Incarcerating Japanese Americans
Author(s): Roger Daniels
Source: OAH Magazine of History, Vol. 16, No. 3, World War II Homefront (Spring, 2002), pp.
19-23
Published by: Organization of American Historians
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25163521 .
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Roger Daniels
Incarcerating
Japanese
Americans
day after the Im
Japanese
perial
The
of 1988. It provided an
unprecedented
apology to
the survivors of the wartime
incarceration and authorized
the payment of twenty thou
sand dollars to each of them
com
(3). The presidential
Act
dev
government's
astating attack on Pearl Har
bor, President Franklin D.
Roosevelt,
in his
war
mes
declared
sage to Congress,
that the day of the attack, 7
December
1941, would be
"a date which will live in
we,. -^^^Mi^^^^K^^^tMBB^^^^
v-JIbB,
.J ^'w^PPp^^^l
mission investigating the in
carceration in the early 1980s
judged that:
"The promulgation of Ex
infamy" (1). Seventy-four
ecutive Order 9066 was not
days after the attack, 19 Feb
ruary 1942, he issued Execu
justified by military neces
tive Order
9066, which
sity, and the decisions which
These two littlegirls, wearing IDtags which bear the number thatwas assigned
became the authority for the
followed from it?detention,
to their family, are waiting
in the Oakland,
train station
to be taken to
California,
United States Army to exile
and end
detention
ending
an "assembly
K. Johnpoll.)
center."
from Bernard
(Photo by Dorothea
Lange,
not
exclusion?were
nearly 120,000 persons of
ing
driven by analysis of military conditions. The broad historical
Japanese birth or ancestry from their homes inCalifornia, Oregon,
and other West Coast areas and coop them up in
causes which shaped these decisions were race prejudice, war
Washington,
what the government
called assembly centers and relocation
igno
hysteria, and a failure of political leadership. Widespread
centers, but which the president himself called "concentration
rance of Japanese Americans
in
contributed to a policy conceived
haste and executed in an atmosphere of fear and anger at Japan.
camps" (2). Many scholars regard the issuance ofthe order as the
"date of infamy" as far as the Constitution
of the United States is
A grave injustice was done to American
citizens and resident
others
would
hold
that
the "honor" should
concerned, although
aliens of Japanese ancestry who, without
individual review or
in 1943 and 1944, on
be reserved for the two decision Mondays
other
evidence
them, were
excluded,
removed,
against
probative
in effect, held that the wartime
which
the Supreme Court,
and detained by the United States during World War II" (4).
was
incarceration
constitutional.
The rest of this essay will attempt to explain what was done to
action was implemented by Congress without a
Roosevelt's
to raise
Japanese Americans during the war and, in its conclusion,
and it was
the troubling question, "Could such a thing happen again?"
dissenting vote, in the name of military necessity,
When
the great Pacific War began in December
applauded by the vast majority of Americans. Today, however, it
1941, there
is all but universally regarded in a different light. On 10 August
were fewer than three hundred thousand Japanese Americans.
1988 President Ronald Reagan signed into law the Civil Liberties
More than half of them lived inHawaii, not yet a state. Although
OAH Magazine
of History
Spring 2002
19
Hawaii
had borne the brunt of the first attack by Japan and
constituted about a third of the population,
Japanese Americans
a
tiny percentage of them were deprived of their liberty.
only
Their story will not be told here (5).
Of the 130,000 Japanese living in the continental United
States, more than 90,000 lived inCalifornia, and most ofthe rest
lived inWashington
and Oregon. They were the ones on whom
the burden of Executive Order 9066 fell. Almost all were incarcer
ated, most of them for years. Most of the few thousand Japanese
living in the other forty-five states were left in nervous
liberty throughout the war.
The West Coast Japanese constituted
law-abiding communi
ties primarily engaged in agriculture and the marketing of agricul
Americans
tural
More
products.
than
two-thirds
of
them
were
a number
of professions
and
trades
and,
even
more
impor
tantly for a farming people, were forbidden to own agricultural land
in the states where most of them lived. The second or Nisei
generation,
although legally citizens, were not accorded equal
In
California, for example, they were segregated in theaters,
rights.
barred from swimming pools, and limited in employment
(6).
The outbreak of war put the Issei generation at peril?they were
"alien
enemies"
and,
as
some
such,
eight
thousand,
mostly
men,
were
interned beginning on the night of 7-8 December
1941. A
similar fate befell perhaps twenty-three hundred German nationals
and a few hundred Italian nationals (7). The standard phrase, "the
internment of the Japanese Americans,"
should only be used to
it is clear that some of
describe those eight thousand (8). While
those interned did not receive "justice," their confinement did
conform to the law of the land, which had provided for wartime
internment since theWar of 1812.What happened to the rest ofthe
West
Coast
Japanese Americans
one wishes
law and whatever
was
to call
without
it, it was
in American
precedent
not
internment.
treatment
of
Japanese
Americans,
whether
they
were
aliens
or
citizens, helped to change public policy. The first major step was
a dawn-to-dusk
curfew for German and Italian nationals and all
of
persons
Japanese descent. Then, with the press and radio filled
with false stories of espionage by Japanese of both generations, the
demand grew for putting all Japanese into some kind of camps.
20 OAH Magazine
of History
Spring 2002
can
sabotage
a
by
on
the
on
incarceration
the
General
a no-win
it was
concerned,
blame
commander,
military
Japanese
on
bureau
military
John L. De Witt,
press,
situation.
the West
Coast
on
and
politicians,
the
almost reflexive racism ofthe general public, in the final analysis
the decision was made by President Roosevelt, who, responding
directly to the urging of Secretary ofWar Henry L. Stimson, told
him that he could do what he wished with the Japanese Ameri
cans, but that he should be "as reasonable as you can" (10). Eight
days later FDR signed Executive Order 9066, which the army's
lawyers had prepared. The order named no ethnic group but gave
Stimson and other commanders he might designate nearly abso
lute
over
power
The
in duly
persons
constituted
was
however,
government,
areas."
"military
not
at all
to move,
prepared
guard, house, and feed more than a hundred thousand persons. The
exiling of Japanese American men, women, and children from their
homes did not even begin until 31 March and the process was not
completed until the end of October. Before that could happen, a
new federal crime had to be invented, failing to leave a restricted
area when
so
to do
directed
by
a
order.
military
Congress
quickly
enacted a statute drafted by army lawyers making the failure to obey
such an order punishable by a year in prison and/or a fine of five
thousand dollars. Senator Robert A. Taft (R-OH) called it the
law he
criminal
"sloppiest"
had
ever
"read
or
seen
but,
anywhere"
because ofthe situation on the Pacific Coast, he did not object and
the statute passed the Senate by unanimous consent (11). Once it
is no evidence
of Southeast Asia, and seemed to threaten Australia and perhaps
the United States itself, produced a state of panic, especially on
theWest Coast. The escalating demands ofthe press, politicians,
some army and navy officers, and the general public for harsher
or
of espionage
were
we
crats like Lieutenant
was
that the federal government planned a
of
before the war. But the
Japanese Americans
general round-up
terrible war news ofthe winter of 1941-1942, inwhich seemingly
invincible Imperial Japanese forces overran the Philippines, much
There
case
one
Americans
Japanese
Although
citizenship" because of their race. Like all persons of color in the
United States, both generations of Japanese Americans
experi
enced systematic discrimination. The immigrant Issei generation,
in addition to being barred from citizenship, were legally forbidden
not
person in the United States during the entire war. One West
Coast law enforcement officer, California Attorney General Earl
admitted to a congressional committee on 21 February
Warren,
that
there had been no such acts inCalifornia, but found that
1942
fact "most ominous." It convinced him that "we are just being
lulled into a false sense of security and that the only reason we
is because it is timed for a
haven't had a disaster in California
different date." "Our day of reckoning is bound to come," he
testified in arguing for incarceration (9). Of course, if there had
in California, Warren
been sabotage by Japanese Americans
to
would have used that
argue for the same thing. As far as
native-born
American
citizens. Their parents, most of whom had immigrated
to the United States between 1890 and 1924 (when Congress
barred further immigration of Japanese), were "aliens ineligible to
to enter
was
There
the
passed,
Most
Japanese
army
could
Americans
its mass
with
proceed
were
subjected
evictions.
to a two-step
process.
The army, with the help of technicians borrowed from the Census
entire
Bureau, divided theWest Coast area to be evacuated?the
state of California, the western halves ofWashington
and Oregon,
108 districts and issued separate
and a small part of Arizona?into
Exclusion Orders for each. The first such order, which
covered Bainbridge Island opposite Seattle in Puget Sound, was
posted on 26 March throughout the island. It ordered "all persons
of Japanese ancestry, both alien and non-alien" to be prepared for
Civilian
removal
on
31 March.
(A
of course,
"non-alien,"
was
a citizen,
the army did not like to remind the public that American
were
being
sent
to camps
based
on
their
ancestry
alone.)
but
citizens
Japanese
were to bring, for each member ofthe family: bedding and linens (no
mattress);
toilet
articles;
extra
clothing;
knives,
forks,
spoons,
by attempting to determine the "loyalty" of its
prisoners and to segregate the "disloyal" in a
arose
separate camp (14). Further contention
over the issue of military
service for draft
eligible men. Prior to Pearl Harbor, Japanese
mountain -.___-A
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L
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(
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'i
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that
be carried,"
no
were
pets
and
allowed,
that nothing
could
be shipped to the assembly center.
The exiles were not told where they were going or how long
they would be gone. Because no other place was ready, the 267
in Southern
Bainbridge Islanders were sent by train toManzanar,
was
in
California, which
part by Japanese American
being built
Most
"volunteers."
exiles
were
to a temporary
sent
camp
relatively
close to home. Although
they did not know it at the time, this was
move.
a
The assembly centers, which often
merely
preliminary
used existing facilities such as race tracks and fair grounds, with
some families quartered in horse and cattle stalls, were run by the
all Japanese Americans
had been
army. By the end of October,
to ten
transferred
administered
camps,
purpose-built
by a new
civilian
called
relocation
the War
agency,
centers,
Relocation
Authority (WRA) (12).
that mass
incarceration
was
unnecessary,
assumptions
publicly. Eisenhower
after
over
he
took
the
job,
that
but
neither
did write, privately,
after
the war
"we
criticized
its
a few days
as Americans
are
going to regret" the "unprecedented migration" (13).
ran its camps humanely, but security was handled
The WRA
that manned the gates and guard towers.
by military detachments
On
three
occasions
agreed.
in three
separate
camps,
armed
soldiers
shot
citizens. The WRA
and killed unarmed incarcerated American
itself contributed tomuch ofthe turmoil that erupted in the camps
was
There
success.
some
Eventually
Americans
five
in the
served
thousand
army
as mili
army,
already
for manpower,
desperate
one
Hawaiian
all-Japanese
eventually
National
Guard unit in the army, which had been pulled out of Hawaii and
sent toWisconsin
for training. By January 1943, the army decided
to allow Japanese Americans,
in and out of WRA
camps, to
volunteer
for military
service,
and
almost
two
thousand
young
men
the camps did so. Starting
for Japanese Americans.
in January 1944, the draft was
from within
reinstituted
Thousands were called up,
including almost twenty-eight hundred still inWRA custody. As is
units fighting in Italy and
well known, the Japanese American
into
the famous 442nd Regimental
France, eventually consolidated
Combat team, compiled a splendid record. Much of the literature
inWorld War IImakes it seems as ifmost
about Japanese Americans
ofthe twenty-five thousand Japanese Americans who served in the
military came from the camps. As the quoted figures show, this was
not the case, although nearly one in five who served did enter the
service from behind barbed wire. Many others had resettled in
locations
The WRA was established by executive order on 18 March
1942. Each of its two directors, Milton S. Eisenhower, who resigned
in disgust in June 1942, and his successor, Dillon S. Myer, believed
a cat
tary intelligence
specialists. Most had to be
in
the language. Many Japanese Ameri
trained
can leaders wanted the draft reinstituted, and
of War's
from the U.S. Department
adapted
1942 (Washington,
Coast
D.C,
1943).
the
"can
were
selec
as "IV-C,"
Americans
Japanese
Japanese
plates, bowls and cups; and essential personal effects. They were
informed that the size and number of packages was limited to what
other
age
in the
egory for aliens (15).
In the summer of 1942, however, army intel
ligence, desperate for Japanese linguists, con
in the camps with
ducted recruiting missions
some
A map of relocation
which was
centers,
1942-1946,
from the West
Final Report:
Evacuation
Japanese
of military
Americans
tive service, or draft, which had begun inOcto
after Pearl Harbor,
the
ber 1940. Shortly
Service System stopped inducting
Selective
and many of those already
Japanese Americans,
were
in
the army
serving
discharged. InMarch
1942, the draft illegally reclassified all Ameri
X
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as were
treated
[ \ XX'"
citizens
male
American
Still
treatment
outside
other
the
camps
before
serving.
as a matter
that,
so outraged
were
Japanese Americans
of principle,
they
refused
by their
to
to submit
to serve if their
the draft while avowing loyalty and a willingness
as
were
civil rights Americans
restored first. 293 young men were
indicted for draft resistance while in camp, and 261 were con
victed and served time in federal penitentiaries.
The reaction of the Japanese American people to all of this was
remarkable.
vast
The
majority
accepted
the
various
government
appeared to be patient resignation. The
leading national organization ofthe citizen generation, the Japa
nese American Citizens League (JACL), advocated a policy of
decisions
acquiescence
with
what
and
even
collaboration
OAH Magazine
with
the government's
of History
plans,
Spring 2002
21
hoping by such behavior
to
a better
"earn"
against
ditions, some of which, as
noted above, resulted in
fatal violence. During the
war, 5,766 Nisei formally
renounced their American
place
for Japanese Americans
in
the
world.
postwar
This kind of accommo
dation is not unknown
among other American
citizenship and applied for
expatriation to Japan. This
happened
largely at the
groups.
minority
But, in addition to the
draft resisters mentioned
some
earlier,
Tule
Lake
for
camp
"disloyals" where chaotic
for
conditions
prevailed
several months. Most later
reconsidered
their rash
action, and although the
intended to
government
Japanese
Americans did protest in
a variety of ways. A few
individuals tried to stop
the
incarceration
process
by using the American
legal system, and three of
those challenges by young
Nisei adults, twomen and
were
a woman,
send them to Japan after
The picture, with the mountain
of the camp at Heart Mountain,
Wyoming.
its name, gives some sense
of the
in the background
of the desolation
that gave the camp
centers."
"relocation
Authority.)
(Photo by Tom Parker, War Relocation
The
eventu
challenge to the government's right to exile him
solely because of his ancestry. The Court said that he had no right to
T. Korematsu's
The
the nine
however,
justices,
argued
that
were
no
the government's
longer
unanimous
action
was
as three
of
unconstitutional.
The third case, decided the same day, involved Mitsuye Endo's
application for awrit ofhabeas corpus to get out ofthe government's
concentration
the six
camp in the Utah desert. Paradoxically,
to send Japanese
justices who had said that it was constitutional
Americans
to a concentration
camp
based
solely
on
ancestry
now
joined the three dissenters in a unanimous decision declaring that
an American
citizen could not be held in a concentration
camp
without specific charges and saying that she could not be pre
vented from returning to her home in California
(16).
By this time, late 1944, theWRA had already released tens of
from camps to work and attend
thousands of Japanese Americans
school somewhere east ofthe forbidden zone. Ironically, in 1945,
as the war was ending, the WRA had great difficulty in getting
some Japanese Americans?mostly
older members of the Issei
leave the camps. Many had lost their means of
generation?to
livelihood and even though they had once been willing to take the
great risk of emigration to a strange land, they were now afraid to
return to the places where they had lived for decades.
The third and largest group of protesters consisted of Japanese
American
citizens
callous violation
the government
who
were
so
outraged
by
the
government's
of their civil rights that they resisted anything
tried to do. They sparked most of the protests
22 OAH Magazine
of History
the war,
federal
courts
vented
this,
ruling
"main street"
ally adjudicated by the
Supreme Court. The first
to be decided, more than a year after the incarceration began, was the
case of Gordon K. Hirabayashi, a college student who had refused to
obey De Witt's curfew. A unanimous court held that his appeal was
without merit. The second case, decided inDecember 1944, was Fred
refuse.
con
camp
specific
Spring 2002
documents
pre
that
executed
be
hind barbed wire were in
valid. Yet, among the 4,724
Japanese Americans who were repatriated or expatriated to Japan
during and after the war were 1,116 adult Nisei and 1,949 American
citizen children accompanying repatriating parents.
In the more than half century since the lastAmerican
tration
camp
closed,
even
nothing
remotely
concen
to the
similar
incar
ceration
has occurred. Much of the
of the Japanese Americans
the passage of the Civil Liberties Act of
rhetoric accompanying
1988 stressed that one of its purposes was to prevent any recur
rence of such an event. But the historian must point out that no
similar crisis has occurred and that, in the darkest days ofthe cold
war
Congress
over
passed,
President
Harry
Internal Security Act
(1950), which
concentration
declaring:
camps,
S. Truman's
the
veto,
ordered the maintenance
of
The detention of persons who there is reasonable grounds to
believe probably will commit or conspire with others to
commit espionage or sabotage is, in a time of internal
emergency
security
to
essential
the
common
defense
and
the security ofthe territory, the people and the Constitution
of the United States.
The
version
cans.
tial
law's sponsors pointed out that it was an improved
of the procedure used to incarcerate Japanese Ameri
the necessary
Happily,
executive
came,
emergency?never
1971(17).
expedients
order
triggering
declaring
but
the
mechanism?a
an
law was
presiden
internal
on
the
security
books
can easily imagine a future crisis inwhich
might be utilized.
One
until
similar
Endnotes
1. Samuel
I.Rosenman,
ofFranklinD.
Roosevelt: 1941Volume: The Call toBattle Stations. (New York:Harper
&
1950), 514.
is not
in the Public
Brothers,
2. E.O.
9066
along with
the so-called
examined,
lished
by
other
relevant
Tolan
in materials
documents,
U.S.
Committee,
pub
House.
Congress.
act
is Public
Law
were
eventually
on
4. Commission
Justice Denied.
ingOffice,
best
barred
account
(Washington,
533.
Print
is Eileen Tamura,
Americaniza
Japanese
in
Ethnic
Generation
Identity: The Nisei
of Illinois
For legal
Press,
1993).
University
and
in Paradise:
"Bayonets
see Harry
situation,
and Jane L. Scheiber,
on Martial
Law
Retrospect
A Half-Century
N.
inHawaii, 1941-1946," University ofHawai'i Law Review 19, (1997):
For
478-648.
Hawaiian
evidence
of long-term
government
suspicion
see Gary Okihiro,
Cane Fires: The Anti-Japanese
Japanese,
of
essays
are forms of the Japanese
Daniels,
by John J. Culley,
Roger
Alien
Justice: Wartime
of enemy
695,363;
aliens
Army
be naturalized.
8. The
of each
registered
War
House.
(St.
Lucia,
The
2000).
were:
nationality
National
Coast,"
Taft
1942, 2726.
voted no.
Defense
Migration.
Law
Some
For
text
Order
of Civilian
9102,
the
ed. Kent
have
reported
Exclusion
Orders,
the WRA,
19
Record,
that
erroneously
detail
in United
Record
Evacuation
from
Printing
see page 97.
War
are in two books by Peter
analyses
Internment Cases
(New
Story of the Japanese
University
ofthe
so-called
of Asian
American
Cases
CT:
(Middletown,
latter
in which
work
an
contains
Irons and a group
convictions
of Hirabayashi
got the original
in 1984, because
the government
law
misled
the Supreme
Court.
The
terrible war
deliberately
decisions,
17. For the act and
Internment
Press,
1989). The
coram nobis cases
lawyers
overturned
and Korematsu
yers had
Press, 1983); and Justice Delayed: The
American
still stand as precedents.
however,
its repeal, see Roger Daniels.
The Decision
to Relocate
the
1987)
is a hostile
War
York:
1986. A
Pantheon,
account
gripping
of racism
New
on both
sides
of the Pacific.
Fiset, Louis. ImprisonedApart: TheWorld War IICorrespondence of an Issei
Seattle:
of Washington
Couple.
University
internment
in the INS camps.
Arthur
A.,
ed. Japanese
History
Project. Westport,
collection
of oral histories
American
CT:
World
Press,
War
1998.
About
II Evacuation
Oral
5 vols. A
1991,
large
in all aspects
involved
of the
Meckler,
oi people
is printed
174-76. On
the
biography,
while
in Rosenman,
Dillon
Story
of the Japanese
1983.
Internment
Cases.
Press,
Lives: Japanese American
Students and World War
of Washington
1999. A nuanced
Press,
University
account
of how
the incarceration
affected Nisei
students.
college
Sandra C. Jewel of the Desert:
at
American
Internment
Taylor,
Japanese
Okihiro,
Gary.
II. Seattle:
Topaz.
Storied
Berkeley:
University
study of a single camp.
Desert
Yoshiko.
Exile:
Uchida,
memoir
Seattle:
University
by a skilled
of California
The Uprooting
of Washington
Press,
1993.
The
best
of a Japanese American
1982. A sensitive
Press,
writer.
Office,
tion (Washington,
DC: Government
is an
Office,
1946),
Printing
official
Richard
Drinnon,
history.
Keeper
of Concentration
Camps:
S. Myer
Dillon
and
American
Racism
of
(Berkeley:
University
Press,
"Our Worst
scholarly
The
of the Japanese
Wesleyan
account
Family.
comp., Public Papers..
.FDR, 1942 volume,
pages 176-80,
Rosenman
account
ofthe wartime
incarceration.
gives an apologetic
WRA:
A
14. U.S. War Relocation
Human
Conserva
Authority,
Story of
California
detailed
atWar.
The
Irons, Peter. Justice at War.
New
York: Oxford
University
(Wash
These
from the
Japanese
Roberts Greenfield,
see Congressional
For Taft
historians
creating
(Seattle:
143.
1959),
503.
Imprisoned
Hearings.
11011-12.
1942),
with
army's role is self-described
excruciating
States Department
ofWar,
Final Report: Japanese
West Coast,
DC: Government
1942 (Washington,
1943).
was made
decisions
articles:
incarceration.
Office,
Decisions,
Brace,
Fiset.
of an Issei Couple.
12. The
13. Executive
to
able
service,
1998).
Printing
in Command
(New York: Harcourt,
11. The
statute was Public
March
of the
is Louis
hearings.
to Evacuate
"The Decision
Conn,
Pacific
because
internment
Press,
ington, DC: Government
are the Tolan
Committee
10. Stetson
Iwere,
II Correspondence
War
of Washington
University
9. U.S. Congress.
the court
against
important
for Further
Suggestions
Reading
Prisoners Without
inWorld
Trial: Japanese Americans
Roger.
II. New
account.
York: Hill & Wang,
1993. A concise
in the Pacific War.
Race and Power
Dower,
John. War Without
Mercy:
and
314,715,
of an individual
The World
Apart:
most
The
York: Oxford University
Hansen,
account
best
Germans,
inWorld
the U.S.
discrimination.
Daniels,
The
91,858.
Japanese,
were
for those with
less than five years residence,
except
Europeans,
for naturalization.
A handful
of Issei men who had served
in
eligible
Italians,
Selective
and two.
and George
and North
and Roger
Daniels.
of Queensland
Press,
by Kay Saunders
Australia:
University
Queensland,
total number
for one
words
Jorg Nagler,
in Australia
Internment
edited
America,
is
1971)
JapaneseAmericans (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1975), 57, 130-32.
Press,
1991).
terms Issei and Nisei
6. The
Pozzetta,
Press,
see U.S.
Americans,
Japanese
protest
in two
scholarly
Rostow
time
Movement inHawaii, 1895-1945. (Philadelphia: Temple University
7. See
and other
V.
Irons: Justice
of the Hawaiian
accorded
of Arizona
University
timeMistake," Harper's 191 (1945): 193-201; and "The Japanese
American Cases?A Disaster," Yale Law Journal 54 (July 1945): 489
of Civil
Incarceration
DC: Government
racial
courageous
by Eugene
of Hawaii's
(Urbana:
aspects
survivors
thousand
eighty
and
16. A
1982).
tion, Acculturation,
Hawaii.
than
compensated.
the Wartime
Relocation
ians, Personal
5. The
More
100-383.
(Tucson:
Service System, Special Groups, 2 vols. Special Monograph 10
(Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1953), 1:113-42.1
say illegal because the Selective Service Act of 1940 specifically
Report 2124. 77th Congress, 2d Session, 1942.
3. The
self-serving.
15. For the treatment
as "day of infamy."
is often misquoted
most
It
be
may
Papers.
conveniently
This
Americans
Uprooted
comp. The Public Papers and Addresses
S. Myer,
Roger Daniels is Charles Phelps Taft Professor of History at the
University ofCincinnati. He has published widely on topics of immigra
tion, race, and ethnicity including Prisoners Without Trial: Japanese
inWorld War II (i 993). He served as a consultant to the
Americans
Commission on theWartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians.
He will soon publish "Korematsu v. U.S. Revisited: 1944 and 1983"
inRace on Trial: Law and Justice inAmerican History, edited by
Annette Gordon-Reed. Daniels is an OAH Distinguished Lecturer.
OAH Magazine
of History
Spring 2002
23