Running Head: THURGOOD MARSHALL: THE STRENGTH OF A LEADER
Thurgood Marshall: The Strength of a Leader
Stacey L. Rainbolt
Virginia Commonwealth University
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THURGOOD MARSHALL: THE STRENGTH OF A LEADER
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Thurgood Marshall: The Strength of a Leader
Perseverance through trial takes strong will and character. Thurgood Marshall faced
daunting measures in becoming the first African-American Supreme Court justice. His character
and will were heavily tested in facing his personal adaptive challenge. An adaptive challenge is a
“challenge confronting a community or organization for which it has no preexisting resources,
remedies, tools, solutions, or even the means for accurately naming and describing the
challenge” (Drath, 2001, Loc. 335). Thurgood Marshall directly faced the adaptive challenge of
advancing the agenda of racial equality in the United States. He faced those challenges in his
personal life as an African-American man in the early 1900s; as a lawyer who successfully
argued Brown v. Board of Education, which desegregated public schools; and in his nomination
and seat as the first African-American United States Supreme Court justice.
As a leader, Marshall used Bolman and Deal’s (2008) political framework to create his
agenda for change. Leaders using the political frame do not put their efforts into resolution of a
conflict, instead they focus on strategy and tactics for success (Bolman and Deal, 2008). This
paper will analyze how effectively Thurgood Marshall faced his adaptive challenges at different
stages of his career and examine how he used the political framework as a leader in each of these
stages.
Early Challenges
Coming of age in the early 1900s, Thurgood Marshall faced the adaptive challenge of
fighting for his own civil rights as he faced racial discrimination daily. Himself a student of
racially segregated schools, Justice Marshall attended Lincoln University, a historically black
college in Pennsylvania. Marshall describes Lincoln University as a “turning point in his life.
Until then, he had been taught to go along with segregation and learn to take it” (Marshall as
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 10:53 AM
Comment [1]: Excellent focused intro. I
know exactly what to expect.
THURGOOD MARSHALL: THE STRENGTH OF A LEADER
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cited by Hengstler, 1992, p. 56). At Lincoln, however, his experiences taught him differently.
“Lincoln University was a place where students argued over general principles. We discussed
discrimination…why did we have to take it? Why shouldn’t we do something about it”
(Hengstler, 1992, p. 56). This was a life-defining turning point for Marshall. He became
empowered and willing to fight for his beliefs.
Marshall’s time at Lincoln instilled in him the courage and the skills needed to face his
continuing adaptive challenge of advancing the agenda of racial equality. By attending college,
Thurgood Marshall had thoroughly surpassed the standard education level of an AfricanAmerican in the early 1900s. However, Marshall directly faced his challenge and set his sights
on attending the University of Maryland Law School. At that time, the University of Maryland
School of Law was racially segregated. Consequently, racial bias prevented Justice Marshall
from attending the law school at the University of Maryland (Hengstler, 1992). Thurgood was
enraged that his skin tone and not his academic merit was used to judge his worth. However,
Marshall would not let this challenge defeat him. In fact, he used the rejection as motivation and
inspiration to keep pushing himself and eventually was accepted into Howard University Law
School.
Energy and the continued determination to prove his academic merit pushed Marshall to
excel in his studies and even graduate at the top of his class. Significant to Marshall’s success
was the relationship and mentorship of dean Charles Hamilton Houston (Tushnet, 1997).
Marshall stated that it was during law school at Howard when the dean “insisted that we be
social engineers rather than lawyers…and I had early decided that’s what I wanted to do”
(Marshall as cited by Hengstler, 1992, p.56). The realization that he could be a social engineer
of change was powerful to Marshall. It was at Howard where he ultimately set his agenda to
THURGOOD MARSHALL: THE STRENGTH OF A LEADER
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effectively create change for the greater good of African-Americans. Thurgood Marshall would
make this agenda his life’s work and let nothing stand in his way.
Early Life Through the Political Framework Lens
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 10:55 AM
Comment [2]: Excellent organization for
his life in chronological order
Setting out as a leader during his formal education years, Thurgood Marshall used the
political framework as a means of creating and sharpening his vision and setting his agenda:
Marshall set out to use politics to create a better existence for the African-American in the
United States. Marshall overcame the resistance from those who refused to educate him. His
will prevailed and graduated at the top of his law school class. Marshall became empowered
through education success and the support of those around him.
Bolman and Deal (2008) stress the importance of building a powerbase in the political
framework. Marshall used his time at Howard to build networks and discern whose help he
would need to advance the agenda of racial equality in the United States. As a successful leader,
Thurgood fostered and nurtured those relationships in order to have advocates in place when he
needed them.
Marshall as Lawyer
After graduation, Marshall joined the staff of the NAACP Legal Defense Fund in 1936,
eventually heading the organization from 1940-1961 (Fairclough, 2004). It was as a lawyer that
Thurgood was able to begin his agenda of civil rights for all. In 1954, Thurgood Marshall was
named lead counsel for the case Brown v. Board of Education that challenged the “separate but
equal” doctrine of the Plessy v. Ferguson decision, which was the foundation of school
segregation (Benjamin & Crouse, 2002). In taking this case, Marshall knew it would come at
great personal sacrifice but that the end of advancing the agenda justified the cost to himself and
his family.
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 10:56 AM
Comment [3]: Yes to all. Now, add a
summary sentence about how this fits the
political frame before moving on
THURGOOD MARSHALL: THE STRENGTH OF A LEADER
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From the beginning, Brown v. Board of Education and by default Thurgood Marshall
were under attack. The adaptive challenge of advancing the racial agenda was never more
present than during this trial. Marshall was cognizant of the obstacles he faced as he prepared
the case. A majority of United States citizens did not want to change their status quo of racial
segregation and were prepared to use any means necessary to protect the sanctity of their beliefs.
Marshall prepared himself to meet this conflict knowing “something like a revolution in
constitutional law was needed, something that would entail a piece of judicial lawmaking which
could be justified only by a philosophy of extreme judicial activism. The Court would have to be
shown that separate but equal could never be equal, that segregation in the public schools per se,
have a harmful effect on Negro children" (Vasillopulos, 1994, p. 293). Tushnet (1994) described
the white reaction to Brown to be malicious and hostile. “By 1956 Southern proponents of
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 10:58 AM
Comment [4]: Excellent quote, but over 40
words gets block quote format
integration found themselves the targets of intimidation, violence, repressive legislation and legal
obstructionism – an ultra‐segregationist political backlash that came to be known as Massive
Resistance” (Tushnet, 1994, p. 247).
Marshall was resilient and determined. His agenda was greater than his own personal
safety and comfort. As a leader, he showed the strength of his will and character to endure under
such extreme adversity. As lead counsel for the Brown decision, Marshall not only demolished
educational segregation, but he also laid the foundation for an attack upon racial inequality in all
aspects of life in the United States (Fairclough, 2004). In knocking down this racial barrier,
Thurgood Marshall empowered a nation of African-American citizens. He showed the country
that a determined individual is capable of great things.
Sacrificing his own personal comfort and safety, Thurgood Marshall provided AfricanAmerican’s with an open door to the American Dream and did so nonviolently. A true testament
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 10:59 AM
Comment [5]: You’ve alluded to the risks
to his family and himself more than once. Can
you give an example? Hate mail, threats?
Would make it more vivid
THURGOOD MARSHALL: THE STRENGTH OF A LEADER
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to Marshall’s character is that he never attempted to enrage his constituents and have them take
the battle outside of the arena of the courtroom. The personal attacks on him and his family must
have enraged him: however to the public he never let this show. Marshall just worked harder for
his agenda. He truly personified the social engineer that is mentor demanded he become.
Lawyer Through the Political Framework Lens
In the political framework, leaders do not focus on eliminating conflict, but instead focus
on developing strategies and tactics that will channel conflicts toward a positive outcome
(Bolman & Deal, 2008). Marshall knew he could never completely end racial discrimination.
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 10:59 AM
Comment [6]: Here it is again, but I think
the details should come above. You are
summarizing here
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 11:00 AM
Comment [7]: his
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 11:00 AM
Comment [8]: a choppy transition between
these sections. Need better connection
between ideas
Rather, he strategized on how he could use the law to create footholds for African-Americans to
utilize in their own effort to gain empowerment.
Through challenging the status quo of
segregated schools, Marshall encouraged new ideas and new approaches to the civil rights
movement. Bolman and Deal (2008) state that political leaders have to realize political reality
and deal with conflicts as productively as possible. Marshall used the courtroom as his arena to
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 11:01 AM
Comment [9]: cap
negotiate differences and create compromise. He worked with the NAACP to mobilize citizens
to fight for their shared goals. He taught them how to overcome obstacles by relating with allies.
In Marshall’s view, the fight for the civil rights movement would be most productive in the arena
of the courtroom.
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 11:01 AM
Comment [10]: ditto
Supreme Court Justice
Amazingly, the next step in Thurgood Marshall’s journey was to reach the pinnacle of a
law career. On June 13, 1967 Thurgood Marshall was nominated by President Lyndon Johnson
to be the first African-American justice of the Supreme Court (Tushnet, 1997).When Marshall’s
nomination was announced, The New York Times’ editorial called the nomination "rich in
symbolism" and conceded that there were judges whose "judicial work has been far more
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 11:03 AM
Comment [11]: Yes, it was amazing, but
feels like the wrong word here. Better
transition needed. For example, Because of
Marshall’s courtroom expertise,….
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 11:05 AM
Comment [12]: Word this next part a bit
differently to set up the reader for the backlash.
Otherwise, you have to read to the end of the
next sentence to grasp its meaning
THURGOOD MARSHALL: THE STRENGTH OF A LEADER
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outstanding” (Tushnet, 1997, p. 25). The New York Times also asserted that Marshall did not
show the intellectual mastery of the previous solicitor general (Tushnet, 1997). Senator Strom
Thurmond of South Carolina and Senators McClellan and Ervin of North Carolina raised
questions of constitutional theory and held Marshall’s appointment up for several days (Tushnet,
1997). Marshall survived the personal attacks and, once again, leaped a hurdle in his adaptive
challenge when he was named as a Justice of the United States Supreme Court.
Through the scrutiny and personal attacks, Marshall’s character never faded. He never
once stooped down to attack or demean his critics. It’s quite plausible that internally Marshall
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 11:05 AM
Comment [13]: A bit compressed. Would
benefit from another sentence or two
elaboration
was infuriated and enraged. However, publicly showing these feelings would not advance his
agenda. Marshall let his silence do the talking. Marshall’s nomination and appointment was a
symbolic victory for African-Americans.
Once in office, Marshall used his new arena to continue the advancement of civil rights.
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 11:06 AM
Comment [14]: Nice paragraph
Objectively, “Marshall’s voting record on the Courts consistently supported civil rights and
minority racial claims” (Tushnet, 1997, p.141). Marshall fought for equal rights and justice for
all Americans. Fairclough (2004) illustrates this fight by highlighting Justice Marshall’s career
as that which ended school segregation, enforced affirmative action, rallied against the disregard
for free speech and vehemently opposed the reinstitution of the death penalty.
On the Supreme Court, Marshall also aimed to extend equality to women. Consequently,
he helped to bring about the right for women to have legalized abortions (Fairclough, 2004).
“Marshall's overwhelming aim was to secure a more equal America” (Fairclough, 2004, p. 178).
To this end, Marshall served as a justice for twenty-four years. For more than two decades,
he not only successfully navigated his adaptive challenge, he also took on the challenges of
others. He was a fearless leader with law as his tool. Even still, in retirement Marshall
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 11:06 AM
Comment [15]: Past tense
THURGOOD MARSHALL: THE STRENGTH OF A LEADER
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proclaimed that the battle for racial and economic justice was not over: he believed it had only
just begun (Fairclough, 2004).
Supreme Court Justice Through the Political Framework Lens
As a Supreme Court justice, Thurgood Marshall’s political framework is addressed through
his attainment of power and the ability to empower others. According to Bolman and Deal
(2008), positions bestow certain levels of legitimate authority. Through his numerous victories
as a lawyer who battled and beat extreme odds, Marshall earned power through reputation.
Because he held the office of the highest judicial court in the land, Marshall held positional
power. The opportunity to become the first African-American Supreme Court justice was due in
part to Thurgood Marshall’s prior accomplishments and reputation as a strong, resilient winner.
Fundamentally, politics involves the mediation, coordination, and ordering of differences
(Bolman & Deal, 2008). As a Supreme Court justice, Marshall was able to set order through
court decisions and used his position as a political leader to appeal to a higher order in terms of
morals and ethics, specifically in the area of civil rights. He influenced others to reflect on their
morals instead of accepting the status quo.
Conclusion
Thurgood Marshall faced tremendous adaptive challenges at every level of his career.
His perseverance through these challenges showed his strong will and strength of character. He
distinguished himself as a great leader through his effectiveness in advancing the agenda for
racial equality in the United States. As a political leader, Marshall employed his progressive
vision to establish an equal opportunity agenda for all citizens. He used his power in the arena of
the courtroom as both a lawyer and then as justice to advance civil rights. Marshall’s leadership
and advocacy led to the removal of barriers created by antiquated laws. Today’s leaders can
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 11:08 AM
Comment [16]: It just begs to also
say…and he changed America forwever as a
result
THURGOOD MARSHALL: THE STRENGTH OF A LEADER
learn from his strength, perseverance, and Marshall’s ability to put the cause of the organization
above his own personal needs. One man can have a great impact and can indeed change the
world.
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THURGOOD MARSHALL: THE STRENGTH OF A LEADER
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References
Benjamin, L. T., Jr., & Crouse, E. M. (2002). The American Psychological Association's
response to Brown v. Board of Education: The case of Kenneth B. Clark. American
Psychologist, 57(1), 38-50. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.57.1.38
Bolman, L.G. & Deal, T.E. (2008). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Drath, W. (2001). The deep blue sea: Rethinking the source of leadership. San Francisco: JosseyBass.
Fairclough, A. (2004). Thurgood Marshall’s pursuit of equality through law. Critical Review
of International Social and Political Philosophy, 7(4), 177-199.
doi:10.1080/1369823042000300072
Hengstler, G. A. (1992). Looking back. ABA Journal, 78, 56.
Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/194354757?accountid=14780
Tushnet, M.V. (1997). Making constitutional law: Thurgood Marshall and the Supreme Court,
1961-1991. Cary, NC: Oxford University Press.
Tushnet, M.V. (1994). Making civil rights law: Thurgood Marshall and the Supreme Court,
1936-1961. Cary, NC: Oxford University Press.
Vasillopulos, C. (1994). Prevailing upon the American dream: Thurgood Marshall and Brown v.
Board of Education. The Journal of Negro Education, 63(3), 289-296. Retrieved from
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/296718
Jamie Arkin 11/13/13 11:09 AM
Comment [17]: I don’t believe you left this
link in blue—I believe it occurred when I
pasted the rubric in.
THURGOOD MARSHALL: THE STRENGTH OF A LEADER
Name
Rainbolt
11
Date
EDLP 715 Paper 3 Evaluation Rubric
20 points
Target
Acquiring
Developing
Entry
Organization
Crystal clear focus that does
not stray; all paragraphs
fully developed; strong intro
and satisfying conclusion;
reader is skillfully guided
through
(3 points)
Clear focus with minor
digression(s); most
paragraphs well-developed;
logical intro and conclusion;
reader can see where writer is
headed
(2.5 points)
Focus has several digressions;
some paragraphs incompletely
developed or contain off-point
info; intro and/or conclusion
brief/cursory; reader
experiences gaps/confusion but
still sees main idea
(2 points)
Lack of singular focus;
most paragraphs have
little/no focus; intro and/or
conclusion, disconnected,
or missing; reader must
make inferences based on
inadequate details
(0 – 1 point)
Critical
Thinking
Clear, strong, logical points
supported with rich and
relevant details; supporting
sources credible, timely,
and appropriate
(3 points)
Appropriate logical points
developed using quality details
with minor gaps; supporting
sources credible, timely, and
appropriate with minor gaps
(2.5 points)
Some points unclear or weak
with irrelevant or unconvincing
details; supporting sources
weak
(2 points)
Many/most points lack
quantity/quality details;
supporting sources
irrelevant or inappropriate
(0 – 1 point)
Reader
Engagement
Writer speaks to the reader
in a way that is original, and
engaging; format enhances
understanding; nuances
within content are expertly
delineated based on
reader’s level of
understanding; reader’s
questions anticipated and
answered—writer’s position
compellingly convinces
(4 points)
Writer engages the reader with
text that is earnest and
pleasing but not fully
compelling;
format/presentation is solid;
brief/inconsistent mastery of
nuances within the content;
reader’s questions are
addressed but may lack some
depth or consistency—writer’s
position convinces
(3.25 points)
Writer is sincere but
inconsistencies neglect to fully
engage reader;
format/presentation
inconsistently appropriate for
reader; mastery of broad
strokes but nuanced meaning
missing or incomplete; reader’s
questions are not satisfyingly
answered—writer’s position
weak and minimally convincing
(2.5 points)
Writer presents ideas with a
flatness or monotone that
fails to engage reader;
format/presentation has
little/no relevance for
reader; basic, oversimplistic understanding of
content; reader is left to
sort it out himself—writer’s
position fails to convince
(0 – 2 points)
Style
Reads smoothly; wellcrafted variety in sentence
structure; transitions
seamlessly propel the
reader; precise, rich,
nuanced vocabulary
(4 points)
Reads well with minor
stumbles; evident variety in
sentence structure; transitions
function well with minor
inconsistencies; appropriate
vocabulary with some
sparkling word choice
(3.25 points)
Reads with occasional
stumbles; sentence structure
depends on a few repeated
patterns; some transitions
awkward or missing; accurate
but plain and unimaginative
vocabulary
(2.5 points)
Reads haltingly; limited
variety in sentence
structure; poor/no use of
transitions resulting in fuzzy
connections between ideas;
bland vocabulary that is not
always precise or accurate
(0 – 2 points)
Grammar*,
Punctuation,
and
Spelling*
No major or minor errors
(3 points)
No major errors; one or two
minor errors that do not
distract
(2 points)
Repeated one major or several minor errors that distract
(0 – 1 point)
APA Format
Impeccable use of APA
conventions
(3 points)
2.75 minor
Some minor errors in use of
APA conventions; e.g.
punctuation or indentation
(2 points)
Errors or inconsistencies in the use of APA; e.g. missing or
erroneous information or formatting
(0 – 1 point)
*Major errors: fragments, run-ons or improperly fused sentences; subject-verb agreement; Minor errors: Pronoun errors, lack of parallelism, spelling, general punctuation
Plagiarism, intentional or not, will result in an automatic zero on the assignment.
Examples: No citation for any material that should be cited; paraphrasing that contains copied key words, phrases, or structure from the original source
which should be quoted; or any other type of intellectual dishonesty that uses others’ word or ideas without appropriate acknowledgement.
Comments:
Stacey
What a great paper! You made significant improvements based on our discussion, and, as a result,
have a strong, focused paper from beginning to end.
THURGOOD MARSHALL: THE STRENGTH OF A LEADER
Very minor comments for improvement other than the use of transitions. Sections tend to join
abruptly in many cases. A tip here would be to read your paper aloud, eliminating the section
headings. Then, you’ll see how the ideas aren’t linked well.
Otherwise, an excellent paper!
Score: 19
Evaluator(s) Arkin
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Running Head: THURGOOD MARSHALL: THE STRENGTH OF A LEADER
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