AP Language and Composition Terms
abstract
Words or phrases denoting ideas, qualities, and conditions that exist but cannot
be perceived by the senses. Some abstract terms are: love, happiness, beauty,
and patriotism. The opposite of abstract terms are concrete ones—words that
refer to things that are tangible, visible, or otherwise physically evident. Hunger
is abstract, but hamburger is concrete.
ad hominem
argument
An argument that attacks the integrity or character of an opponent rather than the
merits on an issue. It is also informally known as mudslinging.
ad populum
argument
A fallacious argument that appeals to the passions and prejudices of a group
rather than to its reason. An appeal, for instance, to support an issue because
it’s “the American way” is an ad populem argument.
ad verecundiam
argument
This is appeal to authority. While sometimes it may be appropriate to cite an
authority to support a point, but when the authority is not an expert in the field,
then that person’s opinion is not valid. When a basketball star promotes soup,
we must ask why we should believe him or her.
allegory
The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an
abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. The allegorical meaning usually
deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.
alliteration
The repetition of initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words. The
repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas and/or supply a musical sound. For
example: Even though large traces of Europe have fallen or may fall into the
grip of the Gestapo, we shall not flag or fail.
allusion
A reference to some famous literary work, historical event or figure, mythology,
the Bible, or popular culture.
ambiguity
Doubtfulness or uncertainty of meaning or intention; an unclear, indefinite,
or equivocal word, expression, meaning, etc.
analogy
A comparison that attempts to explain one idea or thing by likening it to another.
An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing
out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing
more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging. (Also called duality)
anaphora
Repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive
clauses. For example: We shall fight on the beaches. We shall fight on the
landing grounds. We shall fight in the fields and in the streets.
antecedent
The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a noun.
antiphrasis
A figure of speech in which a single word issued in a sense directly opposite to
its usual meaning, such as naming a giant “Tiny.” It is the briefest form of irony.
antithesis
A contrast of or opposition, either rhetorical or philosophical. In rhetoric, any
disposition of words that serves to emphasize a contrast or opposition of ideas,
usually by the balancing of connected clauses with parallel grammatical
constructions.
“Our knowledge separates as well as unites; our orders disintegrate
as well as bind; our art brings us together and sets us apart.”
aphorism
A concise statement or precept given in pointed words, An author who
composes aphorisms is an aphorist. (“Three can keep a secret if two of them
are dead.” – Ben Franklin)
appeal to
false authority
To draw on the authority of widely respected people, institutions, and texts.
False authority occurs chiefly when writers offer themselves, or other
authorities they cite, as sufficient warrant for believing a claim.
appositive
The placing of a noun next to noun or phrase that renames it.
apostrophe
A figure of speech in which the speaker addresses a dead or absent person,
or an abstraction, or inanimate object. (“Death, where is thy victory?”) – G. Shaw
argumentation
Argumentation is the writer’s attempt to convince his reader to agree with him.
It is based upon appeals to reason, evidence proving the argument, and
sometimes emotion to persuade. Some arguments attempt merely to prove a
point, but others go beyond proving to incite the reader to action. At the
heart of all arguments lies a debatable issue.
assonance
Involves the repetition of sounds within words.
•
From nose to toes, the body is beginning to sag.
•
No pain, no gain.
asyndeton
Conjunctions are omitted, producing a fast-paced and rapid prose.
atmosphere
The emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly
by the setting and partly by the author’s choice of objects that are described.
attitude
A writer’s intellectual position or emotion regarding the subject of the wording.
See tone.
audience
The group for whom a work is intended. Common sense tells us that a writer
should always write to the level and needs of the particular audience for whom
the writing is meant.
balance
In a sentence, a characteristic of symmetry between phrases, clauses, and other
grammatical parts. For example, the sentence “I love Jamaica for its weather, its
lovely scenery, and its people” is balanced. “I love Jamaica for its weather, its
lovely scenery, and because its people are friendly” is not balanced. (See also
parallelism.)
bandwagon appeals
Arguments that urge people to follow the same path everyone else is taking.
begging the question
Assuming as true the very claim that is disputed – a form of circular argument,
divorced from reality. An example: You can’t give me a “C” in this course; I’m
an “A” student.
causal
analysis
A mode of developing an essay in which the writer’s chief aim is to analyze
a cause or predict an effect.
chiasmus
Grammatical structure of the first clause or phrase is reversed in the second,
sometimes repeating the same words.
“And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for
you; ask what you can do for your country.”
-John F. Kennedy
claims
In the Toulmin model, arguments begin with claims, which are debatable and
controversial statements or assertions you hope to prove. (See warrants.)
climax
Writer arranges ideas in order of importance.
cliché
A stale, trite image or expression; a hackneyed phrase.
coherence
The principle of clarity and logical adherence to a topic that binds together all
all parts of a composition.
colloquialism
A word or expression acceptable in informal usage but inappropriate in formal
discourse. Colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial
expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.
comparison
A rhetorical mode used to develop essays that symmetrically match two items for
similarities and differences.
conceit
An unusually far-fetched or elaborate or fanciful metaphor or simile presenting a
surprisingly apt parallel between two apparently dissimilar things or feelings:
“Grief is a puddle, and reflect not clear/Your beauty’s rays.”
conclusion
The final paragraphs that sum up an essay and bring it to a close. End an essay
artfully and quietly without staging a grand show for the reader’s benefit.
concrete
Said of words or terms denoting objects or conditions that are palpable, visible,
or otherwise evident to the senses.
concrete detail
In the essay section of the exam, details and evidence that relate to the topic.
connotation
The implication or emotional overtones of a word rather than its literal meaning.
consonance
Repetition of the same consonant sound within words.
A quietness distilled,
As twilight long begun.
cumulative
sentence
Also called a loose or running sentence. Sentence which achieves grammatical
completeness at the start, then lets details accumulate afterwards, after the basic
sentence has already closed. This kind of sentence tends to create the illusion of
utter spontaneity, as though the mind were spinning itself out naturally, portraying
itself in the very process of thinking. Here is an example: “At any rate, I’d like to
stroll about the countryside in Thoreau’s company for a day, observing the
modern scene, inspecting today’s snowstorm, pointing out the sights, and
offering belated apologies for my sins.”
deduction
Something inferred or concluded. Deductive reasoning moves from the general
to the specific.
denotation
The specific and literal meaning of a word, as found in the dictionary.
description
A rhetorical mode used to develop an essay whose primary aim is to depict a
scene, person, thing, or idea. Descriptive writing evokes the look, feel, sound
and sense of events, people, or things.
descriptive
detail
When an essay question uses this phrase, look for the writer’s sensory details.
Descriptive detail that appeals to the visual sense is usually most predominant,
but don’t overlook other sensory detail. As usual, after you identify a passage’s
descriptive detail, analyze its effect.
devices
The figures of speech, syntax, diction, and other stylistic elements that
collectively produce a particular artistic effect.
diction
Word choice. One of the components that make up a writer’s style.
didactic
From the Greek, didactic literally means “teaching.” Didactic works have the
primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical
principles.
division and
classification
A rhetorical mode for developing an essay whose chief aim is to identify the
parts of a whole.
dogmatism
This tactic undermines the trust that must exist between those who make
arguments and those to whom they make them. The writer assumes that a
particular position is the only one conceivably acceptable within a community.
dominant
impression
The central theme around which a descriptive passage is organized. For
example, a description of an airport lobby would most likely use the dominant
impression of rush and bustle, which it would support with specific detail, even
though the lobby may contain pockets of peace and tranquility. A description
of Cyrano would focus on his nose rather than on an inconspicuous part of his
face.
dual narrator
Often used in autobiography – the narrator exists as both a child and as an
adult. The information may be the same, but the perspective often changes.
emphasis
A rhetorical principle that requires stress to be given to important elements in
an essay at the expense of less important elements. Emphasis may be
given to an idea in various parts of a composition. In a sentence, words may
be emphasized by placing them at the beginning or end or by judiciously
italicizing them. In a paragraph, ideas may be emphasized by repetition or by
the accumulation of specific detail.
equivocation
An argument that gives a lie an honest appearance, a half-truth.
essay
From the French word essai, or “attempt,” the essay is short prose discussion
of a single topic. Essays are sometimes classified as formal or informal.
A formal essay is aphoristic, structured, and serious. An informal essay is
personal, revelatory, humorous, and somewhat loosely constructed.
ethos
(ethical appeal)
Appeal based on the writer’s authority and creditability or presentation of self.
euphemism
From the Greek for “good speech,” euphemisms are a more agreeable or
less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The
euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political
correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. An example:
“The schoolmaster corrected the slightest fault with his birch reminder.”
evidence
The logical bases or supports for an assertion or idea. Logical argument consists
of at least three elements: propositions, reasoning, and evidence.
example
An instance that is representative of an idea or claim or that otherwise illustrates
it. The example mode of development is used in essays that make a claim
and then prove it by citing similar and supporting cases.
exposition
Writing whose chief aim is to explain.
extended
metaphor
A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a
work.
faulty analogy
Comparisons that are pushed too far or taken too seriously and become
objects or concepts.
The universe is like an intricate watch.
A watch must have been designed by a watchmaker.
Therefore, the universe must have been designed by some kind of
creator.
faulty causality
Translated from Latin, this means “after this, therefore because of this.” It is the
fallacious assumption that because one event or action follows another, the first
necessarily causes the second.
figurative
Said of a word or expression used in a non-literal way. For example, the
expression “to go the last mile” may have nothing at all to do with geographical
distance but may mean to complete an unfinished task or job.
figurative
language
Writing a speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually
meant to be imaginative and vivid.
figure of speech
A device used to produce figurative language. May compare dissimilar things.
Figures of speech include, for example, apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor,
metonymy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and
understatement.
focus
In an essay, the concentration or emphasis upon a certain subject or topic.
generic
conventions
This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to
define each genre; for example, they differentiate between an essay and
journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. Try to distinguish
the unique features of a writer’s work from those dictated by convention.
genre
The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of
literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term;
within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called
genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels
and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.)
Poetry can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the
AP exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following
genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, letters, criticism, essays,
journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.
hasty generalization
An inference drawn from insufficient evidence. An example: Because my
Honda broke down, all Hondas must be junk.
homily
This term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any
serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.
hyperbole
A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles
often have a comic effect although a serious effect is also possible. Often,
hyperbole produces irony at the same time.
image
A phrase or expression that evokes a picture or describes a scene. An image
may be either literal or figurative.
inductive
Inductive reasoning moves from the specific to the general.
infer
To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented.
interparagraph
Between paragraphs. A comparison/contrast, for example, may be drawn
between several paragraphs rather than within a single paragraph.
intraparagraph
Within a single paragraph
invective
An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive
language.
inversion
The reversal of the normal order of words in a sentence to achieve some desired
effect, usually emphasis.
irony
The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant. The
difference between what appears to be and what actually is true. The writer
takes on another voice or role that states the opposite of what is expressed.
For example: “War is kind.”
jargon
The specialized or technical language of a specific trade, profession, class,
or other group of people. Jargon is sometimes useful, but when used
thoughtlessly, it can become a meaningless expression bordering on gibberish.
juxtaposition
Juxtaposition is the act or instance of placing close together or side by side,
especially for comparison or contrast.
language
When you’re asked to “analyze the language,” concentrate on how the elements
of language combine to form a whole – how diction, syntax, figurative language,
and sentence structure create a cumulative effect.
literal
Literal and figurative are two opposing characteristics of language. The literal
meaning is a statement about something rendered in common, factual terms:
“A good writer must be aggressive and daring.” The figurative meaning is
couched in an image: “A good writer must stick out his neck.”
litotes
Opposite of hyperbole, litotes (lit-o-tees) intensifies an idea by understatement.
“It wasn’t my best moment.”
logos
(logical appeal)
Appeals to reason. These appeals are often given most prominence and
authority in U. S. culture.
logical fallacies
Errors in reasoning used by speakers or writers, sometimes in order to dupe
their audiences. Most logical fallacies are based on insufficient evidence,
irrelevant information, or on faulty logic.
loose sentence
A type of sentence is which the main idea (independent clause) comes first,
followed by dependent, grammatical units such as phrases and clauses.
A work containing many loose sentence structures often seems informal,
relaxed, and conversational. For example: I was surprised to see smoke
coming from the chimney because I had passed his house every day and knew
that it had been empty for years.
metaphor
A figurative image that implies the similarity between things otherwise dissimilar.
metonymy
A term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name,” metonymy
is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of
another closely associated with it. A news release that claims “the White House
declared” rather than “the President declared” is using metonymy.
mood of a story
The pervading impression made on the feelings of the reader.
mood of verbs
A verb form expressing the manner or condition of the action. The “mood of
verbs” are indicative (statements or questions – Joe eats too quickly.”;
imperative (requests or commands – Shut the door.); and subjunctive
(expressions of doubt, wishes, probabilities, and conditions contrary to fact –
If I were you, I’d get another job.”
moral equivalence
Suggesting that serious wrong-doings don’t differ in kind from minor offenses.
An example: But everyone else does it, too.
narration
An account of events as they happen. A narrative organizes material on the
basis of chronological order or pattern, stressing the sequence of events and
pacing these events according to the emphasis desired.
narrative devices
This term describes the tools of the story tell (also used in nonfiction), such as
ordering events so that they build to a climactic moment or withholding
information until a crucial or appropriate moment when revealing it creates a
desired effect. On the essay exam, this term may also apply to biographical and
autobiographical writing.
narrative techniques
The style of telling the “story,” even if the passage is nonfiction. Concentration
on the order of events and on their detail in evaluating the writer’s technique.
Non-sequitur
An argument in which claims, reasons, or warrants fail to connect logically;
one point does not follow from another.
objective &
subjective
Two different attitudes towards description. In objective writing, the author tries
to present the material fairly and without bias; in subjective writing, the author
stresses personal responses and interpretations. News reporting can be
objective whereas poetry can be subjective.
onomatopoeia
A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words.
(buzz, snap, bang, zip, etc.)
oxymoron
From the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein
the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox.
“Parting is such sweet sorrow.”
pacing
The speed at which a piece of writing moves along. Pacing depends on the
balance between summarizing action and representing the action in detail.
paradox
A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense
but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity.
He worked hard at being lazy.
Absolute seriousness is never without a dash of humor.
parallelism
The principle of coherent writing requiring that coordinate elements be given
the same grammatical form, as in Webster’s dictum, “I was born an American,
I will live an American; I will die an American.” The effects of parallelism are
numerous, but frequently, they act as an organizing force to attract the reader’s
attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.
paraphrase
A restatement of a text or passage in another form or other words, often to
clarify the meaning.
parenthesis
The insertion of words, phrases, or a sentence that is not syntactically related
to the rest of the sentence. Such material is set off from the rest of the
sentence in one of two ways. Either is acceptable.
parody
A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific
aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. As comedy, parody distorts or exaggerates
distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating
and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to illuminate
weaknesses in the original.
pathos
(appeal to emotion)
An appeal to feelings rather than to strict reason; a legitimate ploy in an
argument as long as it is not excessively and exclusively used.
pedantic
An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly
scholarly, academic, or bookish.
periodic sentence
A sentence withholding its main idea until the end: “Just as he bent over to
tie his shoelace, a car hit him.” Here is the main idea. A CAR HIT HIM is at
the end of the sentence. “Having passed his house every day and knowing
that it had been unoccupied for years, I was surprised to see smoke coming from
the chimney.” The independent clause is preceded by phrases or clauses that
cannot stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis on
the power spot. Periodic sentences build suspense to gain emphasis for the
main idea. Examples: As confetti showered her head, the old woman fainted.
As the laughing crowd swirled around her and as confetti showered her head, the
old woman fainted. As the band blared louder, as they laughing crowd swirled
around her, and as confetti showered her head, the old woman fainted.”
personification
Attributing human qualities to objects, abstractions, or animals.
persuasive devices
When asked to analyze an author’s persuasive devices, look for the words
in the passage that have strong connotations, words that intensify the emotional
effect. In addition, analyze how these words complement the writer’s argument
as it builds logically. Speeches are often used in this context since they are
generally designed to persuade.
persuasive essay
When asked to write a persuasive essay, you should present a coherent
argument in which the evidence builds to a logical and relevant conclusion.
Strong persuasive essays often appeal to the audience’s emotions or ethical
standards.
point of view
The perspective from which a piece of writing is developed. In nonfiction, the
point of view is usually the author’s. When you are asked to analyze the
author’s point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author’s
attitude. (In literature, the perspective from which the story is told: first person,
third person omniscient, third person limited omniscient).
premise
An assertion or statement that is the basis for an argument.
process
A type of development in writing that stresses how a sequence of steps produces
a certain effect. For instance, explaining to the reader all the steps involved in
balancing a checkbook would be a process essay.
prose
One of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction,
including all its forms because they are written in ordinary language and most
closely resemble everyday speech. Technically, anything that isn’t poetry or
drama is prose.
pun
A play on the meaning of words. Repetition of a single word in two different
senses. example: “But if we don’t hang together, we will hang separately.”
purpose
The commitment on the part of authors to explain what they plan to write about.
red herring
A side issue introduced into an argument in order to distract from the main
argument.
repetition
1. The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language,
such as a sound, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern, when
repetition is poorly done, it bores, but when it’s well done, it links and emphasizes
ideas while allowing the reader the comfort of recognizing something familiar.
repetition
2. A final review of all the main points in a piece of writing; also known as
recapitulation, its purpose is to accumulate a climactic impact or to cast new
light upon the material being presented.
resources of
language
This phrase refers to all the devices of composition available to a writer such as
diction, syntax, sentence structure, and figures of speech. The cumulative effect
of a work is produced by the sources of language a writer chooses.
rhetoric
From the Greek for “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art
of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.
rhetorical modes
This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the
major kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes and their
purposes are as follows: 1. The purpose of exposition is to explain and analyze
information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion.
2. the purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of
view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly
convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an
additional aim or urging some form of action. 3. The purpose of description
is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that
the reader can picture that being described. Descriptive writing can be
straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective. 4. The purpose
of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. These four
modes are sometimes referred to as modes of discourse.
rhetorical question
A question posed with no expectation of receiving an answer. For example:
to reader: “What would you have done?” To writer: “Was it really what I
wanted?” Criticizing: “How can citizens fail to vote?” Asking and answering:
“Why has apathy increased? Studies show. . . “
sarcasm
From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” sarcasm involves bitter, caustic
language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use
irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic, that is, intending
to ridicule. When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly
done, it’s simply cruel.
satire
The use of wit and humor in order to ridicule society’s weaknesses so as to
correct them. Satire is often an attack on a person. In literature, two types of
satire have been recognized: Horatian satire, which is gentle and smiling;
Juvenalian satire, which is sharp and biting.
scare tactics
Exaggerating possible dangers well beyond their statistical likelihood. They can
also be used to stampede legitimate fears into panic or prejudice.
semantics
The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical
and psychological development, connotations, and relation to one another.
sentence structure
When an essay question asks you to analyze sentence structure, look at the
type of sentences the author uses. Remember that the basic sentence
structures are simple, compound, and complex, and variations created with
sentence combining. Also consider variation in sentence length, any unusual
devices in sentence construction, such as repetition or inverted word order,
and any unusual word or phrase placement. As with all devices, be prepared
to discuss the effect of the sentence structure.
sentimental appeal
Argument that uses tender emotions excessively to distract readers from facts.
Quite often, such appeals are highly personal and individual – focusing
attention on heart-warming or heart-wrenching situations that make readers
feel guilty if they challenge an idea, policy, or proposal. They keep people
from thinking clearly.
simile
A figure of speech which, like the metaphor, implies a similarity between
things otherwise dissimilar. The simile always uses the words like, as, or so
to introduce the comparison.
slanting
The characteristic of selecting facts, words, or emphasis to achieve a
preconceived intent.
Favorable intent: Although the Senator looks bored, when it comes time to
vote, he is on the right side of the issue.
Unfavorable intent: The Senator may vote on the right side of issues, but
he always looks bored.
slippery slope
This describes an argument that casts today’s tiny misstep as tomorrow’s slide
into disaster. The writer exaggerates the likely consequences of an action,
usually to frighten readers. This is a scare tactic.
specific
A way of referring to the level of abstraction in words; the opposite of general.
standard English
The English of educated speakers and writers. What is usually meant by the
term is what one’s grammar book dictates. On the other hand, nonstandard
English refers to terms or practices that are not recognized as standard English.
statement of purpose
What an author is trying to tell his audience; the main idea that he claims
to support in his essay. Traditionally, what distinguishes a statement of purpose
from a thesis is wording, not content.
straw man
An opposing view, set up so that it can easily be refuted.
style
The expression of an author’s individuality through the use of diction, syntax,
tone attitude, figures of speech, connotations, and repetition.
stylistic devices
An essay question that mentions stylistic devices is asking you to note and
analyze all of the elements in language that contribute to style, such as diction,
syntax, tone, attitude, figures of speech, connotations, and repetition.
subordination
Expressing in a dependent clause, phrase, or single word any idea that is not
significant enough to be expressed in a main clause or an independent
sentence.
syllogism
In formal logic, the pattern by which a deductive argument is expressed.
symbol
An object or action that in its particular context represents something else.
synecdoche
Understanding one thing for another, thus a part is substituted for the whole.
“Bread” stands for food, “hands” refers to helpers, and “wheels” means a car.
syntax
The way an author chooses to join words together into phrases, clauses, and
sentences. Good syntax requires correct grammar as well as effective
sentence patterns, including unity, coherence, and emphasis. Syntax is
similar to diction, but differentiate them by thinking of syntax as a group of
words, while diction refers to the individual words.
thesis
In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences
that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition.
expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively,
and thoroughly a writer has proven the thesis.
tone
See attitude.
understatement
The ironic minimalizing of fact, understatement presents something as less
significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic.
Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole.
voice
1. The form that a verb takes to indicate whether its subject acts or is acted upon.
2. A function of three things: the person in which the piece is written (first,
second, third), the tone, and the audience the piece is meant for. Voice also
entails what some who write about language and writing call “tone.” The
author’s tone is a reflection of author’s personality, mood, attitude toward his/her
subject, the author’s intention or point of writing (whether to amuse, inform,
persuade, etc.) and of the author’s intended audience. Tone is conveyed mainly
through the writer’s vocabulary (from colloquial to technical) and through
sentence length.
3. active voice or passive voice
active: The subject performs the action expressed in the verb.
The dog bit the boy.
passive: The subject receives the action expressed in the verb.
The boy was bitten by the dog.
warrants
Crucial to Toulmin argument is appreciating that there must be a logical and
persuasive connection between a claim and reasons and data supporting it.
Toulmin calls this connection the warrant. (See claims.
wit
In modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights.
zeugma
When two different words that sound exactly alike are yoked together, as in
“He bolted the door and his dinner.”: bolted is actually two different concrete
verbs yoking a literal and a figurative idea.