Volume 13 | Issue 51 | Number 1 | Dec 21, 2015
The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus
Forgotten voices from the Great War: the Chinese Labour Corps
Alex Calvo, Bao Qiaoni
the war was over. Furthermore, their deployment
gave rise to all sorts of culture and language
clashes, in addition to the dangers of travelling to
Europe and surviving in close proximity to the
battle field. However, beyond these travails, the
Chinese Labour Corps left a significant legacy,
Cap badge of the Chinese Labour Corps
with members seeing the world, experiencing
CLC personnel moving sacks of corn at Boulogne, on 12
August 1917
other nations, and often becoming literate. More
Abstract
widely, despite being on the winning side,
The one hundredth anniversary of the Great War
China's failure to secure any gains at Versailles
is prompting a renewed effort at both the
prompted the May 4th Movement and can be seen
popular and academic levels to ensure that the
as a key juncture in the long and winding road
different units and countries involved are not
from empire to nation-state. It is an important
forgotten. While not supplying combat troops,
reminder of the global nature of the Great War,
China entered the First World War on the side of
whose impact extended far from the battle field
the Allies, furnishing much-needed labourers,
to all corners of the world.
140,000 by conservative estimates and possibly
Keywords
more, who played an essential role on the
Western Front and other theatres, taking
responsibility for a wide range of tasks. Among
others, unloading military supplies and handling
ammunitions, building barracks and other
military facilities, digging trenches, and even
agriculture and forest management. While their
essential contribution was recognized in British
documents, both Paris and London saw them as
a temporary expedient, to be ended as soon as
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contributions to the Allied cause. They include
Japan, whose navy helped secure the Pacific,
while her troops took over German territories,
and took part in the conquest of Tsingtao; China,
which contributed much-needed workers; and
India, whose soldiers helped stabilize the
Western Front in late 1914 and later played a key
role in a wide range of theaters, including
Gallipoli, East Africa, and Mesopotamia.
While such contributions were recognized by
contemporary media and are well documented,
with the passage of time there is little public
awareness of them. The first centenary of the war
is, however, prompting many public and private
organizations in countries like Japan,1 India, and
Tombstone of a CLC member, a physical reminder of
their legacy
China 2 , and among communities from those
nations, to make renewed efforts to make sure
WWI, Great War, CLC, Chinese Labour Corps,
that their contribution is duly recognized, both at
Nation-Building, Versailles
home and abroad, and in particular among their
war-time Allies. This is an aspect of the renewed
Introduction: Asia and the Great War
geopolitical competition in the Asia-Pacific
The one hundredth anniversary of the Great War
region, which also features countries vying to
has prompted renewed interest in the conflict
stress their past roles in world conflicts.
and a major drive by myriad institutions and
individuals to inform the public and assure that
China at the outset of the War: Nation Building,
the sacrifices made one century ago are never
Limited Sovereignty, and Collective Security
forgotten. While the main theatres of the war
The outbreak of the Great War caught China in
were in Europe, there are reasons why it is called
the midst of a giant yet incomplete
the First World War, since its nature and scope
transformation from Empire to Republic, an
were truly global. This includes Asia, which may
exercise in nation building that would take
have seen limited combat operations (other than
decades to complete and see myriad wars and
in South-Western Asia, part of the Middle East)
turmoil amid fragmentation and widespread
but where a number of countries made key
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human suffering.3 The Revolutionary Party（中华
coast of China”, and the appointment of Japanese
革命党), renamed Guomindang (国民党) in 1919,
advisors. In March 1917 Duan convinced
had been forced in 1916 to cede the presidency to
Parliament to break diplomatic relations with
Yuan Shikai, and warlords ruled much of the
Germany, and, after a struggle over who had the
country, with significant foreign influence. In
constitutional power to issue it, a declaration of
1916 Duan Qirui, a graduate of the Beiyang
war by the cabinet followed in August.7
6
Military Academy who had furthered his studies
Thus, although her own nation-building process
in Germany, became prime minister following
was far from complete, Chinese leaders decided
Yuan's death. One of the dossiers on his table
to join a conflict which, while global in nature,
was whether to join the Great War. One of the
had its origin and main focus thousands of miles
factors at play was the possibility of recovering
away. Ideally, being on the winning side would
the German concessions in Shandong Province,
help China consolidate and increase her national
and more generally of improving China's
stature, but as we shall see later, things would
international standing, something which, among
turn out quite differently. What was clear in 1916
others, leading intellectual Liang Qichao hoped
was that whereas China had little, if any,
for.4 Pressure also came from the United States, at
expeditionary military capability to offer to the
that time moving towards joining the war, and
Allies, it had something they desperately needed:
from the Japanese, who had decided on a policy
manpower. The concept was simple: import
of loans to China and other financial incentives in
Chinese labour, thus freeing British and French
exchange for recognition of their position in
young men for combat duties. Although the
northern regions which Tokyo considered a
Chinese and Japanese governments concluded a
sphere of influence necessary to protect its
military agreement whereby Tokyo would
Korean colony and shield it from Russian
provide “aid, advisers and instructors to develop
ambitions, following its failed bid to impose the
the Chinese War Participation Army to support
“twenty one demands” on China in 1915.5 These
the Allied cause,” no troops were deployed to
wide-ranging demands were tantamount to
Europe, and Japanese aid simply served the
turning China into a Japanese protectorate.
purpose of reinforcing Duan’s troops
Among others, Tokyo demanded freedom of
concentrated in North China.8 Germany, on the
movement and the right to purchase land and
other hand, provided financial support to Sun
carry out business for Japanese nationals in South
Yat-sen's alternative government in Guangzhou,
Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia, a
in the hope of pushing China back into
promise “not to cede or lease to any other Power
neutrality. 9 As was the rule in those years,
any harbour or bay on or any island along the
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factional interests frequently took precedence
The Allies quickly realized that their manpower
over the exercise of national power.
pool was simply not large enough to feed this
ever-growing need for construction and logistics
The Chinese Labour Corps: China's major
labour. At first arrangements were often ad hoc,
contribution to the war effort
but the scale of the fighting, the inadequacy of
some earlier approaches, and the realization that
Logistics is often forgotten, or at least rarely
this would be no short conflict, soon gave way to
granted a degree of attention commensurate with
a more systematic approach. France was the first
its true importance, in many military histories. In
to tap into China's huge labour force. Great
the case of the Western Front in the Great War
Britain followed, with both countries already in
the distances involved were not huge, in
negotiations with China in the summer of 1916.10
particular if compared to some theatres in the
According to the Official History: '…although
Second World War, but the industrial nature of
some labour units were raised and eventually
the fighting, the dual demands of artillery and
labourers from various parts of the Empire and
fortification, and the sheer number of troops
China were brought to France, the numbers were
involved, meant a strong and growing demand
never at any period sufficient for the demands of
for labour behind the trenches. Although some
a great army operating in a friendly country'.
machinery and vehicles were available, building
Despite this, it is clear that Chinese workers
and repairing railways and roads, moving
played a crucial role in sustaining the Allied
supplies, mail, troops, and the injured, laying
armies in the field. Precise numbers are not
down and maintaining telephone lines, plus
available, with some sources mentioning that in
constructing all sorts of military facilities, were
August 1918, 96,000 were enrolled in the British
tasks mainly undertaken with a mixture of
Labour Corps, with a further thirty thousand
human and animal labour. Many labour units
working for France,11 but Chinese sources stress
were created. The Royal Engineers, for example,
that the specific number is disputable and that
set up eleven labour battalions, and in January
140,000 in total for both France and Britain is a
1917 the British Labour Corps was born. By the
conservative estimate. 12 Guoqi Xu notes the
time of the armistice, it had grown to almost
“sizable discrepancy among the figures provided
400,000. Staffed by officers not medically fit for
by different sources” and provides a range from
front-line duties (often returned wounded), it
several authors.13 Among others, he mentions the
regularly operated within range of enemy fire,
Dictionary of the First World War by Stephen
and some of its units were employed as
Pope and Elizabeth-Anne Wheale, eds.
emergency infantry during the spring 1918
(320,000)14, Arthur Philip Jones (150,000 Chinese
German offensives.
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workers in France, Mesopotamia, and Russia)15,
medical examination was focused on
Chen Sanjing (between 175,000 and 200,000
tuberculosis, trachoma (a viral disease of the eye,
adding those recruited by France and Great
then prevalent in Shandong), and venereal
Britain) , and CLC interpreter Gu Xinqqing
diseases. Some 100,000 were selected, issued a
(175,000 again as a joint figure) . He also quotes a
serial number in a dog tag around their wrists,
US War Department telegram (97,000 recruited
and sprayed prior to embarkation. Many still
by London, 40,000 plus 1,500 specialists by
donned a queue and were urged to cut it.
16
20
17
Paris)18. We could add that, although Paris was
21
Travel to Europe was not without its dangers.
first to tap China's vast labour pool, there were
Already in 1916 a ship carrying Chinese workers
precedents in Great Britain for the employment
to France 2 2 had been sunk by a German
of Chinese at times of war to free military and
submarine in the Mediterranean, with the loss of
naval personnel from other duties. This includes
543, prompting the use of an alternative trans23
the Napoleonic Wars, during which 'Chinese
Pacific route across Canada by train.24 Once in the
men who worked in merchant ships were then
Old Continent, although their contracts said they
used by the Royal Navy in support roles to
would not be deployed in or near the front, they
provide cover for the British men who were away
often found themselves under enemy fire or
fighting, such as ships’ porters'.19 London also
dealing with other dangers, such as unexploded
used colonial workers in the Indian, Egyptian,
ammunitions.25 Illness was an additional hazard
and South African Native Labour Corps.
(including the Spanish Flu from 1918), together
The Individual Experience of Chinese Workers:
with the harsh climate and unfamiliar food,
Tasks, Dangers, and Opportunities
despite which in December 2018 “Colonel
Wetherall said that the Chinese suffered very
Even before China had formally declared war, a
little from ill-health; out of a total strength of
processing plan was set up in Shandong
some 93,000 Chinese in France, there were only
Province, with the purpose of screening and
about 1,500 in hospital.”
hiring labourers. Located near the Royal Navy's
26
In addition to those
lost at sea, more than 2,000 died. Their tombs can
base at Weihaiwei, it was followed by a second
be found in France, Flanders, and England, some
facility in the port of Qingdao. Recruitment was
in special cemeteries.
not difficult, given the region's poverty and
instability and the high wages offered. These
Members of the Chinese Labour Corps were
consisted of twenty Chinese dollars as a starting
distributed in 500-strong companies, under
bonus, food and clothing, and ten dollars per
British officers and Chinese foremen. The
month partly payable to their families. The
language barrier was a significant problem, for
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example when an American soldier said “let’s
literacy drives, it is estimated that some two
go,” which sounds like “GOU” in Chinese
thirds of the members of the Chinese Labour
(meaning “dog”) it nearly caused a rebellion
Corps returned being able to read and write,
among Chinese labourers.
Many translators
albeit to a limited extent, whereas originally more
were hired, while efforts were conducted to
than eighty percent were illiterate. Classes were
recruit Chinese-speaking British officers. The
so popular that they ran out of materials.33
27
32
latter's number was small, not only because there
Their work was varied and ranged from
were not that many Britons resident in China
unloading military supplies and handling
who had mastered the language but because
ammunition to building barracks, digging
most of those able and willing to serve sought to
trenches, and constructing fortifications. It even
join a combat unit. British officers never saw their
extended to agriculture and forest management.
Chinese Labour Corps counterparts as true
34
The minutes of a meeting on “Chinese Labour in
equals.28
France,” held on January 18, 1918 at 10 Downing
A typical schedule was ten working hours per
Street with the prime minister in the chair (and
day, seven days per week.
Although under
following a War Cabinet meeting on the same
military discipline and severe restrictions on their
subject the day before), reveal that at first labour
movement, to a certain extent resulting in
tended to be allocated to the different services
segregation, authorities made efforts to
from a central pool, but this gave way to the view
accommodate some of their customs. An example
that it was better to second at least a minimum to
was the free days they got during Chinese
each department, so that, among others, the
festivals. An effort was made to facilitate postal
members of the Corps could specialize and
communication with their families, despite
achieve greater proficiency at a given kind of
censorship and the fact that many were illiterate.
work, and their supervisors become more
The resulting letters (up to fifty thousand per
familiar with them. That was the position
month) are a very useful source to learn about
defended by Sir Eric Geddes, who explained that
their roles, thoughts, and living conditions. The
it was the system employed with the first seven
YMCA played a key role in their welfare,
thousand Chinese workers brought to France by
organizing recreational activities and literacy
the British Department of Transportation.
classes. Hong Kong- and US-educated James Yen
General Travers Clarke supported the
created a 1,000-character vocabulary and the
“desirability of keeping the same men at the
Chinese Workers' Weekly
, also writing many letters
same job,” adding that “it was done now at a
for illiterate labourers. As a result of various
considerable extent.” He spoke in favour of
29
30
31
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retaining a central pool, which, while compatible
tank maintenance, overcoming the extensive
with the described specialization, allowed a
prejudice that saw them as hard working but
measure of flexibility. Eric Geddes said that
incapable of performing technologically-
labour was “nobody's child” and defended the
demanding jobs.
permanent allocation of “a minimum number of
37
The British Government View: A Commodity?
men” to departments, so that “they could put in
Yet a Valuable One
their interpreters and N.C.O.s and control would
increase rather than diminish.” Sir Joseph
A look at British official documents reveals a
MacLay and Sir Guy Granet concurred in these
dual view of the Chinese Labour Corps. On the
views of Eric Geddes.
35
one hand, its members often appear as little more
than objects. They are referred to in terse terms,
as if one was talking about a piece of equipment.
On the other, the vital nature of their
contribution to the war effort often appears
Handling ammunition was one of the many tasks the CLC
performed
Building roads was a very important task for the CLC,
given the need to sustain industrial warfare on a grand
scale in the Western Front
openly, without any attempt to disguise it. This is
clear even in the immediate post-war period,
While labouring long hours in uncomfortable
once the hostilities were over but the need for
and often hazardous jobs, their stay in Europe
labour remained high. For example, the minutes
was for many their first opportunity to
of the December 4, 1918 meeting of the War
experience life not only outside China but
Cabinet included an item devoted to the
beyond their village or province. As often
“Repatriation of Chinese coolies.” Faced with a
happens, contact with a different reality
proposal from the Ministry of Shipping to
prompted more than a few to question their
repatriate a number of workers, taking advantage
country's place in the world and to wonder how
of available space in two passenger ships, “the
it could be changed. Contact with fellow citizens
Adjutant-General said that he had taken this
and with nationals from other Allied nations may
matter up with G.H.Q. in France, who were
have helped the members of the Chinese Labour
averse from the idea of repatriating Chinese
Corps to develop a sense of national identity and
coolies at the present time. There was a great deal
of their country's place in the world.36 It should
of work to be done, e.g., handling cargo at the
also be emphasized that, while originally
ports, upkeep of roads, filling up the shell-holes,
intended to carry out unskilled tasks, members of
and rolling up the barbed wire, for which civilian
the Chinese Labour Corps often ended up being
labour would have to be engaged if the Chinese
responsible for much more complex tasks, even
were withdrawn.”38 At the meeting, the British
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prime minister pointed out that while there was a
dispensing with middlemen. During the Second
shortage of labour in France, “the amount of
World War, a similar change would take place to
work requiring this class of labour must have
some extent in the military sphere. When training
greatly diminished since the cessation of
Chinese soldiers at Ramgarh (British India) from
hostilities,” and it was decided to arrange the
1942, in an attempt to develop a number of
repatriation of five thousand Chinese workers,
modern, capable divisions, US General Joseph
with a further five thousand to follow. 39 Thus,
Stilwell accepted the recruits sent by the
while essential, and openly recognized as such in
government of the Republic of China but insisted
official documents, the decision was made that
that they be paid individually, in a bid to prevent
Chinese workers, viewed as a temporary asset,
corruption by officers pocketing their men's
were to be returned to their native country as
pay.41
soon as possible.
Considering, and Rejecting, the Use of Chinese
Direct Hiring and the End of the Comprador
Troops
System: a Precedent for General Stilwell's
France did not just initiate the recruitment of
Training Drive?
Chinese workers. It also endeavoured to secure
At the same January 18, 1918 meeting referred to
the deployment in the Western Front of Chinese
earlier, Colonel MacLaren Brown said that
troops, 42 although the move was ultimately
during the construction of the Canadian Pacific
rejected by London and never took place. Even
Railway, with which he was familiar, “the
before the Chinese declaration of war, General
recruiting and control of the Chinese was kept in
Ferdinand Foch had argued for the need to get
the hands of the Compradors. The Railway
China to raise “pioneer battalions,” between
Company dealt only with and through the
1,200 and 1,500 strong. In an August 11, 1917
Compradors.” While conceding that in that case
secret report, he pointed out that, “given the
“the Chinese understood the system and it
population of China, the number of battalions
worked well”, Colonel Brown explained that “in
which can be raised is theoretically limitless.”
the case of the Chinese in Northern France they
Foch asked Paris to press China to dispatch
have been recruited on a different basis and
between seventy and eighty battalions. Such
under special conditions,” a reference to the
units, mostly officered by the Chinese
system of individual contracts outlined earlier.40
themselves, would have undertaken construction
and logistical work near and at the front, making
We can thus see how the Great War led to a
it unnecessary to individually hire further
change in the way Chinese labour was employed,
Chinese workers. 43 France did not manage to
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persuade the United Kingdom, with the War
the War Effort: Logistics, Frustration and
Cabinet noting at its February 4, 1918 that “the
Revolution
Supreme War Council do not accept Joint Note
As explained, life was not easy for the members
No. 11 of the Permanent Military Representatives
of the Chinese Labour Corps, and a number
on the subject of Chinese battalions.” Logistics
44
made the ultimate sacrifice. On the positive side,
did not seem to be the reason behind British
however, they could acquire some savings,
opposition despite the shortage of Allied
widen their horizons, and some gained a
shipping and the unsuitability of Chinese vessels
measure of literacy. Many went back home with
for oceanic voyages described in the same
the desire and ability to play a more meaningful
missive.45
role in the future of their country. The presence
While not the focus of the paper, it should also be
of Chinese in France did not end with the Great
mentioned that a small number of Canadian
War, and included some key figures in Chinese
citizens of Chinese origin volunteered and
communism who took part in the Work-Study
managed to be accepted for service, despite the
Program, including Deng Xiaoping and Zhou
refusal to enrol them in, for example, British
Enlai. Deng lived in France from 1920 to 1925,
Columbia. While sources estimate them at, at
where he became active in politics for the first
most, three hundred, 'Those of Chinese origin
time and joined the Chinese Communist Party.47
who are known to have volunteered included
Zhou was in the country from 1920 to 1924,
Frederick Lee and Wee Hong Louie (enlisted in
playing a leading role among Chinese work-
Kamloops), William Thomas Louie (Calgary),
study students.48
Tung On Hong (Sudbury), and Victor Fong
At the international level, the outcome of the
(Quebec).'46
First World War was frustrating for China.
Despite being on the winning side and a
participant in the Versailles Peace negotiations,
China was unable to secure any significant gains.
Japan, a more powerful and cohesive state which
had entered the war earlier, pre-empted Chinese
moves and succeeded Germany in securing
rights in China and a number of Pacific Ocean
CLC recruits in Weihaiwei doing physical training before
leaving for Europe
islands. The 62-strong Chinese delegation was
attacked following revelations of Japan's
The Ultimate Impact of China's Contribution to
confidential agreements with France, Great
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Britain and Italy, on the one hand, and Duan
United States, and started work on a new naval
Qirui on the other. US President Wilson,
base in Singapore, designed to provide a measure
originally sympathetic to China, agreed on April
of deterrence. The Great War, however,
30, 1919 with French PM Georges Clemenceau
transformed the lives of many Chinese, both
and British PM David Lloyd George to the
members of the Labour Corps and students and
transfer of all German rights in Shandong
intellectuals at home, and helped reinforce the
Province to Japan. This “flagrant denial of the
conviction that the country needed to become
new Wilsonian principles of open diplomacy and
stronger and renew itself in order to be treated as
self-determination,” inflamed Chinese public
an equal in the international sphere.52 It was yet
opinion and prompted many protests.49 Enraged,
another reminder, following less than a
Chinese students in Paris surrounded the hotel
generation after the First Sino-Japanese War, that
where the Chinese delegation was staying in
unlike Japan, China had not yet transformed
order to prevent it from signing the Peace Treaty
itself into a modern nation state and gained a
as decided by the government in Beijing, which
measure of recognition as an equal by the leading
sent a telegram to that effect.
Western powers of the time.
50
Mass
demonstrations in Beijing on 4 May would give a
Geopolitics, Public Diplomacy, and Soft Power:
name to a movement which sought to renew
Competing Narratives.
China and raise her to the position of equal
among international powers. One of its
The importance of commemorating the First
immediate consequences was the emergence of a
World War and of highlighting their national
new standard for the written language, based on
contribution to the allied victory has not gone
the modern Beijing dialect, which would replace
classical Chinese..
51
unnoticed in Beijing, New Delhi, or Tokyo. The
It would also lead to the
fact that these three major Asian powers,
creation of the Chinese Communist Party.
competitors and often party to border disputes
on land or at sea, fought on the same side in the
China's intervention in the First World War,
Great War is a two-edged sword. It could have
while contributing to the Allied victory, failed to
led to coordinated efforts and even have
secure for Beijing any significant geopolitical
provided, in the case of China and Japan, a
gains. Indeed, by boosting Japan and weakening
counter to other historical episodes, very much
the British Empire, it could even be argued that
alive in popular memory, which act as major
the war facilitated the later clash between the two
obstacles to a lasting peace. However, this does
Asian giants. In its wake, London put an end to
not seem to have been the case. China tends to
the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, sided with the
see the Great War mainly in terms of having
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capped Japan's successful move from colonialism
Change in Central Asia: The Soviet Legacy (London:
target to colonial power, with Tokyo not just
Routledge, 2013).
replacing Berlin in China and the Pacific, but
Bao Qiaoni is an ECUPL (East China University of
decisively moving towards a paramount position
Political Science & Law) law undergraduate and
in much of China.
exchange student (NUPACE Program) at Nagoya
University (Japan) School of Law.
Recommended citation: Alex Calvo and Bao Qiaoni,
"Forgotten voices from the Great War: the Chinese
Labor Corps",The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 13,
Issue 51, No. 1, December 21, 2015.
The lack of public recognition of the CLC in the UK
prompted the birth of the “Ensuring We Remember”, a
“National Campaign for a Permanent Memorial to the
Chinese Labour Corps of the First World War”
References
Archival Materials
Efforts at remembrance are also being made in
NA National Archives of the United Kingdom,
the United Kingdom, where “The National
Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK.
Campaign for a Permanent Memorial to the
Chinese Labour Corps of the First World War”
SHAT Service Historique de l'Armée de Terre,
was launched in August 2014 , while initiatives
53
Service historique de la défense, Château de
in China include a documentary series by CCTV,
Vincennes, Avenue de Paris, 94306 Vincennes
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cedex
145,000 Chinese workers stood shoulder to
USNA US National Archives, National Archives
shoulder with British and French soldiers during
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the conflict from 1914 to 1918. More than 20,000
of them were killed.” 5 4 A challenge as we
Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC
commemorate the centenary of the Great War is
20408-0001, USA
to ensure it includes greater awareness of the
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contributions of the Chinese Labour Corps.
Huimin hetong zhaogonghetong惠民合同招工合
Alex Calvo is a guest professor at Nagoya University
同, Article 9.
(Japan) and the author of ‘The Second World War in
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call. The Chinese constantly agitated that the
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CAB 24/39, NA.
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