which emerged increased
society’s appetite for even more.
Today, the rapidity of change and the impact of technological developments on society are
dramatic. Around the world, new technologies – especially information, both biotechnological
and military – are being developed and applied at rates faster than ever before. In many cases, the
speed of this increase is far greater than the ability of society to adapt. With this accelerated pace
and increased scale of production and consumption, it has become clear that previous experiences
and old ways of thinking are no longer adequate in dealing with new problems. The complexity
of factors with which humans must now deal has become so great that it is virtually impossible to
grasp them in the framework of a simple deterministic relationship. As a result, stresses between
humans and their habitat have intensified.
1.2
Technology and Society
Technology serves humans collectively as well as individually and is dependent on social
structure. The institutional framework that emerges from this influences our comprehension of
technology. The more useful the technology, the greater the change it can bring to behavioural
patterns and social structure. Society has become very dependent on technologies, and for the
most part cannot function without them. However, by their very presence, technologies often
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lead us to search for solutions to problems that are perceived as technological, even though the
problem may not have been technological to begin with.
Technologies are not just tools that we put to good or bad use. They reflect our cultural values
and have altered the nature of human consciousness. The history of human endeavour is often
characterised by the struggle to overcome physical limitations. As a result, success in reaching
beyond natural limitations forms the cultural tradition of many societies. For example, some
view technology as a means to control nature. They believe that the problems created by one
technology can be solved by another. Yet humans are both part of and dependent on nature. The
human and environmental consequences of technological choices and the extent to which we are
shaped by technology needs to be recognised.
1.3
Technology and Science
The swift growth of science is at the core of technological growth. Science has been so
successful that it has given considerable power to those who control its development. Jeremy
Rifkin notes that:
All technologies are power. Technologies change the equation of nature by giving
human beings a distinct advantage over each other and other species… The tools we
create are saturated with power because their whole reason for being is to provide us
with an advantage. (Rifkin 1985)
The principal achievement of science is the accumulation of precise knowledge, and the potential
to apply it in a variety of beneficial ways. However, it is important to recognise that scientific
work is usually undertaken with some purpose in mind and therefore cannot be value free. As
Milbrath points out:
every expenditure of energy, time, and money in scientific inquiry is an expression of one
or more values. A scientist choosing a line of inquiry is expressing a belief in that line of
inquiry as being more valuable than others. (Milbrath 1989)
Evaluating and applying scientific knowledge inevitably leads to difficult choices which are
ultimately shaped by values. When scientists choose to proceed with a line of inquiry, they are
usually only addressing a part of reality. It is therefore better to regard science as an evolutionary
process in which accepted “truth” is subjected to rigorous review and criticism from different
disciplines and stakeholders from all segments of society.
The belief of many scientists that scientific activity is value free makes it difficult for the
scientific community to regulate itself. Political authorities also have difficulty understanding
and controlling science. Thus, the control of science, and the power it creates, usually resides
within those societal entities that control funding for its development. In market-driven societies,
much of this control and power is within large corporations and therefore it is incumbent upon
them to manage their activities and investments in an environmentally and socially responsible
manner.
1.4
Environmentalism and Sustainable Development
Although many cultures around the world are based on harmonious relationships with nature,
environmentalism as a popular concept within industrialised nations surfaced in the 1960s.
During this period, many scientists began to express their concern for environmental issues such
as the effects of pollution and the depletion of non-renewable natural resources. There was also
an increase in public concern for the welfare of the natural environment and nature conservation
organisations and public interest groups were formed specifically to draw attention to this.
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Environmentalism in the ‘60s and ‘70s was generally seen as antagonistic towards industry and
economic growth, and initially had little support from mainstream economists and industrialists.
However, while some governments were reluctant to acknowledge the presence of global
environmental problems, or to recognise the possibility of a global ecological crisis, others,
mostly in wealthier nations, responded to public pressure and introduced pollution control
regulations and other forms of environmental legislation. In 1968, the Biosphere Conference
recommended that member states of all United Nations organisations:
develop comprehensive and integrated policies for management of the environment, and
that international efforts and problems be considered in the formulation of such policies.
(UNESCO 1969)
Building on this, the United Nations General Assembly convened the United Nations Conference
on the Human Environment in 1972. This conference provided the basis of a framework for
international cooperation in addressing environmental problems.
A second wave of environmentalism began to gain momentum in the late 1980s, driven by
evidence about depletion of the ozone layer and the build-up of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. An important milestone was the release of the Brundtland Report in 1987 by the
United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development. The Brundtland Report
argued that the world needs both environmental protection and economic development and that
sustainable forms of development should be encouraged. The report defined sustainable
development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs”, noting that:
sustainable development is a process of change in which the exploitation of resources,
the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and
institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to
meet human needs and aspirations.
The Brundtland Report was approved in the UN General Assembly and sustainable development
was accepted as a national goal by the governments of 100 nations.
While many individuals and interest groups agree that the environment must be protected, they
often have different ideas about what specific aspects should be protected and how it should be
protected. In other words, although they may agree that the pursuit of sustainable development is
important and necessary, they often disagree about how it should be pursued. The Brundtland
Report recognises this and makes room for different interpretations of sustainable development to
suit different societal goals.
Nevertheless, some critics of the Brundtland Report have argued that the report considers the
environment from the perspective of affluent industrialised nations, and should instead examine
development and the environment from the perspective of poorer communities in developing
countries. Thus, rather than primarily focusing on reducing the environmental impact of existing
economic practices, affluent industrialised nations should focus on changing existing economic
practices in order to ensure that poorer nations have the potential to secure a sustainable future.
Others see the Brundtland Report as a major milestone in raising awareness about the importance
of global ecosystems. They argue that global change is a dynamic process that must be
understood from a holistic and ecological perspective. What happens on one part of the planet
will have some kind of effect, at some time, on all other parts. In describing the interaction of
parts within the whole, physicist Fritjof Capra uses the metaphor of a web of interrelated events,
relationships and technologies all in relatively stable patterns within a global ecosystem.
Similarly, the Brundtland Report refers to “a complex and interlinked ecosystem”, and the need to
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take into account “the system-wide effects of exploitation”. Sustainable development requires the
conservation of ecosystems and the maintenance of biodiversity in order to enhance the options of
future generations.
Common to both of these perspectives is the recognition that our global interdependence and
vulnerability have never been more pronounced. On the one hand, through science and
technology, humans are in the unique position of being largely responsible for their own
environment, while on the other, unexpected threats have arisen from the by-products of scientific
and technological developments. Ecology is at the centre of these interactive natural, social and
technological forces and thus it can be argued that the highest survival value for society is to
maintain the integrity of the ecosystem as a whole. Our human capacity to understand the
workings of our ecosystem confers upon us the responsibility to do this.
1.5
Technological Innovation
Technological innovation confers new capabilities or allows old functions to be performed with
greater efficiency. New technologies are rooted in scientific developments on the one hand, and
in responses to market and societal demand on the other. This implies a creativity that is not
always based on rational behaviour. It also implies that in order to be able to respond to societal
changes and demands, one must try to foresee these demands, as well as the factors and issues
that may inhibit innovation.
We are now in the middle of an extraordinary period of innovation, when a combination of new
technologies and new lifestyle choices can help us to reduce dramatically the environmental
“footprint” each of us imposes on the rest of the world. Some refer to this as an era of superinnovation, where different technologies spur each other on to create totally unexpected solutions
to problems that many people thought were insoluble. It is also important to recognise that the
sharp separation we have drawn in order to compare the negative and positive aspects of
technological progress is a somewhat artificial one. For example, negative environmental
impacts such as automobile emissions can give rise to a new wave of innovation in the
transportation sector. This type of innovation, initially directed at a narrow problem, can
stimulate exploration of related “breakthroughs” that may not have been thought of had the
negative externality not occurred.
Another important technology innovation driver is the effect of a particular innovation in
generating demand for others that may be required to make it economically successful. An
example is the impact of information technology and communications on the demand for
innovative energy and materials technologies and processes. Another example is the
development of closed-cycle manufacturing or food production systems in which most of the
unused material inputs and production wastes are recycled.
Understanding how clustering and synergism among innovations affect the generation of both
negative and positive externalities is a major challenge. There is the need to better understand
cross-industry and cross-national linkages among innovations and their qualitative and
quantitative importance within the context of economic growth, investment, trade and overall
economic performance.
1.6
Technological Diversity
In the early stages of the emergence of a new industry built around a fundamental innovation, the
structure of the industry is very fluid, characterised by a high degree of diversity and
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experimentation. Frequently, there are many small firms, exploring somewhat different
technological approaches. Competition tends to be focused on technological innovations aimed
primarily at product performance rather than price, or even on certain qualities such as reliability,
compatibility with other products of the same genre, or service and maintenance.
As competition continues, one particular technological approach begins to emerge as the
dominant technology. Competition begins to centre more on successive incremental
improvements to this dominant technology and on cumulative manufacturing and managerial
innovations that bring down production costs and improve reliability and standardisation. As the
dominant technology emerges, its competitive position increasingly benefits from the cost
advantages due to higher volume production than its competitors, both in terms of direct
economies of scale and in terms of the progressive refinement of manufacturing, services and
marketing.
The very success of the dominant technology, however, tends to steadily narrow the technical
basis of competition and the search for cumulative improvements covers a smaller and smaller
domain of technical possibilities, even as it becomes more intensive within that domain. In the
process, many possibilities which may have been very promising in their early experimental stage
of development often decline. Options that might have been inherently superior either in cost or
performance or both, but might require more development or depend on more numerous or more
problematic ancillary innovations, may simply fall by the wayside because of the growing cost
advantage of the dominant technology. Moreover, in a technical race increasingly focussed on
cost reduction, factors pertaining to the social impacts or the risks of the technology also receive
less attention.
As the technology and the industry mature and the scale of application increases, certain
disadvantages often begin to appear. New problems arising from the scale of application emerge
just when the broad type of R&D program that might have helped anticipate such problems has
been phased out, because it was no longer in the main line of development necessary for the
commercial success of the dominant technology. It is often at this point that the dominant
technology can become vulnerable to unexpected side effects which can generate a societal
reaction against it. The phenomenon of unexpected side effects arising from the application of
dominant technologies is sometimes referred to as “technological monocultures”. This idea is
analogous to agricultural or forest monocultures which, because of their density, become
vulnerable to insect pests, pathogens, environmental stresses, or the absence of ancillary inputs,
such as water or fertiliser. Like agricultural monocultures, technological monocultures are highly
successful in a stable and predictable environment or market. While generally more efficient than
the alternatives, they are often less robust when conditions become less predictable.
Similar to the maintenance of genetic diversity in natural and constructed ecosystems, there is an
inherent value in the maintenance of technological diversity. The existence of diversity and the
considerable depth of knowledge about many alternative technological options is a potential
source of systemic self-renewal and adjustment to new circumstances. Such technological
diversity has a social value that is not captured by the usual considerations of efficiency, market
share, or organisational growth, which tend to drive the evolution of technological systems in
industrial societies. An overall system that is less efficient or more costly because it requires the
infrastructure for a diversity of technologies may nevertheless have greater viability or survival
potential in an environment subject to sudden changes or discontinuities in the longer term.
However, because there are usually very few immediate rewards to organisations, or even
nations, in directing their efforts toward maintaining such diversity, the advantages of such
diversity are more likely to be realised over a longer period of time.
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Technology Dissemination and Globalisation
The potential of a particular technology depends on its application in a particular economic,
social and political field, which dictates how, when, and where it will be used. Even though a
technology or a technological system may be developed, it will not be implemented or exploited
in the absence of supporting political and economic infrastructure. Conversely, economics or
politics can act as a driver for some technological developments. These choices are further
complicated by the emergence of new technologies that, combined with information technologies,
are transforming our collective knowledge and our lives. Even though technology gives us the
means to communicate globally, the way we do it depends on non-technical choices.
The globalisation of the world economy has been accompanied by globalisation of the process of
technological innovation. Innovations developed by one industry in one country often become
standard practice for that industry worldwide. Increasingly, this is happening in a much shorter
time than in the past. This leaves less time for society to assess the potential impacts of new
technologies and affords less opportunity for countries to control or regulate the secondary effects
of technology within their own boundaries. Furthermore, international competition often forces
the rapid adoption of some technologies internationally, with little opportunity for individual
societies to decide whether or not they wish to accept (or have the capacity to accept) the
associated social or environmental consequences.
It is somewhat misleading to describe the adoption and spread of new technologies as exclusively
positive or benign. The acceleration of the adoption of a new technology frequently implies
acceleration of the abandonment of an old one, or the displacement of a part of the labour force.
Moreover, the sudden acceleration of adoption rates beyond a certain threshold leaves less time
for assessment of longer term social costs and for planning the necessary social adaptations, such
as retraining the work force, managing new types of effluents or wastes, or changing international
trade relations. An important related aspect is regulation, which for the most part is decided upon
through national, political mechanisms. National controls on the use of technologies, particularly
new or emerging technologies, are difficult or impossible to implement without a high level of
cooperation and agreement with the proponents of these technologies, as well as with other
nations.
Technological progress has also greatly reduced the dependency of human societies on the
diversity of resources from their immediate environments. People are now capable of moving
resources over large distances and transforming them extensively. In many cases, with access to
greatly expanded resource catchments, people no longer suffer from depletion of resources in
their immediate environments. Unfortunately, when this occurs, there is often little motivation
for sustainable use and promotion of diversity of resources at the local level. In some cases, the
pressures of resource extraction are transferred to locations further away, often inhabited by
people with little economic or political influence. For the societies in these peripheral areas, this
can result in the loss of control over their own resources and the inability to regulate the
unsustainable use of these resources. Under such circumstances, the motivation to use local
living resources in a sustainable manner and conserve local biodiversity is often lost, and they
become suppliers of whatever they can gather for larger markets. This tends to occur in an
unsustainable fashion, contributing to overall environmental degradation.
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Technology Applications and Market Drivers
As noted in the Brundtland Report:
Technology will continue to change the social, cultural, and economic fabric of nations
and the world community. With careful management, new and emerging technologies
offer enormous opportunities for raising productivity and living standards, for improving
health, and for conserving the natural resource base. Many will also bring new hazards,
requiring an improved capacity for risk assessment and risk management.
There is no single variable called “technology”. The scale of a particular technology or
technological system, the intensity and dynamics of its application, and its interaction with the
society, must all be considered.
2.1
Enabling Technologies
Three major groups of technologies are revolutionising industrial processes around the world –
information, biotechnology and advanced industrial materials. Referred to as the “enabling
technologies”, they are responsible for creating a multitude of new products and services and
transforming production methods in almost every sector of the global economy. In a knowledgebased economy, scientific understanding and appropriate applications of these enabling
technologies are important determinants of sustainable economic growth. They represent an
opportunity for society to move towards more sustainable, eco-efficient industries, processes and
products. Governments have a key role in stimulating and participating in the development of
these enabling technologies.
2.1.1
Information and Automation
Information and automation, based chiefly on advances in micro-electronics and computer
science, is one of the enabling technology areas. Coupled with rapid advances in the means of
communication, information and automation can help improve productivity and resource
efficiency. In industrialised nations, computerisation and automation have transformed
traditional manufacturing and service industries. Similarly, the use of geographic information
systems (GIS), incorporating remote sensing and satellite imagery, is helping to optimise the use
of the earth’s resources, permitting the monitoring and assessment of long-term trends in climate
change, marine pollution, soil erosion rates, and plant cover. GIS-based weather forecasting
services provided through satellite and communication networks can help farmers decide when to
plant, water, fertilise and harvest crops. Information technologies encourage decentralised
information flow and generally improve access to information. This tends to encourage networks
instead of hierarchies, processes instead of products, and cooperation instead of competition.
2.1.2
Biotechnology
Biotechnology is another enabling technology, and its rapid application in recent years has
resulted in an explosion of knowledge and innovation. Biotechnology offers the potential for
cleaner and more efficient alternatives to many processes and products, as well as new techniques
to treat solid and liquid wastes. There are also numerous examples of genetic engineering
applications which can dramatically improve quality of life. Examples include new drugs for
controlling disease, energy derived from plants that can substitute for non-renewable fossil fuels,
and new high-yield crop varieties resistant to unfavourable weather conditions and pests.
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Although biotechnology can provide many innovative environmental management solutions,
some biotechnology products and processes have significant social and environmental
implications. Effective strategies and operational procedures are needed to ensure that waste
streams do not become a route for accidental releases of genetically engineered organisms. There
needs to be full consideration of the magnitude and diversity of issues and socio-political,
economic and environmental risks which surround biotechnology and an open dialogue in order
to ensure that the objectives of sustainable development and biological diversity are not
compromised. Some feel that until these questions are answered in a satisfactory way, the
development of biotechnology should be limited to the effective use of existing genetic material.
They point out the wealth of genetic diversity, especially in tropical areas such as rain forests, and
that wild plants and organisms are sources of gums, oils, resins, dyes, tannins, vegetable fats and
waxes, insecticides, and many other compounds that can help in the manufacture of fibres,
detergents, starch, pharmaceuticals and other products.
2.1.3
Advanced Materials and Processes
Similar to information technology and biotechnology, advanced materials and processes are
altering the production and consumption patterns of society. Cutting across multiple industries,
they permit more flexible approaches to manufacturing and resource utilisation. Examples of
these cross-cutting technologies are ceramic composites for combustion purposes, inert anodes
for aluminum smelting, advanced electrodialysis for chemical separation, and impulse drying for
forest products, among others. These advanced industrial materials and process technologies are
more resource and energy efficient, and for the most part, more environmentally appropriate than
conventional technologies.
A related area is the application of nanotechnology, the science of constructing or disassembling
materials and products atom by atom, similar to the way that things are structured in nature. This
is radically different than conventional material processing technologies which handle molecules
in bulk, through heating, hammering, cutting, etc.
2.2
Energy
Regardless of how energy is produced and consumed, there are significant economic ,
environmental and social impacts. As suggested in Figure 1, these impacts span the full energy
cycle ranging from collection, conversion and transmission, through to energy use and recovery.
Since 1950, humankind has consumed more natural resources and produced more pollution and
waste than in history. Today, perhaps the most significant environmental problem associated
with excessive resource consumption is climate change. Society needs to learn how to use energy
more efficiently and to reduce energy consumption without materially affecting quality of life.
There is also the need to increase the overall proportion of renewables within the total energy
mix.
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Figure 1: Simplified Schematic of the Energy Cycle
Collection
2.2.1
Conversion
Transmission
Application
Recovery
Renewable Energy
An important concept in the definition of energy options is the distinction between “soft” and
“hard” energy. Soft energy is produced in smaller units that can be widely dispersed and readily
controlled by ordinary people. By contrast, hard energy structures are large, centralised and
difficult for ordinary people to control. An example of hard energy is nuclear power, which in its
current configuration is too complex to allow many dispersed units to become providers. An
example of soft energy is solar energy, which utilises comparatively simple technologies that can
be understood and constructed by many people.
Soft technologies can be locally constructed, maintained and controlled with minimal
environmental impacts. Because there are many production units using a variety of technologies,
the entire energy mix of a community is less vulnerable to breakdown. Also, because the
producing units are small and dispersed, the technology is more adaptable to social change.
Large, centralised structures, by contrast, lock society into their long term use and maintenance.
Renewable sources of energy offer the potential for huge amounts of sustainable energy in
perpetuity, available in one form or another to people worldwide. Most renewable energy
systems operate best at small to medium scales and are often more labour intensive, which is an
added benefit where jobs are needed. They are less susceptible than fossil fuels to wide price
fluctuations and foreign exchange costs, which can help countries move towards energy selfreliance. As noted in the Brundtland Report, a steady transition to a broader and more sustainable
mix of energy sources is needed. Renewable energy sources could contribute substantially to
this, however a sustained commitment to further research and development is still necessary for
this potential to be fully realised. The wider scale development and utilisation of renewable
energy also depends on the reduction or removal of certain economic and institutional constraints.
In some countries, hidden subsidies built into legislative and energy programmes for research and
development, depletion allowances, tax write-offs, and direct support of consumer prices, tend to
favour conventional fuels versus renewables.
2.2.2
Energy Efficiency
Energy efficiency is perhaps the most environmentally benign, cost-effective “source” of energy.
The energy consumption per unit of output from efficient processes and technologies is one-third
to one-half that of more conventional equipment. This is true of appliances for cooking, lighting
and refrigeration, and space cooling and heating – needs that are growing rapidly in most
countries and putting considerable pressure on existing energy supply systems. This is also the
case for agricultural cultivation and irrigation systems, the automobile and many other industrial
processes and equipment.
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Given the large disproportion in per capita energy consumption between developed and
developing countries, the scope and need for energy saving is potentially much higher in
industrialised than in developing countries. Nonetheless, energy efficiency is important
everywhere and there are significant opportunities for reducing energy consumption and peak
power demand without the loss of output or social wellbeing.
The Brundtland Report points out that:
…the woman who cooks in an earthen pot over an open fire uses perhaps eight times
more energy than an affluent neighbour with a gas stove and aluminum pans. The poor
who light their homes with a wick dipped in a jar of kerosene get one-fiftieth of the
illumination of a 100-watt electric bulb, but use just as much energy. These examples
illustrate the tragic paradox of poverty. For the poor, the shortage of money is a much
greater limitation than the shortage of energy. They are forced to use ‘free’ fuels and
inefficient equipment because they do not have the cash or savings to purchase energyefficient fuels and end-use devices. Consequently, collectively they pay much more for a
unit of delivered energy-services.
The appropriate application of cost effective, energy efficient technology can help address this
problem. Recently, for example, the Light Up the World Foundation has developed an innovative
light system based on light-emitting diodes which can be powered by solar panels and
rechargeable batteries. A single white diode uses less than a tenth of a watt of power and can
provide safe, reliable lighting at a fraction of the cost of other systems. Over the past year, the
Foundation has helped to install this system in about 1000 homes in Africa, South Asia and
Central America.
2.3
Water
Over a billion people worldwide lack access to adequate water, and close to two billion suffer the
consequences of poor sanitation; millions of people die each year from contaminated water.
Water quality, expressed as secondary pollution and toxic algal blooms, continues to decline in
aquatic ecosystems around the world. Furthermore, thousands of rivers, lakes and reservoirs are
continuously affected directly or indirectly by human activities causing enormous environmental
problems related to hydrology, ecosystem functioning and biodiversity. These impacts are
sobering evidence that catchment-scale water management does not necessarily guarantee
sustainable water use. Technical approaches to pollution control, such as sewage treatment plants
and regulation of hydrological processes for flood and drought control, are important but by
themselves not sufficient. Purely technical controls, without understanding and consideration of
biota dynamics, reflect a trial and error approach to water management rather than the
implementation of a policy toward sustainable use of water resources. As shown in Figure 2,
water resources management spanning the full water cycle ranges from catchment, treatment and
conveyance through to water consumption and reuse.
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Figure 2: Simplified Schematic of the Water Cycle
Catchment
Treatment
Conveyance
Consumption
Reuse
In most parts of the world, urbanisation has caused progressive occupation and development of
open land and land reclamation from water basins, causing changes in ecology and hydrology.
Heavy consumption of water in cities, combined with suburban sprawl, resource overexploitation
and the technical, political and economic challenges of meeting water demands, has created
growing pressure to build in new areas and maintain older systems. In developing countries,
providing enough safe water to meet basic human needs is a serious problem. Areas without
adequate water supply tend to remain underdeveloped because of widespread disease and
unsanitary living conditions. Where infrastructure does exist, water resource managers are
struggling to meet water quality goals and regulations.
Historically, problems of poor water supply and inadequate wastewater treatment have persisted
because of limited resources and funding, and an absence of effective policies, planning,
management practices and regulations. Even when funding has been available, the conventional
response has been to build large, centralised treatment plants, often without sufficient
consideration of the need to overhaul and maintain existing supply infrastructure. The potential
for degraded infrastructure to jeopardise safe water supply is often ignored. For example, it is not
unusual for poor distribution systems to leak 50 percent or more. Similarly, the construction and
operating costs of conventional wastewater treatment systems are often too high, and much of the
world's wastewater is discharged untreated. As a result, there is growing interest in developing
more affordable, decentralised solutions based on natural systems which combine natural
wastewater purification and nutrient recycling, including the use of phytotechnologies, such as
constructed wetlands, for wastewater treatment.
2.4
Urbanisation
Cities are pollution sources and people living in them utilise resources and generate waste. Due
to inadequate systems and poor planning, cities are disproportionately driving global warming,
deforestation, and increasing water scarcity. The world’s cities take up just two percent of the
Earth’s surface, yet account for roughly 78 percent of the carbon emissions from human
activities, 76 percent of industrial wood use, and 60 percent of the water tapped for use by people.
Cities import resources and export pollutants, but have limited carrying capacities. If the carrying
capacity of a city is eroded, it becomes increasingly difficult, if not impossible, to achieve
sustainable development goals. For example, trucking garbage to landfills outside of a city
becomes increasingly costly, the further from the city the landfills are located. Similarly,
importing fresh water to replenish a city's depleted aquifers becomes increasingly costly, the
greater the distance the water must be piped. A major challenge is to reform urban systems so
that they mimic the metabolism of nature. Rather than devouring water, food, energy, and
processed goods, and then belching out the remains as pollutants, cities need to align their
consumption with realistic needs, produce more of their own food and energy, and put much
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more of their wastes to use. This requires an understanding of the interactive process and flows
which determine the patterns of urban development. An example of these interactions is
illustrated in Figure 3 in relation to the energy and water cycles.
Figure 3: Water and Energy Interactions
Collection
Conversion
Transmission
Application
Recovery
Resource
Availability
Augmentation
Flow
Utilisation
Replenishment
Catchment
Treatment
Conveyance
Consumption
Reuse
The crisis of cities is a symptom of simultaneous change and growth. Together, these two factors
have transformed relatively simple problems which previously may have been resolved locally
wherever they occurred, into immense, complex problems with repercussions beyond the
territories in which they originated. The urban environment is a dynamic one, where
transformation and adjustment is continuous and so rapid that past, present and future blend into
one. Hence, there is a need to address chronic problems, while at the same time attending to
critical needs.
2.4.1
Buildings and Infrastructure
The visible superstructure of the urban environment is analogous to the tip of an iceberg. What
we see above does not reveal the immense, invisible supporting technological mass below; the
greater the quantity, complexity, sophistication, and cost of modern technology, the greater the
intensity, density and frequency of its use. Buildings, infrastructure and the environment are
inextricably linked. Energy, materials, water and land are all consumed in the development and
operation of buildings and infrastructure, while the urban environment itself affects our living
conditions, social wellbeing and health.
Urban society is inevitably committed to subsidising technological advances while at the same
time doing its best to monitor the sociological effects of the inappropriate use of technologies. It
is therefore important to develop and apply environmentally and economically sound processes
and technologies in the design of buildings and infrastructure that are sustainable, healthy and
affordable. The concept developed by UNEP/IETC of “cities as sustainable ecosystems”, or
CASE, provides a framework for examining and understanding the interactions of urban activity
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and the environment and how these can be transformed into a sustainable relationship. CASE is
the multidisciplinary study of urban and economic systems and their linkages with natural
systems. It provides a conceptual framework upon which understanding and reasoned
improvement of current practices can be based.
2.4.2
Transportation
Transportation is a major consumer of energy, accounting for 50-60 percent of total petroleum
use in most developing countries, and contributing significantly to urban air pollution. With
markets for automobiles growing rapidly in developing countries, this situation is expected to
deteriorate further.
There is a relationship between the essential inhabited places and transportation flows within the
urban environment. Extending mass transit in metropolitan areas to reduce traffic congestion
should therefore coincide with a process for restoring pedestrian areas. Open air and enclosed
pedestrian meeting places, such as marketplaces, meeting halls, green spaces, etc., are an essential
part of the liveable urban environment. With effective, integrated planning geared towards
intense/frequent use situations, the considerable costs of public transportation and other related
services can be more easily absorbed and equitably distributed.
2.4.3
Waste Management
Waste management is another area where environmentally sound, cost effective solutions are
required. The closure of existing open dumpsites and the introduction of sanitary landfills is an
urgent priority in many places, especially in the developing world. However, even where wellmanaged sanitary landfills exist, and complementary disposal technologies such as composting or
energy from waste facilities are used, there is still a requirement to monitor the contents of waste
streams to optimise the potential for material recovery, recycling and reuse.
One of the most important tasks to be undertaken in waste management planning is to determine
the sources, types and quantities of waste generated; the present methods of waste collection,
transport and treatment; and how these might change in the future. As prevention is the highest
priority in the waste management hierarchy, efforts should be made to reduce the quantity of
waste generated.
2.5
Eco-Efficiency
Most western societies have market economies that emphasise production, growth and material
wealth that often encourage waste. People who buy a lot of something typically get a better price
than people who buy only a little. Another wasteful practice is charging lower electricity rates to
those who consume the most; heavy users with cheap rates have no incentive to reduce
consumption at times of peak demand, thus forcing power companies to build standby generating
capacity to cover the peak demand. One of the central challenges is to “dematerialise” our
economies and societies. In simple terms, we must learn to do more with less, using fewer raw
materials, and less water and energy. The speed of the increase in quantity of waste is far greater
than the speed of adaptation to its pressures. Because of this and the combined impact of
population growth and environmental pollution, it has been suggested that a “factor 10”
revolution in our technologies is needed. This means that, as a minimum, we need to produce ten
times more from the same amount of raw material.
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The term “eco-efficiency” refers to the efficiency with which society uses environmental, natural
and other resources to generate quality of life. The “eco-efficiency” concept was developed by
the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) as a bridge concept bringing
together several ideas, including:
•
meeting the combined goals of business, the community and the environment
•
harnessing technical and social innovation
•
adopting life cycle approaches, and
•
using indicators and benchmarks to monitor progress.
Although these ideas are not new, the concept of eco-efficiency combines them in a way which
can facilitate effective communication amongst governments, businesses, local communities and
others. Hence, improving eco-efficiency is an important strategy for sustainable development
within cities and communities. While there are a number of possible routes to improve ecoefficiency, the greatest potential lies in initiatives that combine technical and social changes to
improve quality of life with less material consumption.
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Environmentally Sound Technologies
Environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) are technologies that have the potential for
significantly improved environmental performance relative to other technologies. As stated in
Chapter 34 of Agenda 21, ESTs protect the environment, are less polluting, use resources in a
sustainable manner, recycle more of their wastes and products, and handle all residual wastes in a
more environmentally acceptable way than the technologies for which they are substitutes. ESTs
are not just individual technologies. They can also be defined as total systems that include knowhow, procedures, goods and services, and equipment, as well as organisational and managerial
procedures for promoting environmental sustainability.
3.1
Defining Environmentally Sound Technologies
Defining environmentally sound technologies in an absolute sense is difficult since the
environmental performance of a technology depends upon its impacts on specific human
populations and ecosystems, and the availability of supporting infrastructure and human resources
for the management, monitoring and maintenance of the technology. The environmental
soundness of technology is also influenced by temporal and geographical factors, to the extent
that some technologies may be environmentally sound now but may be replaced in the future by
even cleaner technologies. Likewise, what could be environmentally sound in one country or
region might not be in another.
Agenda 21 also contains several other important statements to guide interpretation of this
definition with emphasis on facilitating the accessibility and transfer of technology, particularly
in developing countries, as well as the essential role of capacity building and technology
cooperation in promoting sustainable development. It states that:
new and efficient technologies will be essential to increase the capabilities, in particular
of developing countries, to achieve sustainable development, sustain the world’s
economy, protect the environment, and alleviate poverty and human suffering. Inherent
in these activities is the need to address the improvement of technology currently used
and its replacement, when appropriate, with more accessible and more environmentally
sound technology.
Trends in modes of production and consumption, in organisational models of commerce and
industry, and changes in the fundamentals of economic policy, also require a careful examination
of how ESTs are perceived. As stated in Agenda 21, ESTs in the context of pollution are process
and product technologies that generate low or no waste, for the prevention of pollution. They
also cover end of the pipe technologies for treatment of pollution after it has been generated.
Furthermore, ESTs are not just individual technologies, but total systems that include know-how,
procedures, goods and services, and equipment as well as organisational and managerial
procedures. This implies that the human resource development and local capacity-building
aspects of technology choices, including gender issues, must also be addressed when considering
the adoption and use of ESTs. From this, it is clear that the definition of ESTs contained in
Agenda 21:
• applies to the transition of all technologies in becoming more environmentally sound;
• captures the full life cycle flow of the material, energy and water in the production and
consumption system;
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•
•
•
Revised 21/09/03
covers the full spectrum from basic technologies that are adjunct to the production and
consumption system, to fully integrated technologies where the environmental
technology is the production or consumption technology itself;
includes closed system technologies (where the goal is zero waste and/or significant
reductions in resource use), as well as environmental technologies that may result in
emissions;
considers technology development within both the ecological and social context and the
production and consumption systems in which they are designed and operated.
Agenda 21 provides the basis for defining ESTs and promoting the appropriate transfer of
technology at the global scale. Ideally, its implementation by nation states through the
development of national sustainability plans and Local Agenda 21 plans should provide the
policy context for assessing and verifying technologies that claim to be environmentally sound or
sustainable. In addition, the implementation of Agenda 21 should also take into account the role
of technology development in achieving inter- and intra-generational equity within countries and
across nation states in the alleviation of poverty. Hence, there is a need for openness and
transparency in the development, selection and management of technologies that are more
environmentally sound and based on sustainable resource utilisation. As shown in Figure 4, this
implies the need for a transition from technologies that are unsustainable to those which are
sustainable and environmentally sound.
Figure 4:
The Transition of Technology towards Sustainability
Technology Progress
Sustainable
Technologies
Environmentally
Sound
Technologies
Non
Environmentally
Sound
Technologies
Unsustainable
Technologies
Technology Regress
As noted above, the definition of environmentally sound technologies covers the full spectrum of
production and consumption technologies that are more environmentally sound than the
technologies for which they are substitutes. The adoption and use of ESTs involves the
application of ecological principles, cleaner production, and appropriate technologies. It also
involves the use of environmental technologies for monitoring and assessment, pollution
prevention and control, and remediation and restoration. Monitoring and assessment technologies
are used to establish and monitor the condition of the environment, including releases of
pollutants and other natural or anthropogenic materials of a harmful nature. Prevention involves
technologies that avoid the production of environmentally hazardous substances or alter human
activities in ways that minimise damage to the environment; it encompasses product substitution
or the redesign of an entire production process, rather than simply using new pieces of equipment.
Control technologies render hazardous substances harmless before they enter the environment.
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Remediation and restoration technologies embody methods designed to improve ecosystems that
have declined due to naturally induced or anthropogenic effects.
3.2
Technology Development Cycle
As shown in Figure 5, all technologies undergo a similar development cycle, regardless of their
origin or application. The first stage is the identification of a need, problem or opportunity.
Second, there is a choice of alternatives. Next comes a series of operational steps (i.e., selection
of sites and technologies; design; acquisition of appropriate rights and permissions; construction;
operation and maintenance). Over time, there must be monitoring and maintenance and, as
required, upgrading and optimisation. The final stage involves replacement or reuse, and final
disposal.
Figure 5:
Technology Development Cycle
Identification of Need, Problem and/or
Opportunity
Consideration of Options and Alternatives
•
•
•
•
•
Operational Steps:
Technology and/or Site Selection
Design
Approvals
Construction
Operation and Maintenance
Monitoring and Evaluation
Upgrading and Optimisation
Replacement and/or Reuse
Disposal
Rational environmental management, which essentially means making the best use of natural
resources to meet basic human needs without destroying their sustaining environmental base,
requires a sound knowledge of the intersecting elements within the larger frame of development.
This suggests the need for environmentally sound development strategies.
3.3
Appropriateness of Technology
A range of factors determines whether or not economic activities are sustainable. An important
element is the choice of technology and whether or not the technology is appropriate under a
given set of circumstances, both in terms of scale and “fit” with natural and social ecosystems.
Ecology and economy are part of a seamless web of causes and effects at different scales – local,
national, regional and global. It is important to recognise that resource exploitation, even at the
local level, can impoverish wide areas. For example, deforestation can cause destructive floods;
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acid precipitation and nuclear fallout can spread across national borders; and climate change and
destruction of the ozone layer have global consequences. Appropriate technologies are needed to
fit the social and biophysical context prevailing at a particular location within a particular period
of time. However, it is also important to recognise that particular technologies bring with them
underlying structures and assumptions which may be counterproductive or even destructive to the
society in which they are introduced. If development is to become more sustainable, it is
important to assess technologies against a number of different criteria before adopting them.
These criteria should include technical, social, and economic factors, as well as environmental
requirements.
The transfer of technology, both hardware and know-how, from richer to poorer nations has
economic and social consequences, both local and global. Ideally, appropriate technology should
be compatible with the environment and society in which it is to be utilised. The technology and
associated equipment should be relatively simple and understandable, as well as suitable for local
maintenance and repair. As suggested earlier in Section 2, “softer” approaches to development
involve the use of simpler technologies and equipment are usually less dependent on complex raw
materials with exact specifications and are generally more adaptable to market fluctuations than
highly sophisticated, or “harder”, technologies. People can be more easily trained; supervision,
control, and organisation are simpler; and there is far less vulnerability to unforeseen difficulties.
Appropriate technology is usually more labour intensive, lending itself to use in smaller scale
applications, although it is important to recognise that neither labour intensity nor small scale
necessarily implies appropriate technology.
Rifkin (1985) distinguishes controlling technologies from the more empathetic appropriate
technologies:
Appropriate technologies are technologies that are congenial with their surroundings,
that create the least amount of disturbance, and that are used sparingly enough to ensure
that the environment can be allowed to replenish itself… With controlling technologies,
the emphasis is on maximising present opportunities. With empathetic technologies, the
emphasis is on maximising future possibilities. With controlling technologies, a high
premium is placed on optimising efficiency for the present generation. With empathetic
technologies, a high premium is placed on maintaining an endowment for future
generations…An empathetic approach to technology starts with the assumption that
everything is interrelated and dependent on everything else for its survival, and that
technological intervention should be minimised in order to do the least damage to the
myriad relationships that exist in the natural world.
Since the idea of appropriate technology was first put forward by Schumacher, a number of
objections have been raised. Those who can help themselves and who want immediate assistance
in reaching a higher standard of living often argue that the developed world is intent on
withholding the best and making the developing world settle for something inferior and outdated.
Others argue that this is not usually the perspective of the poverty-stricken who lack any real
basis of existence, whether in rural or urban areas, who have neither “the best” nor the “second
best”, and who are often without even the most essential means of existence.
3.4
Ecological Engineering
Ecological engineering practices can help conserve and restore the environment by balancing
engineering principles and environmental considerations. An ecologically sound approach to
engineering takes into account that nature responds systematically, continuously and
cumulatively. It also comes to terms with the social and ethical values of society and ensures that
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innovations contribute to the community as a whole. This involves employing local labour and
resources as much as possible, maintaining traditional customs, and focusing on teachable knowhow.
Ecological engineering operates within the natural system rather than infringing on or
overcoming it. Solutions are developed to be as flexible and forgiving as possible in order to
avoid drastic and irreversible consequences when something goes wrong. To support this, it is
important for ecologists to make available as much knowledge as possible on the dynamics of
ecosystems and their particular vulnerabilities.
Ecological engineering and related technology applications are dependent on the self-designing
capabilities of ecosystems and nature. When changes occur, natural systems shift and food chains
reorganise. As individual species are selected and others are not, a new dynamic order ultimately
emerges that is usually better suited to the environment superimposed on it. Humans participate
in this evolutionary process by providing choices. This focus on, and use of, biological species,
communities, and ecosystems distinguishes ecological engineering from the more conventional
engineering technology approaches, which rely on devices and facilities to remove, transform, or
contain pollutants, but which seldom consider integrative ecosystem-based approaches.
Ecological engineering involves identifying those biological systems that are most adaptable to
human needs and those human needs that are most adaptable to existing ecosystems. Ecological
engineering emphasises the need to understand and deal with the entire ecosystem rather than
components of the system in isolation from one another. However, eco-engineering principles
also maintain that it is counterproductive to eliminate or even disturb natural ecosystems unless
absolutely necessary. Decision support tools such as modelling and cost-benefit analysis are
important, as ecosystem design and prognosis cannot be predicted simply by adding the parts to
make a whole.
3.5
Cleaner Production and Zero Emissions
Cleaner production is a recognised and proven strategy for improving the efficient use of natural
resources, reducing and eliminating wastes and pollution at the source, and minimising potential
risks to human health. Cleaner production is a step beyond pollution control and waste
management; it deals with production processes and environmental management systems. More
recently, the concept has expanded to include product cycle aspects such as eco-design, and
consideration of the consumption patterns of products in use.
The concept of zero emissions represents a shift from the traditional industrial model in which
wastes are considered the norm, to integrated systems in which everything has its use. It
advocates an industrial transformation whereby businesses emulate the sustainable cycles found
in nature and where society minimises the load it imposes on the natural resource base and learns
to do more with what the earth produces. The zero emissions concept envisages all industrial
inputs being used in final products or converted into value-added inputs for other industries or
processes. In support of the concept, industries would be reorganised into clusters such that each
industry’s wastes and by-products can be fully matched with the input requirements of another
industry, and the integrated whole produces no wastes of any kind.
For businesses, zero emissions means greater efficiency and improved competitiveness. By
producing more from less, zero emissions can serve as a benchmark for efficiency and
integration. However, this involves addressing a broad range of issues, including urban and
regional planning, production and consumption patterns, energy conservation, upstream industrial
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clustering, the reuse and recycling of products, and the interactions of these activities with local
industries and institutions. From an environmental perspective, the elimination of all wastes
represents the ultimate solution to pollution problems that threaten ecosystems at the global,
national and local level.
3.6
Ecological Services
The term "ecological services" refers to the conditions and processes through which natural
ecosystems sustain and fulfil human life. Ecological services are responsible for maintaining
biodiversity and the production of ecosystem goods, such as food, timber, energy and natural
fibre, as well as many pharmaceuticals, industrial products, and their precursors. The harvest and
trade of these goods is an important part of the global economy. In addition to the production of
goods, ecological services include life support functions, such as protecting watersheds, reducing
erosion, providing habitats for wild species, as well as cleaning, recycling, and renewal.
Ecological services have an important role in maintaining balanced global systems, including
climate. There are also many aesthetic and cultural benefits. Examples of the benefits of
ecological services are:
•
purification of air and water
•
mitigation of floods and droughts
•
detoxification and decomposition of wastes
•
generation and renewal of soil and soil fertility
•
pollination of crops and natural vegetation
•
dispersal of seeds and translocation of nutrients
•
control of agricultural pests
•
protection from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays
•
moderation of temperature extremes and the force of winds and waves.
3.6.1
Valuation of Ecological Services
People in the biodiversity rich areas of the world are usually dependent on the harvest of
biological resources from a limited resource catchment area using their own labour. In economic
terms, the value of the products extracted by the ecosystem may not be very large. Considering
the non-use, preservation value of the ecosystem can often provide a better option in realising the
real economic value of the ecosystem. However, although non-use values can be substantial,
adequate mechanisms to quantify these values are lacking.
Many of the services provided by ecosystems are external to the decision-making process and are
therefore difficult to quantify. The flood control benefits, water filtration services, and species
sustaining attributes of ecosystems are examples. As a result, the habitats that support complex
ecosystems tend to be taken for granted, marginalised or sold too cheaply in the absence of public
intervention, since the inherent social and environmental benefits are not considered in the
decision-making process. Public awareness of the value of these ecosystem benefits is essential
for the development and implementation of public policies for the protection of important
habitats. It is therefore important to determine the values of these ecological services.
The prevailing approach to ascertaining value, cost-benefit analysis, is implicitly based on
utilitarian considerations, such that the value of a given living thing or amenity is determined by
the amount that people would be willing to pay or sacrifice in order to enjoy it. However,
fundamental issues of fairness or distribution are usually ignored in cost-benefit assessments. At
best, cost-benefit analysis provides useful information on aggregate net benefits under specific
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policy scenarios. This type of information needs to be accompanied by a recognition of the
distribution of the gains and losses, both across the current generation and between current and
future generations in order to adequately ascertain the real value of ecological services.
3.6.2
Managing Ecological Services
Ecological services are the result of complex natural cycles driven by solar energy. These cycles
operate on different scales, influencing the workings of the biosphere in different ways.
Biogeochemical cycles, such as the movement of the element carbon through the living and
physical environment, are global in scale, occurring throughout the atmospheric, aquatic and
terrestrial environments. By contrast, the life cycles of bacteria occur at microscopic scale.
Different cycles also operate at different rates. The biogeochemical cycling of carbon, for
instance, occurs at orders of magnitude faster that that of phosphorous, just as the life cycles of
micro-organisms are orders of magnitude faster than those of trees. Due to the dynamics of these
cycles and systems, management plans for ecological services should be adaptive, based on
continual monitoring of the abundance and extraction levels of resources being harvested.
Extraction should be in proportion to production, which is likely to vary over space and time.
Because any large scale export of materials from the ecosystem is likely to have deleterious
consequences on the structure and function of the ecosystem, flexible adaptive management plans
must be put in place.
Depletion can also be prevented by value addition. Unfortunately, because many ecosystem
products that form the basis of subsistence economies leave the point of origin in an unprocessed
state, the custodians of these resources often realise very low value from extracted products.
There is abundant evidence that communities in full control of their own resource base exhibit
cultural practices that promote sustainable use of biological resources and conservation of
biodiversity. Such practices have evolved and persist because they serve the long term interests
of certain groups in ensuring sustained availability of a diversity of resources. Examples include
limitations on harvest levels (e.g., number of sheep grazed on community pasture or wood
harvested from community woodlots); lowering of harvesting pressures when there is evidence of
over-harvesting (e.g., temporary ban on fishing on coral reef lagoons); protection of species
during vulnerable life stages (e.g., breeding birds); protection of certain key resources (e.g., trees
in many parts of the world); and the protection of certain biological communities (e.g., sacred
ponds and forests).
A fundamental cause of environmental degradation is the unequal distribution of benefits and
costs of conserving natural resources and biological diversity. The benefits of biodiversity are
widely dispersed, whereas the costs of conservation are highly localised. Those nations with the
least capacity for managing living resources are generally those richest in species. For example,
tropical countries contain approximately two-thirds of all species and an even greater proportion
of threatened species. However, while many developing nations recognise the need to safeguard
threatened species, they lack the scientific skills, institutional capacities, and funds necessary for
conservation. Industrialised nations seeking to reap some of the economic benefits of living
resources should support the efforts of developing countries in conserving these resources; they
should also seek ways to help these countries realise their sustainable benefits.
Restoring the control and management of ecosystem resources to local communities may help
maintain these ecosystems in better health and provide higher levels of ecological goods and
services. Local people are most likely to effectively manage local ecological resources because
they possess the detailed spatial and temporal knowledge of the behaviour of the local ecosystems
necessary for effective, adaptive management. Local people are also best situated to monitor
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human induced ecosystem impacts, and therefore to control them, provided they have the
requisite authority and social structures in place to minimise wasteful exploitation of resources.
However, this alone is not sufficient to motivate local communities to maintain high levels of
biological diversity. Further economic incentives are required. Thus, if the ecosystems in
tropical areas, for example, are to be maintained or restored to high levels of biological diversity,
a mechanism should be established to reward local communities which are prepared to work
towards this objective. Vesting local people with control over their own environments and
paying them service charges to maintain and restore biodiversity could be an effective way of
taking good care of these valuable ecosystems.
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Factors Influencing the Adoption and Use of ESTs
The achievement of sustainable development objectives at a global scale requires radical changes,
technological and otherwise, within both developed and developing countries. Economic
development in developing countries will not be sustainable if these countries simply follow the
historic polluting trend of industrialised countries. Development based on up-to-date information
and knowledge offers the opportunity to avoid the poor practices of the past and to move at an
accelerated pace towards better technologies, techniques and institutions. However, to realise
this, developing countries require assistance to build human capacity, establish appropriate
institutions and networks, and acquire essential equipment and tools. Technology transfer must
operate at a broad level in order to meet these “software” and “hardware” challenges within a
framework of sustainability. Key elements are the development of societal and organisational
structures to enable well-informed technology choices as well as the establishment of financial
assistance mechanisms to facilitate their acquisition.
To a large extent, the state of the environment today is the result of technological choices
of yesterday. The state of the environment in the 21st century will be determined largely by
the technologies we choose today. (Trindade 1991).
4.1
Technology Transfer and Cooperation
Technology transfer refers to the broad set of processes covering the flows of technology-related
knowledge, experience and equipment amongst different stakeholders such as governments,
private sector entities, financial institutions, NGOs and research/educational institutions. In its
broadest sense, the term “transfer” encompasses diffusion of technologies and technology
cooperation across and within countries. It comprises the process of learning to understand,
utilise, and replicate the technology, including the capacity to choose it and adapt it to the local
conditions. To some, the term technology transfer infers that technology is an object, and its
transfer as a one-time transaction maintains the dependency of the recipient (Heaton et al 1994).
To others, technology transfer is fundamentally part of a learning process. Hence, the terms
technology cooperation and technology diffusion are frequently used to reflect the often dispersed
and evolutionary nature of technological decisions that take place over time. “It is not
unreasonable to say that a transfer is not achieved until the transferee understands and can utilise
the technology” (Chen 1996).
The promotion of sustainable development requires a concerted effort to develop and diffuse new
technologies, such as those for agricultural production, the harnessing of renewable energy, and
controlling pollution. Much of this effort is based upon the international exchange of information
and technology – through trade in improved equipment, technology transfer agreements, expert
reviews, research collaboration, and so on. The procedures and policies that influence these
exchanges should help stimulate innovation and ensure widespread access to environmentally
sound technologies. However, the transferability of technology is not universal, and current
efforts and established processes of technology transfer are not sufficient, especially for those
technologies that cannot yet be disseminated commercially. It is important therefore to go
beyond improving market performance. Policies that lower costs and stimulate a demand for
ESTs are necessary to achieve environmental benefits that might otherwise not be realised.
Integrating human skills, organisational development and information networks are also essential
for effective technology transfer.
While certain products are the result of sophisticated industrial processes and cannot be produced
any other way, these products are not usually urgently needed by the poor. What the poor need
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most of all are simple things – water, energy, building materials, clothing, household goods,
agricultural tools, and a better return for their agricultural products. There is also the need for
capacity building. For example, most agricultural communities would be helped immensely if
they were able to process their own products. This is an area where the introduction of
environmentally sound, sustainable technology can make a difference.
Sustainable development is a context-driven concept and different societies may define it
differently. Technologies that may be suitable in one context may be inappropriate in another.
This makes it important to ensure that the adoption and use of technologies meets local needs and
priorities, thereby increasing the likelihood of their adoption and effective use. It is also
important to recognise that the development and implementation of complex, sophisticated, and
very expensive new technologies may exacerbate existing inequalities, or set up new ones
between rich and poor nations. For example, many technologies have an enticing allure that
spreads them quickly to all societies in the world and, as long as these different realities remain as
contradictions, developing countries will remain vulnerable to the very problems which now
characterise the countries whose technologies they want to utilise and whose material successes
they wish to emulate.
Both resources and the environment form part of the global “commons”, and the
interdependencies within the global environment means that what happens in the developing
countries cannot be considered in isolation. The inappropriate transfer of technologies from
developed to developing countries, where there are wide differences in the level of infrastructure
between the two societies, can often exacerbate both global and local environmental problems.
Consequently, the ability to protect ecosystems and resources on a global basis and manage
development in a sustainable manner within developing countries is of great importance to the
world as a whole.
4.2
Building Capacity
The challenge of sustainable development requires the capacity of people and organisations to
continuously adapt to new circumstances and to acquire new skills. A wide range of technical,
business, management and regulatory skills are needed for the successful development and
transfer of environmentally sound technologies. Within developed and developing countries,
both technology providers and technology users must work together to ensure the availability of
these skills locally. Developing countries play a key role in building capacity through the training
and human resources development programs they support and nurture. Effective approaches
stress not only the development of technical skills, but also the establishment of capacity and
competence in essential related areas, such as policy analysis, management and planning.
Developed countries must ensure that training and capacity building programmes they sponsor
consider the full range of related financial, legal, business services, as well as the local conditions
under which these may be provided. This requires cooperation with local “receptors” of
technology, including local governments, institutions and stakeholders, commercial organisations
and consumers/users.
The capacity to access, assess and understand information is essential for successful technology
transfer and cooperation. The roles of governments and the private sector in this area are
evolving rapidly and, over the past ten years, largely through the use of the Internet, private
information networks have proliferated. This has lead to the creation of specialised information
clearinghouses, forums, trade publications, and lobby groups. Consequently, there is a need to
improve data collection on the on availability, quality and flows of ESTs, and to develop
technology performance indicators and benchmarks which can help guide the implementation of
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potential technological improvements. There is also a need to link these information systems to
international and regional networks
In technology intensive economies, technology information tends to flow through specialised
networks of financial firms, lawyers, accountants, and technical assessment groups. Government
agencies, consumer groups, industry associations and NGOs all play a role in ensuring that
technology meets local needs and demand. Participatory approaches are important for
strengthening the integration and effectiveness of these diverse organisations and networks in
contributing to technology transfer. Some areas of particular importance to the transfer of ESTs
include:
•
Expansion of opportunities to develop organisational capacity in the areas of management,
accounting, law, investment, trade, publishing and technology assessment.
•
Enhancement of communications infrastructure and tools, such as Internet services, to
facilitate access to and transfer of information.
•
Nurturing of industry associations, professional associations and user/consumer associations.
•
Implementation of participatory approaches to enable citizens, public agencies, NGOs and
private sector organisations to engage at all levels of decision-making and policy formulation.
The processes of generating alternative technologies, upgrading traditional ones, and selecting
and adapting imported technologies should also be guided in part by environmental resource
considerations. Most technological research by commercial organisations is devoted to product
and process innovations with market value. However, technologies are also needed that produce
social benefits, such as improved air quality or increased product life, and solve problems that
may be considered outside the domain of individual enterprises. Commercial enterprises can help
develop and diffuse technology, but public institutions must provide the essential framework for
research and capacity building. In addition, particular attention is needed to augment the capacity
of society to understand ecological systems and to ensure that biological diversity is preserved.
The technologies used in industrial countries are not always suitable or easily adaptable to the
socio-economic and environmental conditions of developing countries. Most academic and
research institutions in developing regions are inadequately funded and the bulk of international
research and development addresses few of the pressing issues facing developing countries, such
as arid-land agriculture or the control of tropical diseases. Research and extension efforts in
developing countries need to be expanded, especially in areas where ecological sensitivities pose
special problems. In addition, recent innovations in materials technology, energy conservation,
information technology, and biotechnology need to be adapted to the needs of developing
countries.
Nurturing the technological capabilities in developing countries requires a concerted effort to
employ local resources and apply technologies that are appropriate in meeting local needs.
Where possible, efforts should be undertaken to encourage:
• Employment creation in areas where people are living now, and not primarily in metropolitan
areas into which they may otherwise migrate.
• Affordable work opportunities that can be created in large numbers without the requirement
for unattainable levels of capital formation and imports.
• Simple production methods that minimise demands for complex skills.
• Production based primarily on local materials for local use.
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Science and Technology Investment
In relation to science and technology, the chronic widening of development inequities can be seen
in three dimensions. First, the process of scientific and technological advancement in all its
stages – basic research, applied research and blueprinting – has been heavily concentrated in
developed countries. This inequitable distribution would not matter if the direction of
advancement, the scientific and technological priorities, and the methods of solving scientific and
technological problems were independent of where the work is carried on. However, this is not
the case. In developed countries, most research and development expenditures are spent on
solving the problems that concern those countries, according to their own priorities, and on
solving those problems by the methods and approaches appropriate to the countries concerned.
For both aspects – the identification of problems and the methods of solving them – the interests
of the less developed countries are usually different.
Second, wealthier countries have a virtual monopoly of research and development expenditures
(in terms of institutions, equipment and number of trained scientists and technologists), and hence
a virtual monopoly of determining the frontiers of knowledge. Consequently, the activities of the
small number of institutions and people in developing countries are often directed towards the
problems and issues defined by their counterparts in the developed world. Therefore, much of the
limited expenditures made by developing countries is directed towards solving the same kinds of
problems by the same methods as developed countries, rather than those that would be
appropriate for their own conditions.
Third, the usual remedy for the unequal distribution of research and development expenditures is
the transfer of technology in ready-made form. This solution, however, poses various difficulties.
In the first place, the technology is not always available for transfer, often being covered by
secrecy, legal patent rights, and other restrictive agreements. Developing countries may be able
to obtain this intellectual property either directly or indirectly in the form of imports of equipment
or other commodities embodying the intellectual property, but usually only at excessive prices
which they often cannot afford. Most important of all, the transfer of technology may not be
useful or even possible unless the importing country has a domestic infrastructure capable of
providing the capacity to select, adapt and introduce the appropriate technologies. This domestic
capacity is often lacking.
Since only limited research and development expenditure is devoted to problems of special
concern to the developing countries, technology advancement in developing countries tends to be
more current in those sectors (typically modern manufacturing industry) where the processes and
activities are similar to those of developed countries. By contrast, there is usually little or no
technological progress on problems which do not exist in the developed world (typically,
problems concerning tropical agriculture, small scale production, utilisation of natural raw
materials specific to the developing countries, subsistence farming, etc.). The end result is that
small scale production utilising indigenous materials and local labour, remains technologically
neglected, while technologies in large scale industry and sectors corresponding to the situation in
developed countries (i.e., modern commercial farming) continue to be advanced.
Without an indigenous scientific and technological capacity inside developing countries, the
transfer of appropriate technologies from abroad often does not take root and is not adapted or
sufficiently developed in a manner which meets the requirements of developing countries. This
means that where new technology is introduced, its use often remains limited. This, combined
with the absence of a supporting network of auxiliary industries and educational facilities in the
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developing countries, leads to institutional rigidity and inflexibility. Often linked to this is the
lack of indigenous networks to propagate the type of improvements required to meet local needs.
Another mechanism for facilitating technology transfer is private foreign investment. While this
can help introduce new technology, it has certain drawbacks for some developing countries.
Through the internalisation of the process within large international firms and the repatriation of
profits and dividends, much of the reinvestment potential is lost to the developing country.
Moreover, a foreign firm, especially a large transnational company, is not likely to be interested
in developing labour intensive technologies. These firms typically have a preference for bringing
in their own skilled personnel from abroad rather than going through the lengthy process of
training local people. This means using existing home-based staff and the known technology
developed at the firm’s home base, rather than spending time and money on the gradual process
of local adaptation and local training. Foreign enterprises and governments can counterbalance
this and build confidence in long term operations by collaborating on the development of local
technologies and training or, alternatively, by providing generous compensation for expenditures
on local research, development and training.
4.4
Budgeting and Procurement
In most organisations, there is a single capital budgeting pool for all projects, which means that
investments in ESTs must compete with other project financing requirements. Consequently,
even if an organisation has set environmental objectives, favourable investment targets for
environmental projects do not automatically result. Various approaches can be considered in
shifting the emphasis of capital budgeting towards ESTs. These include the use of management
accounting systems, internalising environmental costs and benefits, and promoting the use of
differential investment criteria for projects that incorporate ESTs. Governments can also
introduce policy incentives to reduce the capital costs of ESTs (i.e., through tax credits) or to
increase the operational benefits of these investments (i.e., by rational pricing of natural
resources, environmental levies, preferential taxation for cleaner products, etc.).
Through their procurement policies, governments and corporations help create markets for
emerging technologies (i.e., a commitment to purchase "green" electricity). Similarly, programs
which support R&D, demonstrate technology, establish performance benchmarks, and encourage
training can help accelerate the development and application of environmentally sound
technologies. Both public and private sector organisations can seek to influence the market
penetration of certain technologies by specifying them for procurement or requiring suppliers to
conform to specified "best practices". The performance and productivity of technologies
typically increase substantially as organisations and individuals gain experience with them. In
some cases, this can help support the rationale for early stage technology development and
innovation.
Another important area for government and private sector cooperation is in the development and
implementation of marketplace policies. The availability of reliable, transparent information is a
prerequisite to a smoothly functioning market, and most governments have measures in place
requiring mandatory information disclosure by self-regulated industries. Marketplace policies
such as these facilitate transactions between parties, help ensure a fair and efficient market
structure, and promote an economic climate conducive to continued innovation and growth.
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Balancing Voluntary and Regulatory Approaches
Encouraging the adoption and use of ESTs requires the application of voluntary approaches
within a transparent regulatory framework which allows organisations to innovate in meeting
their environmental obligations. The strengths of voluntary initiatives are that they are marketbased and flexible. There are also clear benefits in terms of potential partnerships, positive
spillover effects, environmental improvements, and lower costs. Voluntary initiatives vary
widely in relation to:
•
Regulatory regime
•
Level of commitment required
•
Performance expectations
•
Reporting and monitoring requirements, and
•
Incentives to join or perform.
Not all existing government and corporate policies support sustainable development, and it is not
surprising that some policies and programs developed for other purposes may even pose barriers.
Policy measures should consider a mix of approaches to motivate action and penalise inaction
within an overall policy framework that considers both positive and negative drivers for voluntary
action.
Voluntary initiatives that are applied inappropriately, or not supported, can lead to the perception
of inadequacy or failure. Therefore it is essential that objectives and expectations for voluntary
initiatives are understood by all parties from the outset. Voluntary initiatives require clear,
measurable objectives, baselines and targets to inform decision-makers and to provide a basis for
monitoring, evaluation and reporting, both internal and external. Roles and responsibilities must
be clearly defined and appropriate relative to the capacity to deliver on expectations.
One of the key impediments to the implementation of voluntary initiatives is the lack of good
information about the environmental impacts, costs and benefits of current and possible actions.
Organisations require the necessary skills to track relevant information in order to monitor and
evaluate the implementation of a given initiative. In some cases, it may be necessary to introduce
new analytical tools. Voluntary initiatives should be performance-based, and developed and
implemented in a participatory and transparent manner. The factors which encourage or impede
progress must be considered, including the existence of motivators, drivers and incentives to
action.
Voluntary initiatives can be implemented on a sectoral basis. Companies within a sector can join
together, usually as an industry association, to develop a common standard of performance for its
members. They can also act voluntarily in support of environmental protection and cleaner
production through internal reporting programs to encourage compliance or improve efficiency.
Thus voluntary initiatives can serve as a complement to other policy levers (including regulation)
and market forces, providing innovative, more flexible approaches in meeting existing or
potential policy requirements.
Regulations play an important role in establishing a policy framework conducive to enhanced
voluntary action. They influence the structuring of markets (i.e., the existence of a regulatory
framework to support voluntary emissions trading activities) and the design of products (i.e., by
regulating the use of certain materials and processes). They also influence the environmental
attributes of products indirectly (i.e., pollution prevention planning requirements, and user pay
and extended producer responsibility policies that increase costs of releasing wastes into the
environment).
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Regulations can encourage eco-efficient innovations by setting the environmental standards to be
met without specifying the technologies to be employed. This helps industries initiate voluntary
measures based on efficient, economically viable and environmentally responsible approaches
that support sustainable development objectives. Conversely, some environmental regulations
may actually discourage the implementation of voluntary approaches. For example, in some
cases, environmental licensing regimes can inhibit the development of new cleaner production
technologies and, as an unintended consequence, may act as a barrier to voluntary action to
improve eco-efficiency. Removing unnecessary regulatory barriers to resource efficiency,
recycling and new technology investment is an equally important element of an effective policy
framework for supporting voluntary action.
4.6
International Standards
As access to information continues to broaden, and barriers to trade and investment are
eliminated, standardisation is taking on an increasingly important role in global affairs. New
international agreements, codes and guidelines for an expanding range of health, safety and
environmental issues are emerging. Well-defined, internationally accepted and harmonised
standards for social and public policy issues, such as the protection and preservation of the
environment, and the promotion of health and safety, serve to shape society in a positive manner.
There is enormous potential for standardisation processes to help reduce the costs of regulation,
facilitate trade and technology transfer, and enhance the adoption and use of ESTs. Examples
include incorporating standards into regulations, using standards as alternatives or supplements to
regulation, and relying on private sector conformity assessment processes to promote and monitor
compliance. Through standards, environmental goals are more likely to be achieved without
compromising consumer confidence and safety.
With increasing globalisation, the potential exists for unnecessary and costly duplication of
conformity assessment practices. In some markets, bilateral and multilateral agreements such as
Mutual Recognition Agreements (MRAs) between and among accreditation and certification
organisations can help reduce redundant testing and certification procedures, thereby lowering
costs, avoiding delays and expanding trade opportunities. Global accreditation mechanisms
should be considered and used where appropriate in accordance with priorities established for
international standards activities, and where the public interest is not jeopardised.
4.7
Ecosystems Integrity
Development can be described as a complex process of purposeful change in the attitudes,
behaviours, and institutions of human societies. An ecological viewpoint is essential to any valid
concept of development because the development process itself is inherently ecological. In other
words, it is a process of purposeful change in the systematic interrelationships of living and
inanimate things as they have evolved and continue to evolve in a biosphere dominated by human
society. Development, when based on incomplete initial assessment, may fail to achieve its
objectives, and may also produce costly and damaging consequences. Conversely, although
development may attain its goal, the process of attainment may entail unforeseen harmful
ecological side effects. Throughout the development process, ecological deterioration may
coexist with technical success. Indeed, for some countries, quality of life and the possibilities of
future opportunities may actually decrease as gross national product increases.
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Most of the practical suggestions for more ecologically oriented development relate to specific
management and operational methods. Most frequently mentioned among these are preinvestment and feasibility studies, project selection and evaluation, guidelines, checklists, and
post-audits. Among the tools of improved decision-making in development is cost-benefit
analysis. However, there are many ways of comparing costs with benefits, and the difficulty of
placing a quantitative value on ecology has been a major impediment in promoting ecological
approaches to development. For instance, how does one evaluate the costs of perpetual
management of artificial ecosystems (such as irrigated areas) against the opportunity costs of
reliance upon self-renewing capabilities and limitations of natural systems?
Regardless of the scope of development projects, the conceptual framework in which they are
planned and implemented should be comprehensive. It is not in the actual development plans that
comprehensiveness is needed, but in the initial determination of the scope of possible action.
Elaborate and far-reaching plans may exceed the capacity of a developing country and what is
actually achieved may in fact be limited. Comprehensiveness that exceeds administrative
capabilities can result in both economic and ecological failure of development efforts.
Comprehensiveness is therefore needed primarily to determine priorities and to reduce, as much
as possible, the risks of inadvertent consequences. This should not be a theoretical “take
everything into account” assessment that could indefinitely delay all action; it should be focused
and refined in relation to critical factors. Systematic methods for identifying these factors and
estimating their importance are urgently needed, taking into account the potentialities and
significance of ecological impacts.
Ecological approaches to development are difficult to achieve because the task of synthesis has
not been adequately understood or cultivated in the practices of contemporary science, politics
and public administration, and the science of ecology, potentially the most complex of all
sciences, is itself underdeveloped. Two strategies for change are therefore required – a short
term, adaptive strategy to cope with conditions as they are, and a long term, constructive strategy
to establish comprehensive goals for sustainable development and implement the necessary plans
for their attainment. The destructive potential of development has become so great, and the
misapplications of science-based technology so common, that better policies and procedures are
urgently needed to reduce the extent of damage to the biosphere until more adequate, ecologically
sound approaches can be provided. Such strategies must be designed to prevent the foreclosure
of future possibilities that might otherwise occur because of present, high risk, irreversible
decisions. This requires a precautionary approach, based on knowing what ought to be avoided.
If the determination of priorities is to reflect sound judgement, a precondition must be the
identification of critical ecological factors. There is already enough experience over a wide range
of development efforts making it feasible to include gross estimates of potential risks in most
development plans. Better means of measuring and forecasting ecological changes are certainly
needed, as are ecological monitoring and observation techniques to identify what should not be
done. Avoiding unnecessary foreclosure of future opportunity and avoiding unwanted
irreversible effects is often a more valuable accomplishment than the formulation of complex
programs that may not be operationally viable.
4.8
Risk Management
The process of development involves certain built-in risks that must be recognised and, where
possible, insured against if the prospects for favourable outcomes are to be maximised. There is
good cause for attempting to maximise the possibilities for success in development, because the
opportunities for failure are more abundant. Human intervention in nature is more likely to be
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harmful than good because there is an infinite number of wrong answers to any given problem.
Considering that traditional societies and natural ecosystems have passed the evolutionary test of
survival, it is arguable whether the deliberate manipulation of culture and the environment, in the
end, produces better results in human health, happiness and survival than those produced over
time through trial and error.
Environmental risks arising from technological and developmental decisions impinge on
individuals and areas that have little or no influence on those decisions. National and
international institutional mechanisms are needed to assess the potential risks and possible
impacts of new technologies before they are widely used, in order to ensure that their production,
use, and disposal do not overstress environmental resources. New technologies are not all
intrinsically benign, nor do they have only positive impacts on the environment. The large-scale
production and widespread use of new materials can lead to unforeseen health hazards (i.e., the
use of gallium arsenate in the microchip industry). The need for caution in introducing a new
technology is also evident in the agricultural sector, which, despite formidable achievements, is
experiencing problems related to over-dependence on relatively few crop strains and large doses
of agri-chemicals. Another example is genetically modified foods; new life forms produced
through genetic engineering must be carefully tested and assessed for their potential impact on
health and on the maintenance of genetic diversity and ecological balance before they are
introduced into the environment.
Nothing is static and absolute and hence our capacity to make choices and changes exists within a
framework of dynamic and relative systems. Moore and Woodhouse have proposed a set of
guidelines that they call “sophisticated trial and error” for cautiously adopting new technologies,
which includes:
• Taking initial precautions to protect against the worst consequences of errors
• Erring on the side of caution
• Learning from error by establishing monitoring mechanisms to report and interpret negative
feedback
• Conducting tests to accelerate our ability to assess potentially negative feedback
• Setting priorities so that key uncertainties get the most attention
• Adjusting initial precautions as uncertainties are clarified (reducing them if potential threats
are less serious than anticipated, or enhancing the necessary precautions where warranted).
These guidelines recognise the reality that the greatest latitude of choice exists prior to the
introduction of a particular technology, technique or system. Once economic investment,
infrastructure and social systems are in place, the original flexibility vanishes. Hence, there is a
need to examine technologies for their social and political characteristics during the earliest
stages of any proposed technology development or initiative.
4.9
Political and Institutional Considerations
There is a human tendency to define problems in a way that corresponds to our ability to deal
with them, rather than to define problems as they really are. The latter approach may delay action
while the problem is being analysed in all its significant ramifications. While such a delay may
be ecologically desirable, it may be politically unacceptable in instances where there is
widespread demand for action. Furthermore, once an organisation has been structured and staffed
to meet problems in a certain way, it is very difficult for it to abandon the assumptions underlying
its creation. The creative role of development is often subordinated to the more conventional
tasks of program formulation and execution, while the potential opportunity for a major
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reorientation of the approach to development is diminished by the drag of institutional inertia.
The self-perpetuating character of development assumptions should therefore be recognised as a
potential impediment to development.
Deployment of a technology is not merely an economic or technological action; it is also a social
and political action. The political structure of international development and the pressure on
officials in aid-receiving countries to produce quick and visible results often combine to form a
major impediment to ecologically sound development. Scientific investigation, pre-investment
studies and careful ecological assessment of possible side effects do little to relieve the pressures
on national leaders or enhance their reputations. The pragmatic attitude toward dealing with
ecological consequences, if they are even considered, is usually to address them as they arise. To
the extent that development is the application of science and technology to the physical and
socio-economic betterment of human life, a continuing reconciliation of science and politics is
essential. However, it is also important to recognise that the specialised nature of science itself
often promotes reductionist thinking instead of the integrated synthesis necessary for realising
ecologically sound, sustainable development objectives. Thus, it is equally important to integrate
local, traditional knowledge within the decision-making process.
The determining element in defining development does not appear to be the process itself, but
rather the goals toward which it is directed. The process is deliberate and purposeful, implying
assumptions, goals and procedures that are open to evaluation by some criteria. But the purposes
of development and the scientific criteria by which it may be evaluated are culturally determined
and the varied interpretations of development demonstrate the divided and specialised state of
knowledge in society. The sociologist, the political scientist, the economist and the ecologist see
the development process through disciplinary lenses that are highly selective in what they reveal
and what they screen out. Furthermore, those affected by development may experience it quite
differently from those who administer it or observe it selectively.
It is worth noting here as well that in addition to the risks incurred by the omission of important
scientific competencies are the difficulties of communication among the specialists who may be
brought together. The task of synthesis among specialists is further complicated by the crosscultural character of international development. Project teams in which nationalities and
languages are mixed often have linguistic and semantic problems of communication, in addition
to possible differences in conceptual thinking and professional terminology.
Even if incremental reforms were accomplished to encourage more ecologically sound
development, major institutional difficulties would stand in the way. A number of ecological
problems cannot easily be dealt with under existing institutional arrangements. As populations
increase, and as science and technology, in effect, shrink the size of the earth and increase the
interdependency of all peoples, new problems are becoming apparent. Some of these problems
concern the use of the oceans and the upper atmosphere and are beyond effective jurisdiction of
national governments. Other problems arise out of conditions and events within the territorial
jurisdiction of individual national states that have potentially adverse global implications. Thus,
there needs to be a “regional” approach to development, and a conscious effort to develop and
apply technologies that are appropriate to local needs.
4.10 Stakeholder Involvement
Sustainable development depends on community knowledge and support, which entails greater
public participation in the decisions that affect the environment. This can usually be obtained by
decentralising the management of resources upon which local communities depend, and giving
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these communities an effective say over the use of these resources. Strengthening the ability of
communities to live by their own efforts and resources and encouraging them to determine their
own future is more likely to foster the development of environmentally sound technologies and
methods of production that can be used and controlled at the neighbourhood or community level
with the participation of both producers and consumers. This also promotes the efficient use of
resources, encouraging their recycling and conservation for future generations, while avoiding
unnecessary impacts to ecosystems and the biosphere. Figure 6 provides a summary of principal
stakeholder motivations and their influence on technology transfer.
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Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Figure 6:
Revised 21/09/03
Stakeholder Motivations and Influence on Technology Transfer
Stakeholders
Motivations
Areas of Influence
Governments
• National/federal
• Regional/state/
provincial
• Local/municipal
- Development goals
- Environmental goals
- Competitive advantage
- Security
- Taxation
- Import/export policies
- Innovation policies
- Education and capacity-building
- Regulatory programmes
- Institutional development
- Credit and investment
Private sector business
• Transnational
• National
• Local/micro-enterprise
(including producers, users,
distributors, and financiers
of technology
- Profits
- Return on investment
- Market share
- Competitive advantage
- Capital investment
- Technology R&D/commercialisation
- Marketing
- Skills/capabilities development
- Acquisition of information
- Technology transfer
- Technology transfer pathways
- Lending/credit policies (producers,
financiers)
- Technology selection (distributors, users)
International development
institutions
• Multilateral banks
• Bilateral aid agencies
• Other special agencies
(i.e., GEF, WTO,UN,
OECD, etc.)
- Development goals
- Environmental goals
- Return on investment
- International dialogue
- Investment
- Procurement
- Technical assistance
- Information dissemination
- Decision support tools
- Stakeholder facilitation
- Conditional reform requirements
- Project selection and design criteria
National and local
development institutions
• Research centres/labs
• Technology
advancement centres
• Universities
• Extension services
- Basic and applied
knowledge
- Research
- Teaching
- Knowledge transfer
- Perceived credibility
- Research and development
- Technology commercialisation
- Technology transfer
- Technology transfer pathways
Media/public groups
• TV, radio, newspapers
• Schools
• Community groups
• NGOs
- Information
dissemination
- Education
- Awareness
- Informed decisions
- Collective welfare
- Survival
- Quality of life
- Information
- Affordable solutions
- Promotion and advertising
- Educational programmes
- Community programmes
- Lobbying for resources
- Information dissemination
Individual consumers
• Urban
• Rural
- Purchase decisions
- Information selection
- Learning pathways
- Application of knowledge
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In building local technological capacity, it is essential from the outset to identify needs and
define the different functions that must be performed at the local and regional levels within a
country, and not just at the national level. This includes the supply of production inputs, the
marketing and processing of products, the development and dissemination of technical
knowledge, the establishment of credit mechanisms, the building of service infrastructure, the
promotion of local and regional industrial and commercial activities, and the strengthening of
education programmes. Related to the identification of key functions, is the need to define
national, regional and local policies through which the numerous challenges of development
can be addressed. Much of the responsibility for planning and implementation should be
delegated to regional or local institutions because the majority of development work will be
done at regional and local levels. Innovative approaches and systems for solving problems at
the local level are also needed. The key here is to organise a system which allows people to
learn through their own experiences and make their own decisions.
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Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
5.
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EST Performance
Environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) are an essential part of an integrated, preventive and
continuous strategy directed towards the development and delivery of products and services
aimed at reducing risk to humans and the environment. However, promoting the adoption and
use of ESTs is difficult and there are many technical, institutional and economic barriers to their
successful adoption and use, including lack of information and resistance to change.
ESTs can be economically attractive due to reduced costs of input materials, energy and water,
and waste treatment and disposal, as well as increased production and better output quality.
There is also the potential for additional environmental benefits arising from the conservation of
natural capital. However, these benefits are usually not factored into conventional accounting
practices. Furthermore, ESTs are less likely to be economically attractive in countries with
inadequate environmental regulations, under-priced or under-valued natural resources, and
limited capacity to advocate on behalf of the environment. New strategies and approaches are
therefore needed to create greater awareness and acceptance of environmentally sound
technologies that embrace the principles of pollution prevention, energy efficiency and cleaner
production.
5.1
Linking Environmental and Financial Performance
Historically, many of the impacts arising from technological and developmental decisions have
arisen due to the inability of individuals to influence those decisions. Sustainable development
depends on broad-based knowledge and support, which entails greater public participation in the
decisions that affect the environment. This is best secured by giving stakeholders an effective say
over how resources are used. Institutional mechanisms are therefore needed to facilitate the
provision of meaningful information for assessing the potential impacts of new technologies
before they are widely used, in order to ensure that their production, use, and disposal do not
exacerbate environmental sensitivities.
Users of environmental performance information represent a range of different stakeholders, each
with particular interests. The primary expectation of these stakeholders is that the information
reported should be a reasonable representation of reality. They expect the providers of
information to be accountable for reporting in a meaningful way. Furthermore, the reporting of
information must be sufficiently frequent, complete and reliable for stakeholders to assess on a
timely basis the extent to which their expectations of performance are being satisfied. Figure 7
summarises some information needs of key stakeholders.
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Figure 7: Examples of Key Stakeholder Information Needs
Stakeholder
Management
Information Needs
• Strategic decision-making
• Approval of plans, acquisitions and investment proposals
• Performance evaluation and monitoring for improvements, both
financial and non-financial, and
• External reporting, both mandatory and voluntary.
Capital Markets
•
•
Financial performance evaluation, and
Assessment of potential liabilities and corporate sustainability.
Regulators and Governments
•
•
Compliance monitoring, and
Formulation of policy, economic/trade incentives, etc.
Other Interests
•
•
Impact of activities on human health and environment, and
Information on processes, products and services.
The investment community spends considerable time and money analysing performance,
profitability and growth in order to maximise returns over short investment periods.
Environmental factors are generally viewed as liabilities, typically characterised by expenditures
on things like contaminated land clean-up, litigation and compliance. Environmentally sound
technologies and practices which go beyond compliance, such as pollution prevention, energy
efficiency and cleaner production usually receive limited attention in the valuation process. This
is also the case for many of the beneficial ecosystem services provided by nature itself.
Consequently, the business rationale for and expected financial outcomes associated with
environmentally sound technologies are seldom emphasised.
Due to the inadequacy of information and decision support tools used to quantify and qualify the
merits of ESTs and related investments, the environmental performance of ESTs is not well
understood by many decision-makers. This problem is even greater in the context of developing
countries, given the complexity of factors that influence and determine investment decisions. It is
generally accepted that environmental stakeholders – local, regional and global – are entitled to
information about the state of environmental capital and changes to it. What is less certain,
however, is the precise information, both quantitative and qualitative, that can be provided to
these stakeholders about how human activities and the performance of individual organisations
affects environmental capital. Linking financial and environmental performance is therefore
essential in ensuring that the true costs and benefits of ESTs are recognised.
The financial accounting systems of most organisations do not consider the costs of
environmental impacts arising from activities and products that are not reflected in marketplace
transactions Unaccounted for costs include the costs to society of various forms of environmental
degradation or depletion of natural resources. Equally overlooked are the benefits of ecosystem
"services" which arise as a result of the adaptive and assimilative capacity of nature itself.
Recognising this, it has been argued that financial performance measures alone send incomplete
signals to the marketplace, consumers and investors alike regarding the sustainability of the
environmental capital base.
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One option for rectifying these accounting and reporting shortcomings is to give investors a
relevant and reliable set of indicators about environmental performance which, when used
together with financial information, would provide a more balanced and complete picture of
overall performance, trends and prospects relative to factors that drive competitiveness and value
generation. The key to this approach is to provide financial stakeholders with environmental
performance information that is relevant, reliable, timely and comparable, and as verifiable as the
financial information with which they are accustomed.
Linking environmental practices to commercial success in a financially credible manner can have
profound implications for how environmental performance information is collected, analysed, and
communicated. Companies that believe they derive competitive advantage from superior
environmental performance have a commercial incentive in shaping how the financial community
interprets and acts on environmental information when assessing strategic competitiveness.
Effectively demonstrating the integral role of environmental performance in relation to future
profitability and growth can lead to positive changes in how companies are perceived by
investors, with long term implications for stock price and the cost of capital.
5.2
A Framework for EST Selection
Governments, communities and other stakeholders must work together at the strategic level to
build the necessary capacity and technological capabilities to facilitate the realisation of
sustainable solutions and clear policies are needed to encourage and support the adoption and use
of ESTs. Figure 8 outlines the principal characteristics of ESTs that are economically, socially
and environmentally sustainable. Environmental sustainability considers protection of
ecosystems and resources. Economic sustainability considers operating and maintenance costs as
well as long term productivity. Social and cultural sustainability considers health protection and
the preservation of social and cultural values.
Figure 8:
Characteristics of ESTs in Relation to Sustainability
Environmentally Sound Technologies
Environmental
Sustainability
Protection of
Ecosystems
Protection of
Resources
Social and Cultural
Sustainability
Economic
Sustainability
Low Operating
and Maintenance
Costs
Long Term
Resource
Productivity
Preservation and
Enhancement of Social
and Cultural Values
Protection and
Enhancement
of Health
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Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
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In addition to these principal characteristics, it is also important to consider the following
variables when identifying and selecting ESTs:
•
Cultural values and perceptions – Public perception and cultural perspectives, such as
environmental awareness, play a key role. What may be perceived as sustainable or
environmentally sound to one particular society may not be to another. Furthermore, within a
given society, what may be seen as environmentally sound at one point in time indeed might
not be at a later point in time. Since social and cultural values themselves evolve, judging the
future with today’s values is problematic.
•
Technological context – New technologies can replace or supplement existing technologies
in a way that enhances sustainability or environmental soundness, as might be the case by
reducing material and energy consumption per unit of socio-economic benefit. Yet the
reverse might also occur.
•
Location and scale – Factors such as climate, resource availability, geographical context,
and location are all important, as are the scale of a project or the degree of spatial diffusion of
a particular development concept.
•
Rates of change – There are limits to the rates at which institutions and infrastructure can
change, patterns of behaviour can readjust, and the environment can regenerate or assimilate
the effects of economic activity. For these reasons, rates of growth of population, production
and resource use are key factors.
•
Time – Time is a significant variable, given the dynamic evolutionary nature of sustainable
development.
Recognising the importance of social, cultural and economic factors in relation to sustainable
development, there is a need to define a suitable set of indicators and criteria for addressing the
environmental performance characteristics of technologies in relation to Agenda 21. This
requires an iterative approach focussing initially on the environmental aspects of ESTs. Figure 9
provides a simple framework that outlines the process of qualifying environmental performance
information for the identification and selection of ESTs and ultimately their adoption and use.
5.3
Environmental Performance Indicators
An Environmental Performance Indicator (EPI) measures and indicates some aspect of
environmental performance and can serve as an important tool for reporting environmental
information in a meaningful way. For example, an EPI may provide information on the
efficiency of energy, water, raw material and other resource use. The types of EPIs vary and
depend on the goals and concerns of the various stakeholders, as well as the nature of potential
impacts on the environment. Indicator profiles should include a statement of purpose that reflects
the policy relevance of the indicator (including its relationship to sustainable development), a
methodological description of the indicator (including a short description of the indicator in
relation to overall policy objectives), and information on the interpretation and design of the
indicator. An assessment of the availability of relevant data from various sources should also be
provided. Thus, in general terms, good indicators should:
•
Reflect a trend, with an appropriate timeline
•
Be easy for stakeholders to understand
•
Be supported by data
•
Be sensitive to data collection cost
•
Be verifiable and reproducible
•
Reflect local circumstances and goals as well as those at the regional and/or national level
•
Reflect an understanding the relationships between the economic, environmental, and
social elements of sustainability.
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Quantitative EPIs can be classified as absolute or relative. Absolute EPIs report the basic data
with little or no manipulation (i.e., total energy consumed/year). The advantage of absolute
indicators is that the magnitude of a particular problem can be assessed; the disadvantage is that
relative efficiency cannot be evaluated or compared. Relative EPIs are normalised to some aspect
of production outputs, inputs, or a previous year (i.e., total energy consumed/unit produced/year).
The advantage of this approach is that efficiency, inefficiency or change can be assessed and
evaluated; the disadvantage is that the magnitude of potential problems is often hidden.
Figure 9: Framework for the Identification and Selection of ESTs
Environmental Information
(How to collect and analyse…)
Environmental Performance Indicators
(How to define and apply…)
Environmental Performance Criteria
(How to define and apply…)
Guidelines for Assessing and Evaluating
Environmental Performance
(How to define and apply…)
Identification and Selection of ESTs
Adoption and Use of ESTs
Certain aspects of environmental performance could be better described through the development
and use of more comprehensive indicators, including the following:
•
Life Cycle Impacts – An assessment of life cycle impacts attempts to determine the
environmental impacts (i.e., solid wastes, hazardous wastes, air emissions, water effluents,
energy consumption, water consumption, and ozone depletion) of a technology, product or
service through all its life cycle stages: extracting and processing raw materials,
manufacturing, transportation and distribution, use/reuse, recycling and waste management.
Life cycle impact assessment helps determine where actions can be taken to reduce
environmental impacts. When translated into a lifetime cost index, this type of assessment
can assist in making comparable material choices, reflecting anticipated future
environmental management costs.
•
Productivity and Energy Intensity - Some countries have already implemented indicators
for productivity and energy intensity. Emerging international consensus on the need to
control human activities that may influence climate change could help build support for
more widespread use of this type of eco-efficiency indicator.
•
Toxic Release Data - Indicators for toxic dispersion or releases are both desirable and
feasible, since toxic release data for specified substances are already routinely tracked and
recorded under existing laws and international treaties. Based on this, the potential exists to
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Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
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design and implement toxic release indicators related to the goal of virtual elimination of
persistent bioaccumulative toxic substances.
One of the principal drivers for the development of meaningful environmental performance
indicators is the need to raise awareness about the benefits of ESTs, thereby encouraging more
investment in their development and use. Although it is generally understood that superior
environmental performance can translate into reduced operating risk, lower costs and competitive
advantage, two prerequisites are necessary to make environmental considerations a routine part of
investment and lending decisions. First, a clear, quantifiable link must be made between
environmental and financial performance. In this regard, it is particularly important that leaders in
the financial community work with business, academics and others to expand the understanding
of the economic benefits of environmental performance indicators. Second, a standardised
framework to guide reporting must be used to help clarify and fill information gaps. In this
regard, it is important to establish a transparent and comparable performance reporting format
that can be used by multiple stakeholders.
Uniform reporting measures remain elusive. Consequently, the variety of approaches to reporting
environmental performance information often makes it difficult, if not impossible, to compare
products, facilities, companies, sectors and countries. A unified reporting framework that
embraces transparency, comparability and completeness should include a minimum set of four
environmental performance indicators: materials use, energy consumption, non-product output,
and pollutant releases. Such information-based strategies can help close the gap between
financial and environmental performance information. Without such a framework, governments,
communities and companies may be overwhelmed by contradictory, disconnected and
incomparable measures of performance.
5.4
EST Criteria
Criteria are principles or standards against which something is judged. They reflect a certain bias
based on previous experience and expectations, and therefore must be considered as part of a
dynamic process. Appropriate criteria are needed to help guide the identification and selection of
ESTs in a manner consistent with sustainable development objectives. However, without a clear
definition and understanding of the specific context in which they are applied, the usefulness of
criteria is limited. Recognising these limitations, Figure 10 provides a selected set of generic
environmental criteria and guidelines that can be used in assessing and evaluating ESTs.
A more detailed checklist, provided in Appendix A, was developed in March 2002 by the UNEP
Expert Group on Environmentally Sound Technologies as an initial working template in an effort
to define the essential criteria and possible indicators for identifying and selecting ESTs. The
more detailed checklist in Appendix A is comprised of two parts – the first part lists key
environmental criteria and related indicators; the second part lists some important socio-economic
criteria and indicators.
Figure 11:
Generic Environmental Criteria and Guidelines for Assessing ESTs
Criteria
Guidelines
Sustainable resource
development and utilisation
•
•
•
Plans for the sustainable resource development and use have been developed
Expenditures on sustainable resource development and utilisation have been taken
into account
Expenditures on sustainable resource augmentation (i.e., reforestation) have been
taken into account
42
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Protection of freshwater
quality and supply
•
•
•
•
Protection of adjacent water
bodies and shoreline/coastal
resources
•
•
•
•
•
Protection of terrestrial
resources
•
Conservation and biological
diversity
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Protection of the
atmosphere
Environmentally sound
management of solid wastes
and sewage
•
•
•
•
•
•
Environmentally sound
management of toxic
chemicals and hazardous
wastes
•
•
•
•
5.5
Revised 21/09/03
Annual withdrawals of ground and surface water and water consumption have
been determined
Opportunities for water conservation and efficiency improvements have been
determined
Potential sources of water pollution have been determined
Plans and facilities for water and wastewater treatment and hydrological
monitoring are in place
Expenditures on water and wastewater treatment have been taken into account
Potential releases of nitrogen, phosphorus and other contaminants to adjacent
water bodies have been determined
Plans for the protection of water bodies and shoreline/coastal resources are in place
Expenditures on protecting water bodies and shoreline/coastal resources have been
taken into account
Population growth and distribution, and land use changes have been taken into
account, including compatibility of various facilities and systems
Plans for integrated planning and management of terrestrial resources are in place,
including consideration of geomorphology and ecohydrology
Decentralised local-level natural resource management is in place
Potential for soil contamination and erosion has been taken into account
Plans for the protection of biological diversity and preservation of endangered
species are in place
Expenditures on the protection and preservation of endangered species and
sensitive habitats have been taken into account
Ambient concentrations of pollutants in urban areas have been determined
Potential releases of air emissions have been determined
Plans and equipment for the management of air emissions (i.e., criteria air
contaminants, toxics and GHGs) are in place
Expenditures on air pollution abatement have been taken into account
Potential generation of solid waste, industrial waste and sewage has been
determined
Opportunities for waste minimisation and material efficiency improvement have
been determined
Plans and facilities for waste management and sewage treatment are in place
Waste recycling and reuse plans and facilities are in place
Expenditures on waste management and sewage treatment have been taken into
account
Potential generation of toxic chemicals and hazardous wastes has been determined
Opportunities for toxic chemical and hazardous waste minimisation have been
determined
Plans and facilities for the management of toxic chemicals and hazardous wastes
are in place
Expenditures on toxic chemicals management and hazardous waste treatment have
been taken into account
Monitoring and Reporting
Ongoing monitoring and reporting are essential activities that must be included as part of the
overall framework for the selection and use of ESTs. Effective monitoring and reporting
strengthens the credibility of the assessment process and provides an opportunity for proponents
and stakeholders to review and augment efforts to implement necessary improvements. The
essential elements for effective monitoring and reporting are summarised in Figure 11.
Figure 11:
Key Elements and Guiding Principles for Monitoring and Reporting
Key Elements
Guiding Principles
Objectives, key
•
All stakeholders should be involved in defining key results, state what they are and show
43
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
results and strategic
priorities
Defining roles and
responsibilities
Establishing
balanced
performance
expectations
Measuring
performance
•
•
•
•
•
•
Reporting
•
•
•
•
•
Resolving
stakeholder disputes
Sharing lessons
learned
•
•
•
•
Revised 21/09/03
links to objectives. Emphasis should be given to outcomes (vs. process, activities and
outputs).
The roles and contributions of each stakeholder should be clearly defined, including what
each party is expected to contribute to achieve the desired outcomes
Performance expectations should take into account the capacities (authorities, skills,
knowledge and resources) of each stakeholder to ensure that expectations are realistic
Contextual information from external sources (e.g. societal factors) should be taken into
account
Appropriate monitoring and review tools should be identified and information
management systems should be put in place
Common databases should be used where possible and information should be shared
Indicators should be identified to measure progress on objectives and results. Where
possible, comparative and societal indicators should be used.
Reporting should be transparent, open, credible and timely
The reporting strategy and expectations should be identified at the outset
Performance information should be incorporated into existing reports and costs should be
linked to results where possible
Independent assessments should be used
Appeals and complaints should be reported publicly but in a manner which ensures that
confidentiality and privacy needs are met
Easy public access to information should be provided
A process should be established for corrective action if responsibilities and expectations
are not fulfilled or when adjustments are needed to address stakeholder complaints
Lessons learned and good practices should be documented and made available
Mechanisms should be established for implementing improvements and innovations
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6.
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Applying Various Assessment Tools
Assessing and evaluating ESTs involves the application of various assessment approaches and
management tools. The selection of the most appropriate assessment and evaluation tools
depends on the nature of the technology application and the capacity of decision-makers and
stakeholders to understand and apply these tools. Other factors that need to be considered include
the scope and boundaries of the assessment, and the differences between stand-alone technologies
that might be assessed under ideal operating conditions, and integrated technologies that should
be assessed as part of a larger, more variable system or development. For example, bounded
developments, such as community infrastructure and power plants, are implemented in a
predefined space and are usually characterised by more centralised management decisions with
direct consequences, making them easier to evaluate using established assessment methods. By
contrast, unbounded developments typically involve the introduction of products, practices or
technological systems (i.e., the automobile, chemical fertilisers, etc.) whose subsequent uses
depend on widely diffused decisions with potentially larger cumulative consequences, thus
requiring more complex prospective evaluation methods.
In selecting and applying technology it is important to apply the precautionary principle which
recognises that the greatest latitude of choice exists prior to the introduction of a particular
technology, technique or system. Once economic investment, material equipment and social
infrastructure are in place, alternatives have already been selected and flexibility vanishes. As
noted previously in Section 4, there is a need to examine technologies for their social and political
characteristics during the earliest stages of any proposed technology development or initiative.
Equally important is the need to differentiate between the criteria and tools used to assess
technology at the generic or global level, and the approach used at the site specific application or
local level. This difference is illustrated in Figure 12 for the assessment of all technologies,
including production and consumption technologies, as well as those designed explicitly for
environmental enhancement, protection and remediation.
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Figure 12: Process for Evaluating Environmental Soundness of Technologies: Generic
Technology Level vs Site Specific Application Level*
Technology
Screening
Generic
Environmental
Assessment of the
Technology
Generic
Factors
- Guidelines
- Criteria
- Benchmarks
Generic Performance
Assessment
Site Specific
Environmental
Assessment of the
Application (EnTA)
Assessment
Assessment of Site
Specific Application
Site Specific
Factors
- Conditions
- Needs
- Values/
aspirations
Performance
Verification
Implementation
Monitoring &
Evaluation
Case Studies of
Generic Technologies
Case Studies of Site
Specific Applications
Generic Technologies
Database
Site Specific
Applications
Database
Generic Technology Assessment
Site Specific Technology Assessment
* Applicable to production and consumption technologies, as well as technologies designed explicitly for
environmental enhancement, protection and remediation.
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Technology Assessment
Technology assessment is the process of trying to understand the likely impacts of the use of
technology. It implies both an element of scientific analysis and an element of communication
amongst all stakeholders. Environmental technology assessment focuses on the effects of
technology on the environment, human health, ecological systems and natural resources.
The term technology assessment is generally applied to interdisciplinary research directed at:
•
The systematic investigation, appraisal, and evaluation of the potential of technologies,
their impacts and the conditions for their application
•
The identification and analysis of areas of socio-economic conflict, which could arise as a
result of the application of the technologies
•
The identification and assessment of measures for the socially and environmentally
compatible design and application of the technologies.
Many different forms of technology assessment exist and are in use, however, as an
institutionalised practice, technology assessment is unequally applied in different countries.
Some countries have established formal technology assessment organizations within government
or industry. Other countries have loosely organised networks for technology assessment
activities. The extent to which technology assessment is used to support decision making
processes also varies.
Technology assessment is more than an analytical method for supporting technological
development and an instrument for supporting decision-making on scientific and technological
issues. It has also evolved as a tool for supporting technology policy and for encouraging the
development of socially desirable and acceptable technologies. Accordingly, the following
functions of technology assessment can be distinguished:
•
Assessing in the earliest possible stage of technological development possible problematic
and unwanted consequences (i.e., “early warning”).
•
Supporting decision-making by clarifying and evaluating problems and issues.
•
Identifying and developing socially desirable and useful technology development options.
•
Supporting stakeholders in the formulation of their strategies for technological
development.
•
Strengthening policy-making through an enlargement of the knowledge base related to
scientific and technological developments, and making it easier to exert a positive
influence on these developments.
•
Contributing to long term policy by providing information about possible development
alternatives.
•
Promoting the public acceptance of technology-related developments.
6.2
Environmental Risk Assessment
Technologies and infrastructure developments are not all intrinsically benign, nor do they have
only positive impacts on the environment. As an organised information gathering process for
identifying and understanding the bio-physical and socio-economic effects of development
proposals, environmental risk assessment is a useful planning and decision-making tool for
governments and other organisations seeking to achieve sustainable development objectives.
This type of assessment early in the planning stages of a proposed project can save time and
money by identifying, assessing, and where possible, preventing and minimising potential
negative effects before irreversible decisions are made. The environmental risk assessment
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process itself promotes public discussion about project proposals and technologies, which is
important for ensuring an open and balanced approach and for encouraging consideration of those
effects, costs and benefits which cannot always be identified or measured by scientific or
technological means.
6.3
Life Cycle Assessment
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) attempts to determine the environmental and socio-economic
impacts of a technology or product through all its life cycle stages: extraction and processing of
raw materials, manufacturing, transportation and distribution, use/reuse, recycling and waste
management. Assessing environmental life cycle impacts includes an evaluation of solid wastes,
hazardous wastes, air emissions, water effluents, energy consumption, water consumption, and
ozone depletion through all stages of the life cycle of a particular technology, product or service.
Life cycle assessment is a useful tool for measuring environmental performance, and helps
determine where actions can be taken to reduce environmental and socio-economic impacts.
When translated into a lifetime cost index, LCA can assist in making comparable material
choices, reflecting anticipated future environmental management and sustainability costs.
6.4
Ecosystems Valuation
As discussed earlier in Section 3, ecosystems themselves help maintain biodiversity and the
production of natural goods such as food, timber, energy and fibre, as well as many
pharmaceuticals, industrial products, and their precursors. In addition to the production of goods,
ecological services include life support functions such as cleaning, recycling, and renewal, as well
as many aesthetic and cultural benefits. Many of the services provided by ecosystems are usually
external to the decision-making process. As a result, the habitats and processes which support
complex ecosystems tend to be taken for granted, marginalised or inadequately valued in the
absence of public intervention, since the inherent social and environmental benefits are not
considered. Greater public awareness of the value of these ecosystem benefits is essential for the
development and implementation of policies for the protection of important habitats and essential
ecosystem functions. Effective decision support tools are needed in this area to ensure that the
value of ecological services and natural capital are taken into account.
6.5
Third Party Conformity Assessment
A combination of factors contribute to the concerns and expectations of stakeholders regarding
the quality and credibility of information reported to them. This gives rise to the need for
assurance provided by independent third parties regarding whether or not the reported
information satisfies specific criteria. Conformity assessment determines if the requirements of
an objective or standard are being met. Whether through self-determination or third party audit,
stakeholders look for assurance that the determination was performed rigorously and fairly.
Activities associated with conformity assessment can include testing, verification, certification
and accreditation.
Assessing the need for assurance requires an understanding of the expectations of the principal
users of environmental performance information. This understanding can be achieved through
dialogue and consultation with and among users in order to achieve consensus as to what is
reasonable to expect in terms of assurance and verification, and the means of obtaining this.
Effective reporting and communication of environmental information requires the selection and
definition of those indicators and performance criteria which best portray reality. Verifying
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conformity to both product and process standards is usually carried out by independent, third
party bodies at the national level.
The advantages of third party conformity assessment include certainty, transparency and
enhanced market acceptance, as well as other associated benefits for project proponents,
technology developers, consumers, regulators and financial investors. Verifying conformity of
performance against accepted criteria and standards is an effective strategy for communicating
information about the benefits of environmentally sound technologies, and cleaner production
processes and practices. As shown in Figure 13, it requires a systematic approach to monitoring,
auditing, verification, certification and accreditation.
Figure 13: Key Elements of a Conformity Assessment System
Element
Monitoring
Description
the data acquisition process for a project, technology, process, sector or
within an organisation
Auditing
checking data through internal mechanisms (to evaluate a technology,
project, process or an organisation) or through external mechanisms (to
report an achieved value or level of performance)
Verification
the output of an external, third party entity, which has independently
evaluated internal data and undertaken sufficient quality assurance and
control to validate the data
Certification
the output of an external, third party agency, which has independently
evaluated conformity or compliance with specific requirements set out in
particular standards
Accreditation
the role of a recognised, independent authority to set performance standards
for certification entities
6.5.1
Verification
Verification is the process of determining, through application of guidelines or pre-determined
criteria and, substantiated by investigation, statistical analysis and other means, that a program,
project, technology, process or service is technically sound and will produce the results described
in a performance claim. Verification is not an isolated process. It is part of a larger system that
includes monitoring, auditing, certification and accreditation. Verification guidelines outline the
procedures and information requirements needed to verify performance against agreed upon
criteria. This is particularly important when communicating information on the performance of
environmentally sound technologies, processes and practices. The principal characteristics of a
verification system include:
•
Credibility - The process should involve credible organisations working in conjunction with
internationally recognised bodies that accredit competent organisations to verify and certify.
•
Transparency - The process should be open and transparent with information shared
amongst interested parties.
•
Compatibility - Verification guidelines should be relevant to national and international
applications, and
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•
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Continuous Improvement - The verification system should be designed to accommodate
continuous improvement, taking into account new, emerging information and knowledge.
6.5.2
Certification
Certification is a related mechanism which can help governments and companies achieve
environmental quality goals by significantly improving the quality of information monitoring,
reporting and verification. Certification can serve as an effective policy instrument by
supplementing traditional regulatory controls and fiscal incentives. Certification adds value
because it is based on the results of tests, inspections and audits carried out by a competent (i.e.
accredited or registered) third party. There are generally two types of certification:
•
Product certification – which attests that a technology, product or process complies with
specifications set out in particular standards, and
•
Organisational certification – which demonstrates that an organisation’s services, policies
and procedures conform to specific requirements set out in particular standards.
6.5.3
Accreditation
Accreditation is the means that an authoritative body uses to give formal recognition that a
certification organisation, for example, is competent to carry out certain tasks. Accreditation is
part of a comprehensive, systematic approach towards the achievement of recognised quality
practices and procedures. An illustration of this is the International Standards Organisation (ISO)
and its ISO 14000 program which provides a measure of control over the activities of accredited
environmental management system registrars. Under this program, accreditation bodies approve
registrars as competent to carry out ISO14000 registration of environmental management
systems. Accreditation auditors evaluate a prospective registrar’s written policies and procedures,
including the credentials of its auditors. An audit team then performs a rigorous on-site
examination of the registrar’s internal operations and witnesses the registrar conducting a
complete client audit.
6.6
Examples of Conformity Assessment
Examples of programs and initiatives involving environmental conformity assessment include:
•
Product labelling
•
Technology verification
•
GHG emissions verification
•
Environmental management systems
•
Environmental benchmarking and reporting
•
Environmental information systems.
6.6.1
Product Labelling
One way in which consumers seek to lessen the environmental impacts of daily activities is by
purchasing and using products perceived to be less environmentally harmful. Companies, in turn,
have responded to this demand by labelling particular products and packaging as having certain
environmental attributes, advertising these environmental attributes, introducing new products,
and, in some cases, even redesigning existing products and packaging. Both government and the
private sector have acknowledged that this trend offers an opportunity to not only decrease the
environmental impacts of consumption patterns but also to increase consumer education and
sustain interest in addressing environmental issues.
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In addition to self-declared product claims, an increasingly common approach is the use of third
party environmental assessment and certification programs, whereby an independent group
evaluates products according to their relative burden on the environment. These programs
provide a market-based incentive for producers to develop new products and processes that are
less environmentally harmful. In an increasingly global marketplace, manufacturers may also be
expected to meet the criteria of internationally recognised environmental certification programs in
order to compete effectively.
Three fundamental elements are common to all types of third party product labelling programs.
First, the product evaluations are conducted by groups independent from product manufacturers
and marketers, and are therefore considered “third party” as opposed to “first party”
environmental claims made by the companies themselves. Second, participation in these
programs can be voluntary or mandatory. Third, labelling programs can be positive, neutral or
negative; that is, they can promote the positive attributes of products, they can require disclosure
of information that is inherently neither good nor bad, or they can require negative warnings
about the hazards of certain products.
Figure 14:
Types of Environmental Labelling Programs
Programme
Seal of Approval
Single Attribute Certification
Report Card
Information Disclosure
Hazard Warning
Voluntary
Mandatory
X
X
X
X
X
Figure 14 lists five types of environmental labelling programs. The three types of voluntary
programs are seal of approval, single attribute certification and report card. Seal or stamp of
approval programs identify products or services as being less harmful to the environment than
similar products or services with the same function. Single attribute certification programs
typically indicate that an independent third party has validated a particular environmental claim
made by the manufacturer. Report cards offer consumers neutral information about a product
and/or company’s environmental performance in multiple impact categories (e.g. energy
consumption, water pollution). In this way, consumers can weigh for themselves what they think
the most important environmental impacts are.
Examples of mandatory labelling programs are information disclosure and hazard warning.
Information disclosure specifications, like report cards, are usually neutral, disclosing facts about
a product that would not otherwise be disclosed by the manufacturer. Unlike report cards, they
are often required by law. Hazard/warning labels are negative warnings concerning the product’s
adverse environmental or health impacts (similar to health advisory labels found on cigarette
packaging).
Appendix B profiles some examples of ecolabelling programs.
6.6.2
Technology Verification
Technology verification can be defined as the mechanism or process for establishing or proving
the truth of the performance of a technology under specific, predetermined criteria or protocols
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and adequate data quality assurance procedures. It generally involves the assessment and
validation of performance claims by an independent third party.
Environmental technology verification (ETV) programs have been designed as a means of
accelerating the market acceptance of innovative technologies by providing technology users,
government decision-makers and investors with information about performance of these
technologies. Examples of well-established environmental technology verification programs
currently operating at the national level are the United States Environmental Protection Agency
ETV Program, Environment Canada's ETV Program, and the Korean ETV Program. A number
of countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore, Spain, and the Netherlands are also
investigating the concept while others, namely, Australia, China, Indonesia, the Philippines and
the UK, are actively developing programmes. Appendix C profiles some examples of technology
verification and certification programs.
6.6.3
GHG Emissions Verification
The Kyoto Protocol includes various requirements for greenhouse gas emissions reporting and
hence the need to verify GHG emissions-related information, including GHG emissions reduction
claims. Verification will also be necessary to confirm emissions reduction credits resulting from
the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI), as well as various
domestic and international trading schemes that are under development around the world.
Meeting these verification challenges will require agreement on verification principles,
development of international guidelines for verification, and sanctioning by the Conference of
Parties (COP) to these principles and guidelines. Verification is an important part of the process
of meeting the Kyoto targets, as it confirms that the reporting of emissions and emissions
reductions is real, credible and measurable, and that GHGs were in fact reduced as claimed.
Appendix D profiles some examples of GHG emissions verification initiatives.
6.6.4
Environmental Management Systems
An Environmental Management System (EMS) provides a systematic way to track and manage
environmental issues consistently and systematically. An EMS can also assist an organisation
comprehensively address environmental issues and establish credibility with regulatory agencies,
clients and other stakeholders. Effectively applied, an EMS can help integrate environmental
considerations within an organisation’s overall management system. It sets out environmental
policies, objectives and targets for an organisation with pre-determined indicators that provide
measurable goals, and a means of determining if the performance level has been reached.
While an EMS is primarily a tool for managing environmental issues, it also sends a positive
signal to stakeholders indicating that environmental issues are being seriously considered. An
EMS is an effective mechanism for promoting positive change because it focuses attention upon a
number of critical areas, including productive processes and technologies, management styles and
systems, worker education and participation, internal communications, and relations with
regulatory agencies and other stakeholders. The process of establishing an EMS requires “buyin” from different levels of management and from the employees of the organisation. The
successful implementation of an EMS can lead to increased environmental awareness, continuous
improvement and the adoption and use of environmentally sound technologies.
Appendix E profiles some examples of initiatives related to environmental management systems.
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Environmental Benchmarking and Reporting
Environmental benchmarking is a voluntary approach that can help organisations innovate and
improve their environmental performance. Benchmarking requires clear, measurable objectives,
baselines and targets to inform decision-makers and to provide a basis for monitoring, evaluation
and reporting, both internal and external. One of the impediments to the implementation of
benchmarking is the lack of good information about the environmental impacts of current and
possible actions, as well as the costs and benefits of these impacts. Organisations must have the
necessary skills to monitor and evaluate the relevant information in order to effectively
implement benchmarking.
Benchmarking can be implemented on a sectoral basis, where companies join together, usually as
an industry association, to develop a common standard of performance for its members.
Examples of this are the application of operational codes of practice and environmental policies.
Organisations can also use benchmarking for internal reporting programmes to encourage
compliance or improve efficiency. Thus, benchmarking can serve as a complement to other
policy levers (including regulation) and market forces, in providing innovative, more flexible
approaches for meeting existing or potential policy requirements.
Appendix F provides some examples of environmental benchmarking and reporting initiatives.
6.6.6
Environmental Technology Information Systems
A thriving industry has grown up around the collection and dissemination of information. The
number of databases around the world has increased dramatically and the dissemination of
products and services via the Internet is central to the new global economy. Greater accessibility
to information on ESTs is an important component of the technological transformation needed to
achieve sustainable development. Even though solutions to many environmental problems
already exist, information is not always available. Developing countries and countries with
economies in transition in particular are often unaware of the range of technological alternatives
available to solve the specific environmental problems they face. Raising awareness about ESTs
and their availability is an important step toward solving these environmental problems. It is
important to know where the information is, how to access it and how much the information
costs. The Internet is central to this, both in terms of stakeholder engagement and in the
transformation of products and technologies.
Internet users are becoming more proficient at determining which information sources are
credible and reliable. The Internet also encourages proactive customised interactions amongst
stakeholders. Increasingly, users are deciding what they need and how they want it packaged.
When technology users seek information about potential technological or management
improvements, they should be directed at the earliest stage to relevant sources of information
about appropriate ESTs. They need information about the costs, benefits, environmental impacts,
successes and failures of technologies. Some of the challenges in improving the effectiveness of
EST information systems and networks include:
• Understanding the current state of EST information collection and dissemination
throughout the world.
• Establishing links to foster communication and collaboration with organisations involved
with ESTs.
• Encouraging institutions with experience in EST information dissemination to share their
experience more widely.
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•
•
•
Revised 21/09/03
Providing objective information on specific ESTs, thereby offering decision-makers a
wider range of technology choices.
Providing relevant information to decision-makers on scientific and technical aspects of
particular ESTs in order to facilitate understanding of the implications of the technology.
Ensuring appropriate quality assurance and quality control in the provision of EST
information.
Appendix G provides some examples of environmental technology information systems.
6.7
EST-PA: An Integrated Approach to EST Performance Assessment
The use of unproven technologies with potentially significant environmental impacts is a major
concern in many countries around the world. Integrated approaches using internationally
accepted protocols for evaluating the environmental performance of technologies are urgently
required. The application of Environmentally Sound Technology Performance Assessment (ESTPA) as a technology screening and assessment tool is an effective option for augmenting the
capacity of decision-makers to make informed decisions leading to the selection of technologies
which are more environmentally sound.
The goal of EST-PA is to identify suitable environmentally sound technologies for specific
applications through comprehensive assessments based upon established criteria and recognised
technical protocols which incorporate sound science and statistical analysis. The principal
elements of EST-PA involve:
• Implementation of a controlled pathway through which technology-related proposals are
processed – the government entity responsible for assessing candidate technologies serves as
the focal point for this. All technologies submitted for screening are required to provide basic
physical, chemical and cost information. Technologies brought forward without the
necessary documentation are “screened out” and not accepted until the requisite baseline
information is made available.
• Development of detailed criteria for screening, assessing and verifying environmentally
sound technologies – this is done through stakeholder consultation, thus ensuring local
involvement and acceptance of the technology selection process.
• Development of testing protocols – testing protocols based on the established criteria are
used to validate the performance of technologies and, in some cases, identify possible
improvements.
• Establishment of a team of credible experts to screen proposed technologies based upon
the accepted criteria – team members include representatives of government, academia,
international agencies and local NGOs, and in some cases, outside experts.
• Organisation of an independent third party assessment – after the initial screening,
candidate technologies undergo assessment by an independent third party. EST-PA offers
guidance in outlining the preferred protocols for independent laboratories and testing
agencies in performing the assessment, as well as in facilitating the testing of technologies
under conditions of expected use.
In addition to evaluating the environmental performance of technologies, EST-PA can assist
governments and other organisations in establishing appropriate institutional mechanisms through
which the environmental performance of technologies can be evaluated. For example, EST-PA
can be used by local agencies to establish a technical and social oversight process for evaluating
technological options in relation to environmental quality improvements. EST-PA also helps
build core capacity within scientific and technical organisations to independently assess and
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evaluate proposed technology options. Where necessary, local technology expertise and
infrastructure can be strengthened through related institutional capacity building and training
programmes. For example, the use of EST-PA involves the application of quality
assurance/quality control (QA/QC) protocols and technical procedures which can assist the
efforts of government agencies and scientific bodies ultimately responsible for assessing the
environmental performance of technologies.
Developing countries can use EST-PA to assess the appropriateness and applicability of
technologies, and to evaluate technology performance leading to the identification and selection
of appropriate, environmentally sound technologies. The assessment process can be structured to
take into account social and economic parameters specific to the needs of these countries. Where
feasible, local laboratory facilities and technology institutions are used to provide technical and
organisational oversight.
Technology proponents can use EST-PA for determining actual operational parameters and for
identifying strengths and weaknesses of candidate technologies under field conditions. In some
cases, successful completion of a detailed laboratory assessment can be used to support the
review and verification of technology performance claims as part of an internationally recognised
assessment and evaluation process.
Another benefit of EST-PA is the strengthening of linkages with international organisations that
can provide technical assistance to support of the adoption and use of ESTs. This helps to ensure
that country-specific EST-PA procedures and protocols are internationally recognised.
Through the deployment of EST-PA, UNEP is seeking to collaborate with national governments,
international agencies and NGOs in establishing a comprehensive, internationally recognised
technology assessment procedure for the review and selection of environmentally sound
technologies. UNEP recognises the need for national governments to have the necessary tools to
develop their own knowledge base and assume responsibility for their own decisions. Working in
association with government agencies and technical organisations, UNEP is promoting the use of
EST-PA as a tool for providing fundamental information about technology performance,
facilitating informed decision-making, and augmenting the dissemination of this information.
Through the application of EST-PA, government agencies, international agencies and local NGOs
can also cooperate in developing information and education programmes leading to the increased
adoption and use of environmentally sound technologies.
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EST Action Plan
To meet the objectives of sustainable development, we need to improve and strengthen the
capacity of administrators and decision-makers in local authorities, institutions, NGOs and
communities to identify, assess, evaluate and select environmentally sound technologies and
infrastructure. This includes know-how, operating procedures, goods and services, and
equipment, as well as organisational and managerial procedures. It covers the full spectrum from
basic technologies adjunct to the production and consumption system, to fully integrated
technologies. It also captures the full cycle flow of the material, energy and water in the
production and consumption system. For developing countries in particular, there is a need to
facilitate stakeholder involvement in the identification and selection of ESTs. As a result, UNEP
and its partners are working together in implementing a strategic framework for promoting the
adoption and use of ESTs. This includes defining a process for assessing the environmental
characteristics, benefits and risks associated with technologies and infrastructure. The elements
of this strategic framework are outlined in Figure 16.
Figure 16: Strategic Framework for Promoting the Adoption and Use of ESTs
Baseline
Situation
Established
Efficiency
Gains
Achieved
Innovation
Sustainability
•
Stage 1: Baseline Situation – Baselines, benchmarks, codes of practices and indicators of
sustainable development are essential tools for assessing performance on a continuous basis and
for modifying future strategies and approaches. Knowing where things are, where they fit and
where the gaps are is essential for developing strategies and engaging the champions for
sustainability. This involves conducting inventories, studies, audits, and assessments, as well as
the implementation of performance targets and benchmarks. It also requires the establishment of
a compliance management system.
•
Stage 2: Efficiency Gains – Once the baseline situation has been established, leverage can be
obtained through partnerships and the effective application of knowledge, leading to technology,
process, and system improvements. Consultation and education, as well as triple bottom line
accounting and performance reporting, are essential elements.
•
Stage 3: Innovation – Increasing access to and market penetration of ESTs involves
leveraging strategic advantages, demonstrating results, and spinning off solutions to other areas.
Encouraging socially responsible investment is important, together with external verification of
environmental or sustainability performance. At this stage, the potential to address upstream
urban and industrial transformation opportunities is more likely to be realised.
•
Stage 4: Achieving Sustainability – The fourth element of the strategic framework involves
proactively influencing market conditions and ultimately being better positioned to achieve
sustainability.
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Establishing Objectives and Priorities for ESTs
ESTs include a wide range of production and consumption technologies and therefore
complementary objectives must be established to enhance their development, use and
dissemination. As shown in Figure 17, there are six priority areas where actions are required to
ensure that the principles of sustainable development are addressed as part of the overall
framework for promoting ESTs.
Figure 17: Complementary Objectives for Guiding the Development, Use and
Dissemination of ESTs
Stakeholder
Involvement
Integrated
Planning &
Management
Eco-Efficiency &
Environmentally
Sound Design
Precautionary
Approaches
Full Cost
Accounting
Good
Governance
•
Integrated Planning and Management – Integrated planning and management is needed to
improve quality of life while taking into account the interactions amongst the various
elements and flows within the environment, namely energy, water, transportation and
communication, and their impacts on ecological processes. The setting of objectives and
priorities for infrastructure development should consider such features as quality, flexibility,
adaptability, reliability, cost effectiveness, and crisis management. Networks for information
exchange and collective effort should be strengthened to improve integrated approaches.
•
Precautionary Approaches –The greatest latitude of choice exists prior to the introduction
of a new technology or system, hence precautionary approaches are needed. Detailed
environmental hazard contingency plans should be drawn up and made available to
government authorities and other stakeholders for all scales of potential ecological impacts at
the local and regional levels. Where possible, administrative procedures should allow for
processes to readjust in a distributed, decentralised manner with a minimum of central
intervention and control, except in the event of catastrophic breakdown.
Environmentally Sound Design – The transformation of production and consumption
systems to work within the limits of supporting ecosystems must recognise the intrinsic value
of natural ecosystems, their productive and regenerative capacities, and the need for their
protection and restoration. The concepts of eco-efficiency and "industrial metabolism" need
•
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to be better understood in order to make processes more efficient through the use of byproducts and wastes. Environmental impacts can be reduced through flexible management
practices that involve innovative reuse, remanufacturing and recycling of "wastes". The
setting of objectives and priorities should also encourage environmentally sound design. It is
at the design stage that strategies can be developed and applied to address environmental
issues, including consideration of the types of resources and manufacturing processes to be
employed, which in turn determine the detailed characteristics of the by-products and waste
streams. This offers the potential for improved quality, reduced costs, and increased
economic competitiveness.
•
Full Cost Accounting – Full cost accounting of production and consumption processes and
their ecological impacts is necessary to help justify investment practices that are more
environmentally sound.
•
Stakeholder Involvement - Improving the identification of specific opportunities and
barriers to the introduction of ESTs by consulting with stakeholders is a basic requirement.
This includes ensuring that local technology needs and social impacts of technologies are
adequately assessed so that the transfer of and investment in ESTs meet local demands.
Partnerships between different stakeholders for the transfer, evaluation and adjustment of
ESTs to local conditions can include technology assessment, development of prototypes,
demonstration projects and strengthening linkages with manufacturers, producers and end
users.
•
Good Governance - Continuing to improve macroeconomic, social and political stability to
facilitate ESTs to be transferred is at the core of sustainable development. This includes
using legislation, enhancing transparency, and increasing participation by civil society to
reduce corruption in conformity with international conventions.
7.2
Implementing EST Policies and Programmes
Policies and programmes that integrate the elements of capacity building, information and
knowledge into comprehensive approaches for EST transfer and cooperation can achieve more
than individual actions by themselves, and can contribute to the creation of an innovation culture.
This should involve partnerships at all stages of the development process, and ensure the
participation of private and public stakeholders, including business, legal, financial, and other
stakeholders within both developed and developing countries.
Although many ESTs are in common use and could be diffused through commercial channels,
their spread is often hampered by risks such as those arising from inadequate legal and regulatory
mechanisms. Governments therefore have a key role to play. Through sound economic policy
and regulatory systems, transparency and political stability, they can create an enabling
environment for encouraging the adoption and use of ESTs. The development and dissemination
of ESTs can be enhanced by supportive programmes and measures, including well-enforced
regulations, taxes, codes, and standards, and the removal of subsidies to capture the full
environmental and social costs. As shown in Figure 18, this can be achieved through targeted
actions within a framework of complementary policies and programmes.
Figure 18: Framework for the Implementation of EST Policies and Programmes
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Social Systems
•
Training
•
Education
•
Capacity Building
Corporate Systems
•
Leadership
•
Fair Competition
•
Product Awareness
Information Systems
•
Access
•
Infrastructure
Technological Systems
•
Technology Transfer
•
Research & Development
Procurement
•
Financial Systems
•
Financial Reform
•
Export Policies
•
Development Assistance
Legal Systems
•
Regulatory Reform
•
Intellectual Property
7.2.1
Social Systems
An intensive public education effort is needed to explain the scientific basis for concerns
regarding air pollution, stratospheric ozone depletion, climate change, and pollution of the
oceans, land and groundwater, especially in relation to choices in human behaviour. Targeted
capacity building, information access, and training for both public and private stakeholders is also
required. This includes strengthening scientific and technical education institutions in the context
of technology needs.
7.2.2
Corporate Systems
Discouraging restrictive business practices and promoting open markets and fair competition in
EST markets can facilitate the realisation of economies of scale and other cost reducing
opportunities. Actions are required to encourage multinational companies to demonstrate
leadership and apply high standards for environmental performance wherever they operate.
Creating awareness about products, processes and services that use ESTs through means such as
eco-labelling, product standards, industry codes, and community education is also important.
7.2.3
Legal Systems
A better understanding is needed of the effects of government regulations on the development and
dissemination of ESTs. Legal procedures which are cumbersome and unclear can discourage
investment. Actions are needed to reduce regulatory risk by reforming administrative law and
ensuring that public regulation is accessible to stakeholders and subject to independent review.
Protecting intellectual property rights and licenses to foster innovation is also needed. It is
equally important, however, to avoid the misapplication of intellectual property policies which
may impede access to and diffusion of ESTs.
7.2.4
Financial Systems
The promotion of ESTs can be enhanced by actions which encourage open and competitive
markets, and capital flows that support direct investment. Governments can implement financial
reforms and facilitate lending for ESTs through policies that allow the design of specialised credit
instruments and capital pools, as well as through public/private partnerships. Reforming export
credit, political risk insurance and other subsidies for the export of products or production
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processes can also encourage investment in ESTs. This includes developing environmental
guidelines for export credit agencies to promote the transfer of ESTs while ensuring that the
transfer of obsolete technologies is discouraged.
Increasing flows of national and multilateral assistance, including funding, for environmentally
sound technologies is another important area. Governments can use their leverage to direct
multilateral development banks to account for the environmental consequences of their lending.
Attention should also be given to long term capacity building, and improving the flow of
information and knowledge among developing countries to support the transfer of ESTs.
7.2.5
Technological Systems
Pathways and modalities for technology transfer among developing countries should be improved
through the sharing of information on the performance of ESTs and through joint demonstration
programmes. Increasing funding for R&D on ESTs should be undertaken to reflect the high rate
of social return, and wherever possible, the flows of ESTs arising from publicly funded R&D
programmes should be enhanced by entering into cooperative R&D partnerships with
international research institutions. This should include expanding R&D programmes, aiming at
the development of ESTs that are appropriate in developing countries and adaptable to local
conditions. Simplifying and making transparent programme and project approval procedures and
public procurement requirements is another important related area where actions are required.
7.2.6
Information Systems
The collection, assessment and sharing of specific technical, commercial, financial and legal
information is essential for enhancing the adoption and use of ESTs. This includes developing
the necessary physical and communications infrastructure to support interest and investment in
ESTs. It also involves the establishment of cooperative mechanisms with intermediary
organisations which provide information services. In addition, land use planners need a dynamic
clearinghouse of ecological information that can be continuously updated and made publicly
available prior to the implementation of land use decisions.
7.3
EST Initiative - Partner Organisations
UNEP is well-positioned to provide an effective platform for meaningful interaction and dialogue
in support of the harmonisation of assessment approaches and methodologies related to ESTs. To
demonstrate the benefits of ESTs, UNEP has established an EST Initiative with a number of
partner organisations. A key objective is the transparent reporting of environmental performance
information related to technologies. This involves differentiating between the supply side and the
demand side of the technology equation to determine specific needs and the requirements for
appropriate decision support tools. This is important in ensuring that the users of EST are wellinformed and given the necessary tools and information to make good decisions. To enhance the
uptake of technologies in developing countries, the users of EST information should be directly
involved in the design of the information systems and decision support tools which support the
application of ESTs.
Figure 19: EST Initiative Partners
External
Industry
Development Assistance Agencies
Internal
Research Institutes
Cooperation Centres
60
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Other Funding Agencies
National Governments
Technology Advancement Organisations
Academic Institutions
NGOs and Community-Based Organisations
Revised 21/09/03
Regional Offices
Other UNEP Divisions
Other UN Agencies
As shown in Figure 19, a broad range of stakeholders are involved in this process. To date,
UNEP has consulted with the organisations listed in Appendix H to obtain their specific
suggestions and proposals for areas where they are prepared to cooperate.
7.4
EST Initiative – Next Steps
The inadequacy of information and decision support tools used to quantify and qualify the merits
of environmentally sound technologies represents a significant challenge. The effectiveness of
ESTs depends on having both broad-based and expert input into their development, adoption and
ongoing monitoring. Leverage and synergy through cooperation amongst governments, industry
associations, corporations and the financial community is needed for investments in ESTs to
occur. At the same time, systems for collecting, synthesising and feeding back information and
knowledge on ESTs must be developed and maintained. Third party performance assessment
mechanisms such as verification and certification can assist in meeting this need for transparent,
credible information on which decisions can be based. Continuous review and improvement will
be essential to ensure the establishment of an effective system that is responsive to changing
social, economic and political realities.
To support this, the following next steps have been proposed as the basis for UNEP and its
partner organisations in moving the EST Initiative forward:
1.
Establishment of a mechanism and approach amongst participating organisations on how to
assess technologies in a transparent manner.
2.
Cooperation amongst participating organisations to define a meaningful set of
environmental indicators and performance criteria relevant to the adoption and use of ESTs.
3.
Augmentation of mechanisms and approaches for the provision, acquisition and
dissemination of information on ESTs.
4.
Documentation of technology performance assessment procedures and making this
information available.
5.
Identification and compilation of case studies to more clearly communicate the importance
of ESTs.
6.
Development of a communications plan for the EST Initiative, taking into account
opportunities to promote the Initiative in a strategic manner by linking to key events.
7.
Preparation of various “co-branded” products and fact sheets on selected topics, targeting
decision-makers within local authorities, as well as banks, insurers and other financial
institutions.
8.
Further elaboration of the action plan and a process for harmonising performance
assessment criteria, benchmarks and guidelines. This could lead to the establishment of a
standard for assessing ESTs and could involve positioning the EST Initiative to eventually
go forward as an ISO standard.
9.
Establishment of an appropriate mechanism for monitoring and evaluating progress, and
measuring success.
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7.5
Revised 21/09/03
Anticipated Benefits
The anticipated benefits arising from the implementation of this Action Plan include:
•
Meaningful results in addressing global issues
•
Strengthened policies, strategies, and mechanisms for integrating ecosystem approaches
•
Identification of needs, requirements and priority areas of developing regions
•
Better understanding of what needs to be done in addressing issues and barriers to the
adoption and use of ESTs
•
Guidance in addressing the needs of decision-makers as well as the practicalities of
technology transfer
•
Strengthening of institutional and intellectual capacities already available in both
developed and developing countries
•
Effective use of different assessment and decision support tools and processes for different
situations
•
Bringing together information, technical solutions and action plans at the local government
level
•
Provision of an information database and clearinghouse on projects and case studies
involving ESTs
•
Increased awareness and information sharing based on relevant projects and experiences
•
Identification of appropriate funding sources and mechanisms for supporting positive
actions and the implementation of projects involving ESTs
•
More effective collaborative partnerships and leverage
•
Better communication and increased profile in promoting sustainable solutions.
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Appendix A – Proposed Checklists for Identifying and Selecting ESTs
Criteria are principles or standards against which something is judged. Appropriate criteria are
needed to help guide the identification and selection of ESTs in a manner consistent with
sustainable development objectives. This Appendix includes two checklists of selected generic
criteria and possible indicators that can be used in assessing and evaluating ESTs. These
checklists were developed in March 2002 by the UNEP Expert Group on Environmentally Sound
Technologies as an initial working template in an effort to define the essential criteria and
indicators for identifying and selecting ESTs. The first checklist includes key environmental
criteria and related indicators. The second checklist includes some important socio-economic
criteria and related indicators. As part of the EST Initiative, UNEP’s principal interest is to
identify an initial set of generic environmental criteria and indicators that can be used to facilitate
the identification and selection of ESTs.
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Proposed Checklist of Environmental Indicators for ESTs
Criteria
Proposed Indicators
Quantitative
Indicators
(i.e., amount
saved/spent and/or
reduced/
increased)
Technical
Suitability
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Compliance
with
Regulations
and Standards
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Eco-Efficiency
and
Conservation
of Biodiversity
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Protection of
Water
Resources
•
•
•
•
•
•
Qualitative
Indicators
(i.e., based on
potential local,
regional and global
impacts)
Addresses fundamental scientific and
engineering principles (i.e., laws of
thermodynamics and reactivity)
Production or process yield
Contaminant removal rates or treatment
efficiency
Potential for generation of secondary
pollutants/byproducts
Noise
Thermal losses and radiation emissions
Performance at different settings and different
locations
Sensitivity to specific operating conditions
Reliability
Replicability
Potential for system failure
Profiling of risks and uncertainties
Quantity of waste generated (water, air and
solids)
Quantity of waste controlled by environmental
permits
Compliance with local and regional standards
Compliance with MEAs (i.e., POPs, Biosafety,
etc.) and other internationally recognised
standards (i.e., ISO, etc.)
Availability of reliable data
Part of a 3rd party assessment programme (i.e.,
Ecolabelling, ETV, etc.)
Useful life (in accordance with optimal
performance specifications)
Efficiency of energy, water and materials use
relative to the service provided
Lifecycle performance (i.e., overall GHG
emissions throughout lifecycle)
Use of renewable resources
Incorporation of closed loop processes
Design for the environment
Cumulative air, water and waste emissions
Impact on ecosystems health & integrity
(including biodiversity and ecological footprint)
Water use
Conservation of water
% use of recycled water
Wastewater treatment requirements
Level of treatment (primary, secondary, tertiary)
Overall water efficiency
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Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Optimisation of
Materials and
Energy Use
Minimisation
of Toxic
Materials and
Waste
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Protection of
Terrestrial
Resources
•
•
•
•
•
•
Protection of
the Atmosphere
•
•
•
Revised 21/09/03
Use of fuels and energy resources
Quantity of renewable resources
Quantity of non-renewable resources
% of recyclable and reused materials in the
production process
Use of environmentally friendly materials
Use of locally sustainable resources
Duration of product use or useful life
Energy efficiency and savings
Overall efficiency of resource use
Quantity of waste (air, water and solids)
Quantity of toxic and hazardous waste used
and generated
% of waste materials used as raw materials
for other industries (i.e., based on industrial
ecology and CASE principles)
Quantity of byproduct recovered
Cost of pollution control abatement
technology
Need for waste treatment and disposal
Ultimate disposal costs of unmarketable
byproducts and waste
Overall operations and maintenance cost
Space required for construction
Compatibility with immediate or adjoining
facilities and systems
Transportation and materials flow
requirements
Potential for soil contamination
Potential for geomorphology, landscape and
ecohydrological impacts
Air emissions
Potential for long range transport of
atmospheric pollutants
Potential for climate change impacts
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Proposed Checklist of Selected Socio-Economic Indicators for ESTs
Criteria
Proposed Indicators
Quantitative
Indicators
(i.e., amount
saved/spent and/or
reduced/
increased)
Financial
Viability
Operations &
Maintenance
Viability
Responsive to
Local Needs
and Benefits
Quality of
Information
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Qualitative
Indicators
(i.e., based on
potential local,
regional and
global impacts)
Capital investment
Return on investment
Payback period
Management and labour costs
Expertise and skills requirements for operation and
maintenance
Utilities cost (water and energy)
Cost of other consumables
Cost of pollution prevention and control
Cost of residuals management and solid waste disposal
Cost of environmental remediation and restoration
Cost of natural capital
Cost of environmental health and safety liabilities
Frequency of maintenance
Parts and service cost
Overall cost effectiveness
Public acceptance
Public health & safety risk
Social benefits
Cultural value
Employment
Use of local resources
Capacity building requirements
Reliability of data
Existence of a QA/QC programme
Available comparisons to existing systems
Transparency of data collection and reporting
3rd party substantiation
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Appendix B -- Selected EcoLabelling Programs
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Program:
Country:
Blue Angel
Type:
Product Labelling
Germany
Operator:
Federal Ministry for the Environment,
Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
•
Environmental Label Jury made up of representatives from citizen, environmental,
industry, and union organisations makes final decisions on product categories and
award criteria.
• There is no official public review process.
Main features:
• World’s first national ecolabelling program.
• A voluntary program viewed as a “soft instrument” of environmental policy by the
German government to guide the consumer in purchasing quality products with smaller
adverse environmental impacts and to encourage manufacturers to develop and supply
environmentally sound products.
• Once a product category is proposed, usually by manufacturers seeking Blue Angel
ecolabels for their products, three institutions – the Environmental Label Jury, the
German Institute of Quality Assurance and Labelling (RAL), and the Federal
Environmental Agency (Umweltbundesamt) – work out the award criteria, define
appropriate tests, and set up expert hearings to discuss and develop the criteria
proposal.
• Experts are drawn from consumer, environmental, manufacturing, and trade union
organisations.
• Criteria for awarding the Blue Angel includes: the efficient use of fossil fuels,
alternative products with less of an impact on climate, reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions, and conservation of resources.
• Once the award criteria for a product category have been established, a manufacturer
may apply for an ecolabel; the RAL checks whether the product meets all Blue Angel
requirements.
• If the product meets all of the ecolabel’s requirements, then the RAL and the
manufacturer work out a civil contract defining the appropriate use of the logo.
• An award is valid for three years, after which the manufacturer must reapply for the
ecolabel, whose requirements may have changed in the interim.
• The Blue Angel logo may be used only on the approved product itself and in direct
advertisement for that particular product.
Contact information:
German Institute for Quality Assurance and Labelling (Deutsches Institut für
Gütesicherung und Kennzeichnung e.V. - RAL),
Siegburger Straße 39, 53757 St. Augustin,
Tel: 02241/1605-23, -36
http://www.blauer-engel.de/
Federal Environmental Agency
(Umweltbundesamt),
Postfach 33 00 22, 14191 Berlin,
Tel: 030/8903-3705, -3678
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Program:
Country:
Environmental Choice Program (ECP)
Type:
Product Labelling
Canada
Revised 21/09/03
Operator:
TerraChoice Environmental Services Inc.
delivers the program under license
agreement with Environment Canada
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
•
•
•
Draft guidelines for product and service categories are subject to a 4-8 week public
review period (as announced in the Canada Gazette)
Notification is also sent directly to interested individuals and groups
Comments and supporting information are taken into account when modifying the final
guideline, as appropriate
Main features:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
A voluntary program designed to help consumers identify products and services that
help ease the burden on the environment and to create market incentives for
manufacturers and suppliers to reduce the burden on the environment of their products
and services
If no criteria exist for a product or service type, a Technical Briefing Note is prepared
that reviews the lifecycle of the product, and outlines the environmental, technical,
market and economic considerations associated with the proposed category
Review Committees made up of scientific, technical, and industrial experts establish
scientifically-based criteria to define good environmental performance and set
benchmarks for identifying environmental leaders and innovators in specific market
segments
Products or services may be licensed by one of two processes:
1. Technical Guideline Process: where an ECP guideline exists, an applicant
undergoes verification procedures that may include product testing, audit of the
manufacturing location, or review of quality control systems
2. Panel Review and Certification Process: where a technical guideline does not yet
exist, products or services that achieve a significant reduction in the environmental
burden may be considered for certification by an independent expert panel which
recommends certification based on the documentation submitted by the applicant
TerraChoice auditors visit plant sites to assess products and processes against
Environmental Choice Program criteria
Once verification is completed, the selected criteria are incorporated into a license
agreement
Certification entitles the company to incorporate the EcoLogo in their marketing
campaigns
Products and services certified against Technical Guideline criteria remain certified as
long as compliance with pertinent criteria is maintained; licensed companies must
submit annual attestations confirming their continued compliance
Products and services certified against Panel Criteria remain certified for at least two
years at which time the Panel reviews whether initial claims and assigned criteria
remain relevant
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Contact information:
TerraChoice Environmental Services Inc.
2781 Lancaster Road, Suite #400
Ottawa, Ontario
Canada K1B 1A7
Tel: (613) 247-1900
Fax: (613) 247-2228
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.terrachoice.ca
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Program:
Country:
Nordic White Swan Label
Type:
Product Labelling
Sweden, Norway, Finland, Iceland
Operator:
• Swedish Standards Institution
• Norwegian Foundation for
Environmental Labelling
• Finnish Standards Association
• Iceland Ministry of the Environment
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
•
Members of the national boards represent consumers, environmental authorities, nongovernmental organisations, trade and industry, and research institutes
• Draft criteria are sent out for review on a broad basis throughout the four countries
Main features:
• World’s first multi-national harmonized ecolabelling scheme
• Voluntary program administered in Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Iceland by national
boards organised under the Nordic Coordinating Body for Ecolabelling
• Ecolabels are awarded to products that satisfy specific criteria
• Proposals for new product categories are handled by the program agency in each
country; the other Nordic countries are consulted to avoid duplication of effort
• The Nordic Coordinating Body sanctions each new category which also decides which
country will be responsible for preparing a proposal
• After product requirements have been drafted, the country sends the proposal to other
participating countries for comment, revises accordingly, and then forwards the
proposal to the Coordinating Body which may accept, reject, or modify the proposal
• Once approved by the Coordinating Body, a product category and its criteria are valid
in all the Nordic Council countries
• Manufacturers send applications to the ecolabelling agency in their own country,
accompanied by technical documentation, test reports, measurement results
• When a product has been approved for ecolabelling in one country, the license is valid
in the other Nordic countries in which the label is used
• Each ecolabelling agency has the right to perform repeated control checks; if the
company’s product(s) no longer satisfy the requirements of the license, it may be
revoked
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Contact information:
Sweden:
SIS Eco-labelling, the Swedish Standards Institution
P.O. Box 6455
S-113 82
Tel: +46 - 8 610 3000
Fax +46 - 8 34 20 10
S-113 82 Stockholm, Sweden
Norway:
Ecolabelling Norway
Kristian Augusts gate 5
N-0164 Oslo, Norway
Tel: +(47) 22 36 57 40
Fax: +(47) 22 36 07 29
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.ecolabel.no
Finland:
The Finnish Standards Association SFS, Environmental Labelling
PO Box 116
FIN-00241 Helsinki, Finland
Tel: + 358 -0 149 9331
Fax: + 358 -0 1499 3320
E-mail: [email protected]
Iceland:
Umhverfismerki , Ministry of the Environment
PO Box 8080
IS-128 Reykjavik, Iceland
Tel: + 354 -5 68 88 48
Fax: + 354 - 5 68 18 96
E-mail: [email protected]
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Program:
Country:
Green Seal
Type:
Product Labelling
U.S.
Revised 21/09/03
Operator:
Green Seal, part of the Environmental
Partners Program
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
•
Public review process involving manufacturers, environmental organizations, consumer
groups and government agencies
Main features:
•
Green Seal is a non-profit environmental labeling organization that awards the Green
Seal of approval to products that cause less harm to the environment than other similar
products. Before a product gets the Green Seal, it must pass rigorous tests and meet
stringent environmental standards.
•
Green Seal develops these environmental standards on a category by category basis.
Industry, environmentalists, consumer groups and the public are invited to suggest
product categories for review. Categories are generally chosen according to the
significance of the associated environmental impacts, and the range of products
available within the category.
•
Once a category is selected, a study of the environmental impacts of products in that
category is conducted. The study identifies the characteristics of the product, the
manufacturing process, the use of the product and the disposal practices that have
significant environmental affects. The study is then released in the form of a proposed
standard.
•
Proposed standards are circulated for public review and comment. Manufacturers,
trade associations, environmental and consumer groups, government officials and the
public are invited to comment. After reviewing the comments, Green Seal publishes a
final standard.
•
Products certified in over 50 categories including paints, water-efficient fixtures, bath
and facial tissue, re-refined engine oil, printing and writing paper, energy efficient
lighting, paper towels and napkins, household cleaners, energy efficient windows and
major household appliances
•
101 new members registered in its new Environmental Partners “green” procurement
program for institutions, with over $5 billion in purchasing power
•
Publishes a series of Green Buying Guides
Contact information:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Pollution Prevention Clearinghouse (PPIC)
401 M Street, SW (7409)
Washington, DC 20460
Tel: 202 260-1023
Fax: 202 260-4659
E-mail: [email protected]
www.epa.gov/opptintr/labeling
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Program:
Country:
Global Ecolabelling Network (GEN)
Type:
Product Labelling
International
Operator:
Various ecolabelling organizations from
Europe, Asia, North and South America
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• Membership open to national or multinational ecolabelling organizations run by notfor-profit organizations without commercial interests. Consultation is based on
voluntary participation of potential licensees. Seek advice from and consult with
stakeholder interests.
Main features:
• collection, compilation and provision of information on ecolabelling programs,
including product criteria and relevant reports
• participation in activities of The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), World Trade Organization
(WTO), and others
• development of position papers and analyses on issues such as ecolabelling and trade,
harmonization of programs, etc.
• exploring mutual recognition among programs
• conducting technical assistance program to developing programs
• information exchange among members with regard to setting criteria, marketing green
procurement, etc.
• publishing of newsletter
Contact information:
Brazil – Associacao Brasileira de Normas Tecnicas (ABNT)
Canada – Terra Choice Environmental Services Inc., Environment Canada
Croatia – Ministry of Environmental Protection and Physical Planning
Czech Republic – Ministry of the Environment
Denmark – Ecolabelling Denmark
EU – European Commission, DG X1, E4
Germany – Federal Environmental Agency (FEA)
Greece – ASAOS, Supreme Council for Awarding the Ecolabel
Hungary – Hungarian Eco-Labelling Organization (HALO)
India – Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
Israel – The Standards Institution of Israel
Japan – Japan Environment Association (JEA)
Korea – Korea Environmental Labelling Association (KELA)
Luxembourg – Ecolabel Commission, Ministry of the Environment
New Zealand – International Accreditation New Zealand (IANZ)
Norway – Norwegian Foundation for Environmental Labelling
R.O.C. (Taiwan) – Environment and Development Foundation (EDF)
Spain – Associacion Espanola de Normalizacion y Certificacion (AENOR)
Sweden (SIS) – SIS Ecolabelling AB
Sweden (SSNC) – Swedish Society for Nature Conservation (SSNC)
Sweden (TCO) – TCO Development
Thailand – Thailand Environment Institute (TEI)
United Kingdom – Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)
USA – Green Seal
Zimbabwe – Environment 2000 Foundation
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GEN Secretariat
TerraChoice Environmental Services Inc.
2781 Lancaster Road, Suite 400
Ottawa, ON Canada K1B 1A7
Tel. +1-613-247-1900
Fax. +1-613-247-2228
E-mail. [email protected]
GEN General Affairs Office
Japan Environment Association (JEA)
7F Toranomon Takagi Bldg.
1-7-2 Nishi-shimbashi, Minato-ku,
Tokyo 105-0003, Japan
Tel. +81-3-3508-2662
Fax. +81-3-3508-2656
E-mail: [email protected]
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Appendix C -- Selected Environmental Technology Verification Programs
76
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Program:
Country:
Environment Canada Environmental
Technology Verification Program
Type:
Performance Verification/Certification
Canada
Revised 21/09/03
Operator:
ETV Canada Inc. under license agreement
with Environment Canada
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• A vendor-based program
Main features:
•
•
•
•
•
•
A voluntary program designed to provide third-party independent assessment and
validation of vendors’ claims regarding the performance of their technologies.
Delivered on behalf of Environment Canada by ETV Canada Inc., a private sector
organisation which is licensed to use the ETV logo and issue verification certificates.
Environmental technology vendors apply to ETV Canada Inc. for verification of the
claims they make concerning the performance of their products.
Testing is conducted by “verification entities,” e.g. specialised laboratories and other
organisations under contract with ETV Canada who are qualified to provide technology
performance verification and related technical services
Successful vendors are awarded a Verification Certificate as authenticated proof of
completion of the ETV Program; they are also issued a Technology Factsheet stating
that the company has successfully completed the ETV Program verification process
and describing the verification claim in detail, as well as Verification Report.
ETV Canada has a letter agreement with US EPA’s ETV Program to examine
harmonization as well as MOUs with the California Environmental Protection Agency
Hazardous Waste Environmental Technology Certification Program and the New
Jersey Corporation for Advanced Technologies Verification Program.
Contact information:
Ed Mallett
ETV Canada
867 Lakeshore Road
Burlington, Ontario
Canada L7R 4A6
Tel: (905) 336-4546
Fax: (905) 336-4519
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.etvcanada.com
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Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Program:
Country:
United States Environmental Protection
Agency Environmental Technology
Verification Program
Type:
Performance Verification/Certification
United States
Revised 21/09/03
Operator:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• Stakeholder Groups consisting of representatives of all verification customer groups
(e.g. regulatory personnel, consulting engineers, technology purchasing organizations,
developers and vendors) for particular technology sectors guide and inform the EPA
and its verification partners
Main features:
•
•
•
•
•
•
A voluntary program that verifies the environmental performance characteristics of
commercially-ready technology through the evaluation of objective and quality-assured
data.
A five-year pilot phase was undertaken from 1995-2000 operating 12 pilot sectorspecific programs.
Verification partners, selected from both the public and private sectors, including
federal laboratories, states, universities, and private sector facilities, design testing and
quality assurance protocols with input from the EPA and all major
stakeholder/customer groups.
Following the test(s) that are carried out by an independent third party, a verification
statement is issued by the EPA, along with a data report.
Verification statements are published on EPA’s ETV website.
The US/EPA ETV Program has also provided assistance internationally, for example in
the Philippines, to help countries meet specified environmental performance
requirements.
Contact information:
Teresa Harten
Director, Technology Coordination Office
US Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street SW
Washington, DC 20460
Tel: (513)-569-7565
Fax: (513) 564-0075
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.epa.gov/etv
78
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Program:
Country:
California Hazardous Waste Environmental
Technology Certification Program
Type:
Performance Verification/Certification
United States
Revised 21/09/03
Operator:
State of California Environmental
Protection Agency
Department of Toxic Substances Control
(DSTC)
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• Proposed certification decisions are published for public comment in the California
Regulatory Notice Register; comments are responded to and the evaluation report and
decision modified as appropriate; final certification decisions are published.
Main features:
•
•
•
•
•
•
A voluntary program that offers participating technology developers, manufacturers,
and vendors an independent, recognised third-party evaluation of the performance of
environmental technologies.
California certification verifies the performance of a technology with respect to specific
conditions, but also predicts the performance that can be achieved when the technology
is operated under a range of conditions specified in the certification statement.
Technologies that may be certified include, but are not limited to, hazardous waste
management technologies, site mitigation technologies, and waste minimization and
pollution prevention technologies.
Certification can be used by the applicant to support marketing efforts and to provide
information to regulatory agencies in support of a permit, thereby streamlining
permitting requirements.
Companies are also authorised to use the Program logo in their marketing efforts.
The program cooperates with the US EPA ETV Program. It also has MOUs with ETV
Canada, the State of New Jersey, Bavaria, and others.
Contact information:
Cal EPA
P.O. Box 2815
1001 I Street
Sacramento, CA 95814
(916) 445-3846
Tel: (916) 327-5789
Fax: (916) 327-4494
http://www.calepa.ca.gov/CalCert/
E-mail [email protected]
79
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Program:
Country:
Environmental Management Corporation
(EMC) ETV Program, Korea
Type:
Performance Verification/Certification
Korea
Revised 21/09/03
Operator:
Environmental Management Corporation
(EMC), a public corporation under the
Ministry of Environment (MOE)
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
This program was developed in consultation with technology developers and regulatory
agencies in Korea.
Main features:
• Initiated in 1998 following a survey of other ETV programmes around the world.
• EMC manages the program and uses verification entities with specialised expertise to
undertake the verification.
• Fact sheet and ETV Certificate are issued by MOE; verification results are reported in
the official gazette and announced to local governments
• Verified technologies are advertised in various publications and technical journals, as
well as on the websites of the National Environmental Technology Information Centre
(KONETIC) and EMC
• Verified technologies receive priority for use in public facilities
Contact information:
Environmental Management Corp.
Environmental Research Complex
Kyungseo-Dong, Seo-gu
Incheonl, Korea
Tel 032-560-2151-2153
Fax. 022-560-2289
Website: www.emc.or.kr
80
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Revised 21/09/03
Appendix D -- Selected GHG-Related Verification Initiatives
81
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Revised 21/09/03
Program:
Country:
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading
International
Type:
Operator:
GHG-Related Verification
UNCTAD
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• Involves governments, industry, financial institutions and NGOs
Main features:
• The goal of the project is to reduce the impact of climate change by helping to foster
the development of an integrated global emissions trading system in which all countries
would participate based on the accepted principle of common but differentiated
responsibilities.
• The secretariat issued a major report on the subject in May 1992, as a contribution to
the work of the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992.
• Since then UNCTAD has contributed its experience and expertise in commodities
trading towards research and capacity building in the area of greenhouse gas emissions
trading.
Contact information:
UNCTAD/Earth Council Carbon Market Programme
UNCTAD
Palais des Nations
CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland
Tel: +41 (22) 917-2116
Fax: +41 (22) 917-0504
Email: [email protected]
Website www.unctad.org/ghg/index/html
82
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Program:
Kyoto Protocol
Type:
GHG-Related Verification
Revised 21/09/03
Country:
International
Operator:
United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC)
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• Extensive international consultations have taken place with national governments.
Main features:
Under the Kyoto Protocol, there are a number of approaches currently being considered for
reducing GHG emissions:
•
Allowance System – This would involve specific industry sectors, regions or countries
being allotted a cap on GHG emissions that they cannot surpass. Companies would be
able to trade permits in order to achieve the allowance targets. The verification,
certification and registration of emission allowances at a company level will be
important in this system to ensure that targets are being met. Companies will want to
ensure that they are receiving real emissions reductions when they trade.
•
Regulatory Standards - A system of regulatory standards would use penalties for noncompliance as a means to drive businesses and industry sectors to meet their predetermined targets. Regulatory standards require verification, certification and
registration of GHG emissions to ensure that the standards are being met, and that
commitments to meet reductions are occurring.
•
Carbon Charges - A carbon charge is a measure that might be likely applied to the
consumption of carbon (e.g., fuels such as oil, gas and coal) at a rate dependent on the
amount of carbon emissions produced. Verification would also be needed for this
approach.
•
Credit for Early Action - Rules for early action credits will provide incentives to
organizations to reduce emissions earlier rather than later. In doing so, credits for early
action could be created which may have value in trading systems. Regardless of how
the rules emerge, companies claiming credits for early action would have to verify that
these are legitimate and real.
• Verification will also be part of the substantiation accompanying country reports under
the Kyoto framework.
Contact information:
UNFCCC
P.O. Box 260124
D-53153 Bonn
Germany
Tel: (49-228) 815-1000
Fax: (49-228) 815-1999
E-mail: [email protected]
Web page: www.unfccc.int
83
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Program:
Country:
World Bank Pilot Validation, Verification
and Certification of GHG Mitigation
Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ)
Projects
International
Type:
GHG-Related Verification
Operator:
Revised 21/09/03
The World Bank
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• Involves government and private sector stakeholders
Main features:
• Pilot projects to test validation, certification and verification procedures to meet the
Kyoto Protocol (India Agricultural Demand-Side Management project to increase
efficiency of electricity usage, and Mexico ILUMEX project to replace incandescent
bulbs with compact fluorescent bulbs in two cities).
• Development of monitoring and verification protocol for India project has served as a
pilot for the certification and verification efforts.
• For the project in Mexico, a Norwegian certification company was hired to analyse the
work of the ILLUMEX project and to verify the resulting offsets from the project.
• This initiative has assisted in the development of a monitoring and verification protocol
for AIJ projects.
Contact information:
The World Bank
Environment Department
1818 H St. NW.
Washington, DC. 20433
USA
Tel. (202) 473-2013
E-mail: [email protected]
Website www.worldbank.org
84
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Revised 21/09/03
Country:
Program:
Canada
Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction
Trading Pilot (GERT)
Type:
Operator:
GHG-Related Verification
Natural Resources Canada
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• Involves industry, government, NGOs and the financial sector
Main features:
• Sellers post emission credits available for trade on an internet site.
• Participants submit paper trail for projects and trades to Technical Committee to review
and determine if reductions are measurable, verifiable and surplus.
• Submit required documentation annually for Registered Emission Reductions (RER)
• Third party audit is recommended, but not required.
• Provides practical experience in trading through a market based approach.
• Project concluded in 2002.
Contact information:
Howard Loseth, Pilot Manager
Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Trading Pilot
Saskatchewan Department of Industry and Resources
2101 Scarth Street - 8th floor
Regina, Saskatchewan
Canada S4P 3V7
phone: (306) 787-3379
fax: (306) 787-2333
e-mail: [email protected]
Website www.gert.org
85
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Revised 21/09/03
Program:
Country:
GHG SMART
Canada
Type:
Operator:
GHG-Related Verification
TEAM Operations Office
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• GHG SMART was developed through extensive consultations with key stakeholders
and experts, in Canada and internationally
Main features:
• TEAM (Technology Early Action Measures) Projects are required to measure and
report the performance and impacts of the project
• TEAM has developed a methodology GHG SMART (System of Measurement And
Reporting to TEAM) to guide this process
• There are 3 main objectives for the GHG SMART:
- To provide guidance to the proponents and federal authority project
managers for the measurement and reporting of their TEAM projects;
- To provide the Government of Canada an acceptable methodology for the
evaluation of projects that intend to have a mitigating impact on GHG
emissions; and,
- To provide the international community an illustration of an approach used
in Canada to assess the GHG impact of such projects.
• Guiding principles of GHG SMART include accuracy, best practices, completeness,
comparability, consistency, cost-efficiency, practicability, reliability, transparency, and
validity.
• GHG SMART involves:
- Up-front planning, coordination of stakeholders and identification of roles
and responsibilities
- Scoping of the boundaries and benchmarks for the verification, including
what should be measured and what should be compared
- Selection of GHG emissions factors
- Collection and reporting of GHG emissions and other related information
in accordance with a specific set of guidelines and templates.
Contact information:
Thomas Baumann, Project Verification Officer
TEAM Operations Office
Climate Change Technology Early Action Measures
580 Booth Street, 13th Floor
Ottawa, Canada, K1A 0E4
Tel: 613-943-5913
Fax: 613-947-1016
E-mail: [email protected]
Website www.climatechange.gc.ca
86
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Revised 21/09/03
Appendix E -- Selected EMS Programs
87
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Revised 21/09/03
Program:
Country:
ISO 14000 series
Type:
Environmental Management System
International
Operator:
International Organisation for
Standardization (ISO)
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
•
Technical Committee (TC) 207 and its subcommittees and working groups are made up
of representatives from thirty-five countries, each of which formulates a national
position; working drafts, committee drafts, and draft international standards are
developed, commented upon, and subjected to formal balloting before finalisation
Main features:
•
•
•
•
•
A series of voluntary generic standards that provide business management with the
comprehensive framework for managing the environmental impacts of a company’s
processes and activities
The standards include a broad range of environmental disciplines, e.g. basic
management system, auditing, performance evaluation, labelling, and lifecycle
assessment
The standards are all guidance documents (i.e. “descriptive”) except for ISO 14001
which is a specification document (i.e. “prescriptive”) and the model for an
environmental management system
ISO 14001 is the standard against which a company’s environmental management
system will be audited – by an internal auditor or a third-party independent auditor –
and certified
The European Commission has accepted ISO 14001 certificates as fulfilling most of
the management system requirements in the EMAS regulation, and has withdrawn all
other national standards, including BS 7750, in its favour
Contact information:
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
1 rue de Varembe
Case Postal 56
CH-1211 Geneva 20 Switzerland
Tel: 41 22 749 01 11
Fax: 41 22 733 34 30
E-mail [email protected]
Website www.iso.org
88
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Program:
Country:
The ISO 14000 Registry
International
Type:
Environmental Management System
Operator:
Revised 21/09/03
Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants
/ E2 Management Corporation
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• Consultations with small and medium-sized enterprises
Main features:
• The purpose of this Registry is to allow organizations to publicly announce their
conformance (either through self-declaration or third party certification/registration) to
ISO 14000. While the focus is primarily small and medium sized companies, the
Registry is open to any enterprise regardless of size, sector, organizational profile, or
geographic location.
• Self declaration means that an organization has met all the requirements for achieving
conformance with ISO 14001. The organization, in using the Registry, is stating that it
has made a self-determination and is self-declaring its conformance to the requirements
of the International Standard.
• The burden of proof that the organization has met all the requirements of ISO 14001
remains with the organization. Self-declaration to ISO 14001, as with
registration/certification, only involves the assessment of an organization’s
environmental management system (EMS) and does not apply to products.
• The Registry does not offer registration/certification services. However, it does
provide a mechanism using commonly accepted auditing procedures to determine the
existence of an EMS of an organization.
• Professional accountants who wish to provide this type of auditing service to clients
can take the necessary training online through the Registry.
•
Contact information:
The ISO 14000 Registry
18 Timber Run Court
Campbellville, Ontario
Canada L0P 1B0
Tel: (905) 659-4462
Toll-free Tel: 800 277-3776
Fax: (905) 659-4463
Website www.14000registry.com
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Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Program:
Country:
Eco-Management and Audit Scheme
(EMAS)
European Union
Type:
Environmental Management System
Operator:
Revised 21/09/03
European Commission
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
•
The EC consulted extensively with industry, environmental non-governmental
organisations, and trade unions in developing the EMAS requirements
Main features:
•
•
•
•
•
A voluntary scheme, backed by the Eco-Management and Audit Regulation (EMAR),
that encourages the adoption of EMAS standards and approaches for continuous
environmental performance improvements by industry in all EC countries
EMAS is similar to, but more rigorous than, ISO 14001, requiring full compliance with
all environmental regulations and comprehensive public performance reporting
Companies are required to publish an environmental statement detailing the company’s
environmental impact and performance
The policy statement, program and management system, and audit cycles are reviewed
and validated by an external accredited EMAS verifier at least once every three years
Under recent revisions, EMAS II allows companies that meet the standard to display a
logo announcing their adherence to the program’s strict requirements
Contact information:
EMAS Help Desk
c/o Bradley Dunbar Associates
Scotland House
Rond-Point Schuman 6
B-1040 Brussels
Tel +32 2 282 84 54
Fax +32 2 282 84 54
E-mail- [email protected]
Website www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/emas
90
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Revised 21/09/03
Appendix F -- Selected Reporting and Benchmarking Initiatives
91
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Revised 21/09/03
Program:
Country:
CERES Report
United States
Type:
Operator:
Reporting/Benchmarking
CERES
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• Involves corporations, governments, ENGOs and the financial sector
Main features:
•
Since CERES' inception in 1989, a major driver of its programs has been the CERES
Report, the first standardized corporate environmental report format crafted through the
collaboration of Fortune 500 companies and progressive smaller companies, institutional
investors and many of the nation's largest environmental organizations. The CERES
Report is revised annually through a collaborative industry-environmental-investor
process.
•
CERES believes that more and better information on the environmental performance of
companies is essential for better corporate environmental management and improvement;
and encourages greater corporate accountability for environmental impact. The CERES
Report represents a major milestone towards ensuring greater public participation in
promoting environmentally responsible corporate behavior.
•
The CERES Report is the first and only standardized environmental report format to carry
the explicit backing of over $300 billion in investor assets of member institutional
investors, as well as many of the major environmental and public interest organizations.
The CERES Report is designed to stimulate changes at companies which complete it lowering pollution, improving management and stakeholder responsiveness. The rigor and
quality of the CERES Report is globally recognized.
•
The CERES Report standardizes the disclosure of environmental performance data. It
facilitates the establishment of baselines and goals, allowing a firm to track its own
performance in quantifiable ways. The Report functions as both an internal management
tool and an external communication device. Participating companies receive feedback on
their reports, creating a mechanism for mutually assessing trends, recommending
improvements and suggesting new resources.
Contact information:
Brad Sperber
CERES Director of Coalition Programs
11 Arlington Street, 6th Floor
Boston, MA 02116
Phone: (617) 247-0700
Fax: (617) 267-5400
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.ceres.org
92
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Program:
European Environmental Benchmarking
Network
Type:
Reporting/Benchmarking
Revised 21/09/03
Country:
Europe
Operator:
International Network for Environmental
Management (INEM)
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• Involves companies, industries, universities, governments and the public
Main features:
• Environmental benchmarking is considered by many to be an important environmental
management tool that provides a substantial contribution to the improvement of
environmental performance by facilitating the identification of the gap between a
company’s expected performance and a given performance.
• The Network promotes the adoption of environmental benchmarking in various types
of organisations (companies, industry associations, universities and others). It provides
a reference for companies and other stakeholders launching environmental
benchmarking activities.
• The Network is an initiative of the European Commission, Directorate General for
Industry in conjunction with:
- International Network for Environmental Management (INEM)
- Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei (Italy)
- Technical University of Delft (the Netherlands) and
- Groundwork (UK).
• Throughout the Network, information is disseminated to a wide public audience. The
network also facilitates pilot projects.
Contact information:
Dr. Georg Winter
Chairman
International Network for Environmental Management (INEM)
Osterstrasse 58
20259 Hamburg
Germany
Tel.: +49-40-4907-1600
Fax: +49-40-4907-1601
Email: [email protected]
Website www.inem.org/
93
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Revised 21/09/03
Program:
Country:
Responsible Care
Type:
Reporting/Benchmarking
North America
Operator:
American Chemistry Council/ Chemical
Manufacturers Association (CMA)
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• Involves companies, governments, NGOs, citizens
Main features:
• Six organized Codes of Management Practices supported by 106 descriptive
management practices
• “Cradle to grave” initiative, includes public commitment to demonstrate improved
performance in the EH&S areas associated with the research, development, scale-up,
production, use, distribution, and final disposal of products
• Voluntary Responsible Care Management Systems Verification (MSV) process
reviews management systems to handle chemicals responsibly throughout the total
supply chain of a company
• MSV process calls for third party verification by team of current and former industry
employees and public participants
• Responsible Care is comprised of ten elements:
- Guiding Principles
- Codes of Management Practices
- Dialogue with the Public
- Self-Evaluations
- Measures of Performance
- Performance Goals
- Management Systems Verification
- Mutual Assistance
- Partnership Program
- Obligation of Membership
• 28 countries have published the required codes/guidelines for implementation, 29
countries are reporting on a range of performance indicators, and 20 of these are
making these indicators public and discussing them with interested parties.
Contact information:
American Chemistry Council
1300 Wilson Blvd.
Arlington, VA 22209
USA
Tel: (703) 741-5000
Fax: 703-741-6000
E-mail [email protected]
Website www.cmahq.com
94
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Revised 21/09/03
Appendix G -- Selected Environmental Technology Information Systems
95
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Program:
Country:
maESTro
Type:
Information System
International
Operator:
UNEP/DTIE/IETC
Revised 21/09/03
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• Involves technology information users and providers
Main features:
• maESTro is a searchable EST directory database designed to ensure the systematic and
integrated collection and provision of objective, targeted and quality reviewed
information on Environmentally Sound Technologies (ESTs) related to the
management of large cities and of freshwater basins, such as lakes and reservoirs. The
information available through maESTro can help facilitate the informed choice and use
of ESTs by relevant organisations in developing countries and countries with
economies in transition.
• MaESTro users can archive, manage and retrieve in-house environmental data, access
information provided by others, and communicate with other maESTro users.
• Access to information on ESTs, as well as other related institutions and information
systems can be regularly updated through electronic mail, CD-ROM, floppy disk, or
hard copy.
• The key to the easy access and transfer of information in maESTro is the international,
easy-to-use standardized Directory Interchange Format (DIF). DIF is used by NASA,
the World Bank, UNEP, and other major international organizations.
• MaESTro is available free of charge
• Other benefits include:
- Enhanced networking of information
- Wide dissemination
- Regular updating
- Use of a common format
Contact information:
Robert Rodriguez
IETC
2-110 Ryokuchi Koen, Tsurumi-ku
Osaka 538-0036
Japan
Tel: 81-6-6915-4581
Fax: 81-6-6915-0304
E-mail: [email protected]
Website www.unep.or.jp/
96
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Program:
International Cleaner Production
Information Clearinghouse (ICPIC)
Type:
Information System
Revised 21/09/03
Country:
International
Operator:
UNEP/DTIE
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• Involves government, industry, NGOs
Main features:
•
The collection and dissemination of cleaner production (CP) information is one of the
important ways that UNEP fulfils its commitment to the cleaner production concept.
•
ICPIC is a collection of cleaner production databases that can assist industry,
government, non-governmental institutions and academia implement cleaner
production in developing as well as developed countries. This is done by providing
examples of technical and policy applications, abstracts of available publications, lists
of expert contact institutions, and information from sources available from
UNEP/DTIE.
•
ICPIC also provides hard copy documentation and has an e-mail connection which
enables users to pose questions about cleaner production. This query response service
provides individualized response.
•
ICPIC is an information tool that is continuously being updated and improved.
UNEP/DTIE solicits feedback on the content and operation of ICPIC in order to
determine the usefulness and appropriateness of the material.
•
A related ICPIC product is Cleaner Production: A Guide to Sources of Information.
This hard copy publication helps identify relevant sources of information and technical
assistance, including institutional support.
Contact information:
The ICPIC databases are on the web and searchable, or can be ordered from UNEP DTIE.
The direct E-mail and web addresses are:
E-mail: [email protected]
Internet: http://www.unepie.org/icpic/icpic.html
97
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Program:
Revised 21/09/03
Country:
Sustainable Alternatives Network (SANet)
International
Type:
Operator:
Information System
UNEP and GEF
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
SANet is based on collaboration with multiple organizations interested in promoting
sustainable technology from a variety of directions. SANet works closely with existing
MEA clearinghouses and other UNEP sites, other inter-governmental groups, industry
associations, and NGOs dedicated to encouraging sustainable technology.
Main features:
• Builds a network of sustainable technology marketplaces, with seamless access to
relevant market, financial, technology and policy information.
• Aims to reduce transaction times and costs through provision of access to on-line
procurement tools for cleaner technology alternatives.
• Catalyzes targeted dialogues and partnerships among various stakeholder groups
influencing technology markets and sustainable alternatives.
• Supports informed decision making through targeted on-site advisory, coaching and
mentoring services, and incentives for alternative feasibility studies.
• Facilitates targeted stakeholder dialogues.
• Seeded initially with funds from GEF, SANet aims to become self-sustaining.
• This additional funding will be a combination of funds already programmed for use in
related areas by potential operating partners, matched by funds donated by financial
sponsors with an interest in promoting sustainable technologies.
Contact information:
Frank Rittner
General Manager, Sustainable Alternatives Network
United Nations Environment Programme
Division of Technology, Industry & Economics
Tour Mirabeau - 39-43, quai Andre Citroen
75739 Paris Cedex 15, France
Tel: (33-1) 44 37 30 08
Fax: (33-1) 44 37 14 74
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.SustainableAlternatives.net
98
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Sustainable Development
Program:
Country:
aboutRemediation.com
Type:
Information System
Canada
Revised 21/09/03
Operator:
OCETA
Stakeholder Consultation Process:
• Developed in consultation with government and private sector stakeholders
Main features:
• aboutREMEDIATION.com (AR) is an on-line "one stop" reference source on site
remediation, brownfields redevelopment, and property cleanup information,
technologies and solutions for the Canadian and selected international markets.
• The aboutREMEDIATION.com web portal provides users with free access to:
- Property cleanup evaluation and assessment tools
- Property valuation and records review
- Legislation, regulations and polices
- Insurance, legal and financing options
- Remediation news and case studies
- Technology and company profiles
- Links to other valuable resources
• It also houses Canada’s largest online database of site remediation technologies. For a
low annual fee, subscribers can gain access to a continually updated and searchable
directory of proven remediation technologies for soil, sediment, water and air.
• aboutREMEDIATION.com (AR) demonstrates the willingness of different economic
sectors and organizations to work together to provide superior site remediation
information to Canadians and others around the world. The partners include
Environment Canada - Ontario Region, Ontario Centre for Environmental Technology
Advancement (OCETA), Royal LePage Commercial Inc., Southam Environment
Group, Province of Ontario - Ministry of the Environment (MOE) and Gowlings
Lafleur Henderson LLP (Gowlings - Smith Lyons)
Contact information:
Tammy Lomas-Jylha, Program Manager
OCETA
63 Polson Street, 2nd Floor
Toronto, ON
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Appendix H – EST Initiative: Commitments of Partner Organisations
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External Partners
•
FIDIC - The International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC) has done extensive
work in the area of value engineering and its membership provides this type of service on a
routine basis. Quality management is an effective way of augmenting sustainable development
objectives, and value engineering can serve as a mechanism for a third-party review and
assessment of projects and initiatives in support of these objectives. FIDIC is also involved in
promoting an integrity initiative which includes a guidance document to help managers ensure
that transparency and integrity are part of all business transactions, including tendering, contracts
and procurement.
•
CIB – The International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction
(CIB) is working with UNEP on a multi-sectoral initiative to put in place a credible system for
assessing the environmental performance of technologies, including a standard for EST
assessment and evaluation in the construction sector. CIB has a number of products that could
be incorporated into the EST Initiative, including guides for decision-makers on performance
criteria for environmentally sound building and construction.
•
ISWA - The International Solid Waste Association (ISWA) is already cooperating with
UNEP on the development of an Introductory Guide for Decision-makers on Solid Waste
Management Planning, and a series of training modules on various aspects of solid waste
management related to landfill design and operation. In addition, ISWA has established a
special fund, the ISWA Development Fund (IDF), to assist the involvement of developing
country representatives in various ISWA projects and programmes.
•
IWA - The International Water Association (IWA) has 54 specialist groups and represents a
major source of expertise in the water and wastewater area. IWA is in the process of launching
its new strategic plan to help address the needs of the developing world in the areas of water
supply and sanitation. IWA sees the EST Initiative as a mechanism for cooperation and
collaboration linked primarily to the activities being undertaken by IWA in developing countries.
•
ISTT - The International Society for Trenchless Technologies (ISTT) is committed to
cooperating with UNEP in moving forward with the EST Initiative. An Introductory Guide for
Decision-makers on Trenchless Technologies has already been developed by ISTT, and the
Association is prepared to work with UNEP to better define the concept of ESTs in relation to
equipment and services in the trenchless technologies area.
•
ICLEI - The International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) was formed
as a result of Local Action 21 Agenda 21 and is a key UNEP partner. The two organisations are
already working cooperatively in a number of areas. Collaborative initiatives include an
Environmental Management Systems (EMS) train-the-trainer kit for local authorities a project on
green procurement, and the promotion of the Melbourne Principles, leading to the establishment
of a global charter for sustainable communities. With approximately 500 member
municipalities, ICLEI is well-positioned to assist UNEP in promoting the EST Initiative to
decision-makers within local governments. It is envisaged that this would lead to the more
widespread adoption of alternative environmentally friendly products and services throughout
the world.
•
OCETA – The Ontario Centre for Environmental Technology Advancement (OCETA) is a
not-for-profit corporation which provides services to promote the development and
dissemination of new environmental technologies and the adoption of better management
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practices by governments and the private sector. OCETA has considerable experience in
selecting, evaluating, verifying and field evaluating environmentally sound technologies. In
support of the EST Initiative, OCETA has developed the EST Performance Assessment (ESTPA) decision support tool as a screening mechanism to facilitate the selection of environmentally
sound technologies.
•
GLOBE Foundation - The GLOBE Foundation is prepared to promote the EST initiative at
their biennial GLOBE Conference. The next GLOBE Conference will take place in Vancouver
in March of 2004.
Internal Partners
UNEP itself plays a catalytic and facilitation role in creating and implementing strategies for
transformation and change. This involves harmonising approaches which move beyond local to
global sustainability.
•
GPA - The UNEP Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA) sees the need for a simplified technology
selection process to address the needs of users in developing countries in determining their
options for wastewater treatment. This could include a simplified classification system outlining
categories of ESTs and their specific performance characteristics.
•
IETC – The International Environmental Technology Centre (IETC) is extensively involved
in promoting the adoption and use of ESTs. This involves data gathering and information
packaging on ESTs, as well as the development of decision support tools to assess life cycle
performance and environmental benefits of ESTs. It also involves technology transfer and
capacity building initiatives to assist in the development, demonstration and dissemination of
ESTs.
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Bibliography
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Clark, W.C., and R.E. Munn, eds, Sustainable Development of the Biosphere, Cambridge, the
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Engaging Stakeholders 1999: The Internet Reporting Report, SustainAbility Ltd. and the United
Nations Environment Programme, The Beacon Press, 1999.
Global Environment Outlook 2000, UNEP, London, Earthscan Publications, 1999.
Globe and Mail, “Calgarian’s Bright Idea Wins Recognition”, October 2002.
Methodological and Technological Issues in Technology Transfer: Summary for Policy Makers,
A Special Report of Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Milbrath, Lester W., Envisioning a Sustainable Society, Albany, State University of New York
Press, 1989.
Mungall, Constance, and Digby J. McLaren, eds, Planet Under Stress: The Challenge of Global
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National Academy of Engineering, Engineering within Ecological Constraints, Washington,
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Neate, John, “United Nations Environment Programme Cleaner Production Initiatives:
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Neate, John, “Water and technology - trends and challenges”, Water Quality International,
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Ontario Centre for Environmental Technology Advancement, Advancing Tomorrow’s
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Protecting Our Planet, Securing Our Future: Linkages Among Global Environmental Issues and
Human Needs, United Nations Environment Programme, U.S. National Aeronautics and Space
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Schumacher, E.F., Small is Beautiful, London, Blond & Briggs Ltd., 1973.
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Trindade, Sergio C. (Coordinating Lead Author), Toufiq Siddiqi and Eric Martinot (Lead
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(BACK COVER)
United Nations Environment Programme International Environmental Technology Centre
The International Environmental Technology Centre (IETC) is an integral part of the Division of
Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE) of the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP). Established in 1994, IETC has offices at two locations in Japan – Osaka and Shiga –
and receives support from the Government of Japan and two Japanese Foundations – the Global
Environment Centre Foundation (GEC) and the International Lake Environment Foundation
(ILEC).
The mandate of IETC is based on Agenda 21 of the 1992 United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED), otherwise known as the Earth Summit. Consequently,
the main function of IETC is to promote the application of environmentally sound technologies
(ESTs) in developing countries and countries with economies in transition. This involves
improving access to information on ESTs and helping to build capacity for the adoption and use
of ESTs.
IETC’s activities assist decision makers in governments and other organisations by:
•
Identifying and solving environmental problems
•
Assessing and evaluating new technologies for current application
•
Promoting and demonstrating environmentally sound technologies.
The Centre integrates water and urban environmental issues by raising awareness, exchanging
information, building capacity, and facilitating technology demonstration projects.
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