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Recent Advances in Pharmaceutical Sciences IV, 2014: 119-132 ISBN: 978-81-308-0554-2
Editors: Diego Muñoz-Torrero, Manuel Vázquez-Carrera and Joan Estelrich
8. Back to the island of calm: Mallorcan
human traditional medicine and
ethnobotany
1
Esperança Carrió and Joan Vallès1
Laboratori de Botànica, Facultat de Farmàcia, Universitat de Barcelona, Av. Joan XXIII
sn, 08028-Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
[…] segueix-me a una illa que et diré, a una illa on sempre hi fa calma, on
els homes mai porten pressa, on les dones no es fan mai velles, on no es
malgasten ni paraules, on el sol hi fa més estada i on fins la senyora Lluna
camina més a poc a poc, encomanada de la mandra. [1]
Abstract. This study reveals that a successful ethnobotanical
survey can take place still nowadays, even close to one of the
hotspots of tourism in the Mediterranean coast. This is the first
approach in this field entirely based on interviews with local
people in Mallorca. An amount of 235 informants has been
inquired from all the 53 municipalities of the island. The data
collected have been analyzed from the botanical and
ethnographical points of view, and managed using the online
platform of our research team (details at www.etnobiofic.cat). The
Mallorcan ethnopharmacopoeia includes 255 plant taxa referring
more than 150 medicinal use categories. Ethnomedical queries as
the one here presented contribute to the knowledge of the
traditional use of plants of the island and appreciate the benefits of
this knowledge, applied to the present and future of its society.
Correspondence/Reprint request: Dr. E. Carrió, Laboratori de Botànica, Facultat de Farmàcia, Universitat de
Barcelona. E-mail: [email protected]
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Esperança Carrió & Joan Vallès
Introduction
In 1922, Santiago Rusiñol, a Catalan painter and writer, published a book
called L’illa de la calma (the island of calm) [1], describing Mallorca as a
paradise for peace and seclusion. Those days, Mallorca was turning from being
one of the Spain’s poorest regions to one of the classiest vacation spots on the
Mediterranean. It exploded in the 1970s as a package-tourism destination, and
nowadays is one of the most expensive parts of Spain, a favourite hangout for
film stars and celebrities. With the island’s identity shifting so dramatically,
would it not be hard to get to know the “real” Mallorca? One of the answers
can be found looking into the ethnobotanical keyhole.
Since its first definition [2], ethnobotanical research was targeted to
tropical and subtropical cultures, sometimes as a consequence of colonial
interests, but surely due to their floristic richness and their tightened
relationship between ethnic groups and natural environment [3-6]. There is a
fact, though, that overcame to the expansion of ethnobotanical surveys
horizons: traditional societies from developed and touristic countries are
keeping and preserving valuable plant use knowledge (orally transmitted
across generations). Recent investigations of our research group (details
available at www. etnobiofic.cat) pay attention to environments closer at
hand for Europeans, which are also rich and varied in biodiversity as well as
in cultural traditions [7].
Although over the last few years a significant number of contributions
have been made in the Mediterranean basin (for instance, [8-12]), the current
Mediterranean ethnobotany (and specifically the ethnopharmacological
knowledge) is still an outstanding study item, despite the growing
acculturation on this topic among citizens. Likewise, there is a need for urgent
action to rescue traditional plant medicines before they are forever forgotten
[13]. For that reason, the establishment of ethnofloristic catalogues or plant
ethnopharmacopoeias could well help citizens and scientific communities to
acquire further knowledge (as well as security and efficacy) about their
traditional therapies, which are sometimes combined with conventional drugs.
The shared ethnobotanical knowledge (regarding the species used repetitively
over time and/or geographical space) provides a part of the scientific evidence
of information and opens further possibilities to the study of transcultural
ethnobotany as well as to that of ethnobotanical heritage within communities
themselves [14]. A solid ethnographic basis brings meaningful results and
makes easier the intellectual challenge of returning to the society the research
findings in an understandable way [15, 16].
This paper summarizes the (re)discovery of Mallorca from the
ethnobotanical point of view, summing up the outstanding ideas of a PhD
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Mallorcan traditional medicine and ethnobotany
project carried out from 2008 to 2013 [17]. This work belongs to a series of
ethnobotanical studies on Catalan-speaking territories linked to the
Etnobiofic research group [7, 10, 18, 19]. These studies share the common
objective of contributing to the existing knowledge on plant biodiversity
(taking into account that the biological diversity also concerns the human
awareness about uses, applications and natural resources conservation) and
making it available for further social and scientific interventions.
1. The study area and the ethnobotanical context
The present ethnobotanical study takes place in Mallorca, the largest
island in the Mediterranean Balearic archipelago and the seventh largest in
the Mediterranean, located towards the east of the Iberian Peninsula (Fig. 1).
The climate in Mallorca is typically Mediterranean [20]. Rullan [21] divides
the island in three main natural (geobotanical) regions: (T) Tramuntana
mountain range, to the NW, with a rugged relief, humid-subhumid climate,
and north-facing oak (Quercus ilex L.) forests, (C) centre and N/NE, with a
varied relief and less abrupt than the previous one, with dry weather, covered
by oaks and maquis; (S) south plains, with a semiarid climate, covered by
maquis, thicket and Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) forest (Fig. 1).
Around 870,000 inhabitants live in Mallorca [22]. Since the 1960’s
Mallorca has depended on tourism as the main economy, having quickly
left aside the primary sectors of agriculture and livestock, these now a
mere witness of what had once been the main activities throughout its
history. The primary sector has gone through several stages, but nowadays
the percentage of people actively engaged in this sector (data from
[22, 23]) is 1.24%. A relevant part of Mallorcan peasants are retired people
who continue to cultivate some extension of land not far from the place
where they live; these people constitute the most important source of
informants for this study.
T
C
S
Figure 1. Location of the studied island in the Mediterranean Sea and the Catalan
linguistic area, and the three main natural regions in Mallorca proposed by [21].
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Esperança Carrió & Joan Vallès
Ethnobotanical studies in Mallorca were practically lacking before this
work. Distinguished botanists around the world have visited Mallorca at
least since 1711 [24, 25] and its flora and vegetation have been described in
many publications [26]; recent catalogues refer the complete list of plant
species known so far from the island [27, 28]. Although ethnobotanical notes
in the aforementioned floristic works are scarce, two of the classical
Mallorcan floras include bibliographic information (and, in a few cases, data
from popular knowledge) on useful Mallorcan plants [29, 30]. There is also
an outstanding selection of 152 taxa of Balearic medicinal plants from a
Catalan pharmacist established in Mallorca [31] and an informative dossier
of 150 useful plants from a local botanical garden [32]. Also, some
contributions, mostly from the linguistic and anthropological side, have been
published [32-35], and they broadly address the use of plants in the field of
health (medicine and/or food). Thus, the present work is intended to
represent a starting point for the first systematic ethnobotanical study in the
island, addressing the traditional use of medicinal plants in Mallorca.
2. Data collection procedures, management and analysis
Information has been gathered using semi-structured, focalized
interviews with people who work and live close to plants. Data have been
compiled from 235 non-specialist informants queried in all the 53
municipalities of the island, some of them in small groups, but normally
through one-to-one meetings. Of those interviewed, 43% are women and
57% are men. The interviewee’s mean age was 76, born mainly between
1931 and 1940. Almost all the informants were autochthonous of the island
(97%), 89% of them retired. Methodological details, including herbarium
vouchers - deposited in the herbarium BCN, Centre de Documentació de
Biodiversitat Vegetal, Universitat de Barcelona -, are provided in [16, 17].
The medical issues dealt with informants during interviews were: (1)
plants or preparations still used nowadays, (2) plants or preparations used in
the past, (3) plants or preparations linked to festivities, (4) toxic plants or
preparations, and finally (5) specific disorders and their treatment with
plants. Other items, apart from human medicinal uses, were also treated:
veterinary ailments, food and aromatic plants, and other applications of
plants (such as in popular literature, handcraft, domestic uses, etc.).
To ensure an organized pool of the gathered information from
interviews, our research group’s online internal database has been used,
permitting the systematization of data entry and further analysis. This
database has been designed as an open source interface, a constantly
growing platform for ethnobotanical data collected in Catalan-speaking
Mallorcan traditional medicine and ethnobotany
123
territories. Information for the descriptive quantitative analysis was handled
using the R software (r-project.com).
Some classical quantitative ethnobotanical indices have been calculated
(see all indices and definitions in [7] and [10]). The cultural importance
index (CI) has also been determined [36]. Each taxon referred by an
informant within a medical use-category has been counted as a use-report
(UR). The use of popular indices of relative or cultural importance in
Ethnobotany [4] has been designed to quantify local botanical knowledge,
and it has been valuable giving an ethnographical shift to deepen into plant
traditional knowledge understanding.
Finally, to determine the degree of originality and novelty of the
medicinal uses claimed by the informants, a review of the literature referring
to Ethnopharmacology in the Mediterranean region has been carried out.
International online databases (pfaf.org/index.php and ars-grin.gov/duke/)
have also been consulted (last access to online databases 14.10.2011).
3. The Mallorcan ethnopharmacopoeia
General catalogue: Botanical and galenic aspects
The whole ethnobotanical catalogue of Mallorca includes 517 plant taxa.
Referring to human medicine, a total of 1811 remedies involving 255 plant
taxa were collected as traditionally used in human healing (cited for at least
three independent informants; [37, 38]). Wild species predominate (137), but
the presence of plants cultivated or bought through commerce is significant.
The 517 plant taxa of the whole catalogue belong to 114 botanical families,
and the three most relevant families much contributing to the medicinal flora
of Mallorca are the Lamiaceae (10%), Rutaceae (9.8%, especially owing to
cultivated species) and Asteraceae (9%), which at the same time represent the
most common botanical families, apart from Poaceae, of the Mediterranean
flora [28]. This statement connects with the idea that the closer to civilization a
plant grows, the more it is used by local people [10, 38, 39, 40]. The complete
ethnofloristic catalogue and most remarkable human and veterinary medicinal
uses are provided in [7, 16, 17]. Here we will discuss general aspects of this
dataset and we will provide, as a complement, the uses of Mallorcan endemic
plants (Table 1 and subheading 5).
For the whole island, the ethnobotanicity index (EI) is 28%, 1674 taxa
being an approximate count of the vascular flora [27]. Compared with other
Catalan-speaking territories, this EI value is higher than in Cerdanya,
Conflent, High River Ter Valley and Guilleries [41-44], but lower than in
Alt Empordà, Montseny, Pallars and Castelló [45-48].
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Table 1. Names and ethnobotanical knowledge or uses of Mallorcan endemic plants.
Mallorcan traditional medicine and ethnobotany
125
The top five medicinal species cited with the greatest number of usereports (in brackets) are Olea europaea L. subsp. europaea (78), Santolina
chamaecyparissus L. (76), Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (65), Ruta
chalepensis L. (61) and Allium sativum L. (54). This order also corresponds
to the CI index global values for these top five species: 1.09, 0.99, 0.45, 0.68
and 0.78 respectively. Although not all the papers include CI values, a quick
review of other works [35, 49], shows that top species have CI 0.6 – 0.7, so
Olea europaea subsp. europaea and Santolina chamaecyparissus are for the
local people culturally more important than top species in other territories. It
is outstanding that an endemism appears as one of the top species of the
ethnomedical catalogue of the island. Table 1 includes detailed results for all
the useful endemic plants collected for this study.
When compared with previous ethnobotanical research in Catalan
territories [39, 40, 50-53], several medicinal species appear at the top of the
most cited medicinal plants in every territory studied (generally Thymus
vulgaris L., Matricaria chamomilla L. and Sambucus nigra L.) [10]. This
assertion leads us to conclude that general ethnobotanical results cannot be
extended to all the Catalan-speaking areas. Other studies in the
Mediterranean region have earlier concluded that it is hard to demonstrate a
common ethnobotanical heritage throughout the whole Mediterranean
without considering floristic or bioclimatic characteristics [17, 18, 54, 55].
Plant organs most commonly used for remedy preparation are leaves
(20%), aerial parts (15%) and fruits (9%). Generally these are the plant parts
that allow an easier identification to informants, so that they feel more
confident to start with preparation.
The commonest methods of preparation in Mallorca are infusion and
decoction, generally known as bullidures (by boiling in water), and the
widest pharmaceutical form is tisane (42%), followed by the direct
application of the plant part (14.5%) and then poultices and cataplasms
(14%). The preferred administration way for traditional remedies is intern
(69.13%). This pattern of preparations is generally the same as many
previous Catalan ethnobotanical works [10].
Plant uses and informants’ knowledge about popular
medicine
A total of 158 use categories have been recorded for the 255 medicinal
plants, according to the thesauri of the Etnobiofic database created by our
research group, which was constructed following Cook’s classification [56],
emended and adapted to our field areas of study. The most frequent type of
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Esperança Carrió & Joan Vallès
medicinal use recorded, having calculated the index of medicinal importance
(MI, the ratio between the number of use-reports referring to a category and
the total of taxa that are used for a specific indication; [7]), is the
antihelmintic (for intestinal worms) (8.64), followed by the tranquillizer
(6.65), the gastric anti-inflammatory (6.40), the anticatarrhal (5.13), the
antihypertensive (4.98) and the renal litothripter (3.54).
These are slightly different results from other studied areas of the
Iberian Peninsula and the Mediterranean territory, which explain that the
majority of remedies described by the interviewees refers to the treatment of
mild ailments related to the skin, the respiratory and digestive systems [49],
and also from very recent works in Turkey, where respiratory and throat
diseases, gastrointestinal diseases, and kidney stones and urinary diseases
represent more than 50% of use citations [57]. For the top categories in
Mallorca, dermatological references are lacking.
Apart from the aforementioned quantitative information, there are also
many data not included in the ethnopharmacological catalogue that also
explain the Mallorcan ethnomedical cosmovision. This knowledge has been
reported by the informants during interviews, and managed apart from the
plant use-reports pool. It mainly refers the popular process of medical aid in
the rural Mallorca. It does not only include plant knowledge, but also the use
of animal and mineral derivatives (such as lard, all kind of waxes, seashells,
etc.). The whole process against illness has been exposed by several
informants of the study and also by Galmés [34] as a stepped and casuistic
timeline: first the most well-known remedies were applied, the ones that
were at hand and everyone knew. If the first option was unclear, they asked a
neighbour or a relative that could know it. The next step of query was the
local healer, sometimes the doctor, and if it still did not work, they went for
a healer from another village or from the capital town, specialized with the
particular ailment. Depending on the disease, it was told to a wizard or
sorcerer. If nothing was successful, the last hope was to entrust to the saint
specific for the ailment; it was a pray or a promise. Religion, after all, and
the catholic beliefs in Mallorca, had an outstanding significance during the
curative process of an illness.
4. In addition to traditional medicine: Edible plants and
other uses
A total of 199 plant taxa were cited as human food plants and 72 for
other uses such as crafts, popular literature and religious beliefs. Out of all
taxa mentioned as food in humans (199), 67% are grown or purchased and
Mallorcan traditional medicine and ethnobotany
127
the remaining are wild. An amount of 714 use-reports was unique. The most
cited species is Foeniculum vulgare Mill., due to its properties for cooking,
followed by fruits of Arbutus unedo L., usually consumed fresh without
preparation, Capsicum annuum L. and Laurus nobilis L. as condiments and
Rubus ulmifolius Schott and Cichorium intybus L., eaten fresh or in pies and
salads.
There is a remarkable amount of plants (146 taxa) claimed to be useful
both for food and medicine, and 19% of medicinal plants are also used as
condiment. The coincidence with the data on food plants in previous works
is almost complete, there is very little new in Mallorca, with the exception of
species that are endemic to the island or that grow more abundantly than in
other studied areas; it is worth mentioning Ampelodesmos mauritanica
(Poiret) T. Durand et Schinz, some mallows (Lavatera arborea L. and L.
cretica L.), Allium triquetrum L. and Salvia microphylla Humb., Bonpl. &
Kunth. Numerous citations (103) were also collected for 62 taxa for plant
use in animal feed. The above-mentioned plants refer to the fattening of pigs
- which in turn is one of the main food products in Mallorca - and are
Ceratonia siliqua L., Opuntia maxima A.Berger and Ficus carica L.. The
gathering of information on wild edible plants served as the starting point for
a wider study (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands) in preparation, the
hypothesis of which is that the socio-cultural factors (rather than ecological)
are responsible of changes in consumption patterns, harvesting and
marketing of wildlife plants.
Informants cited 72 taxa for which one must be careful when using
them, both as medicine and food, with a total of 323 reports. Most of the
information is related to the taking of the plant internally with a low degree
of toxicity. After the ethnobotanical literature review of previous works,
we conclude that the local knowledge of harmful or toxic plants is quite
uniform and does not vary much with respect to the current bibliographic
knowledge.
For uses that are neither food nor medicine (including toxicity),
informants cited 351 taxa and 1142 unique use-reports. The most repeated
use subcategory is horticultural and agricultural handling, and the most
notable species is Asphodelus aestivus Brot., especially linked to the
production of reeds for drying fruits of Ficus carica. Twenty seven taxa
are shared when comparing the results of other uses in Mallorca with some
of the studies carried out in Catalonia [43, 45, 46]. The inclusion of such
different uses for food and medicinal ethnobotanical studies gives an idea
of the social importance of plants in the past, at least partly surviving
nowadays.
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5. The relevance of insularity and the basis for a metaanalysis of ethnobotanical data in the Catalan linguistic
area
There are two aspects to be considered when assessing the relevance of
insularity. First, the traditional use of endemic taxa among the
autochthonous population and, second, the singularity of the plant
knowledge (new or scarcely cited plant uses compared with other studies
previously documented in closer territories, especially Mediterranean in this
case).
The degree of knowledge or use of endemic local taxa in Mallorca has
been calculated using the index of phytoethnoendemicity (PEEI), proposed
by Mesa [58]; it determines the ratio between the endemic plants and the
total ethnoflora. PEEI calculation allows the evaluation of the singularity of
the plant use along the study area and also the isolation of population (the
more endemic taxa are used, the most knowledgeable the inhabitants are
about their closest environment). The PEEI of this study is 3.29%, a low
value compared to [59] - 11.37% -, taking into account that in Mallorca more
than 100 endemic plant taxa are known and the insularity factor benefits
self-management. Apart from values of the mentioned index, it is worthy of
mention that the absolute value of known and used endemic species (Table 1),
17, is rather high. The percentage of this kind of plants that the informants
know or use as compared with the total amount of endemic insular taxa (ca.
15%) is not negligible - even less taking into account that some endemic taxa
have an extremely restricted distribution are, so that they are a priori not
suitable as objects of popular use - and indicates remarkable level of
knowledge on the proper specific island’s flora among their inhabitants.
The set of novelty of Mallorcan ethnobotany, based on the consult of
more than 200 works with ethnobotanical information mostly in the
Mediterranean area (see [17], for details), is composed by 38 rarely reported
taxa and 306 use-reports not appearing in the literature considered or
recorded in less than three works.
6. Conclusions and future prospects
This work summarizes the first comprehensive ethnobotanical study in
Mallorca based on the PhD thesis titled “Contribution to the ethnobotany of
Mallorca. Plant biodiversity and its management in a Mediterranean island”
[17]. It is an important contribution to increase the ethnobotanical data
available of the Catalan-speaking territories, and it will be part of further
Mallorcan traditional medicine and ethnobotany
129
analysis covering all the information of our research group. Ethnobotanical
studies like this are, on the one hand, a useful tool for public health
authorities to facilitate and enhance the detection and prevention of
interactions and other problems resulting from combined medicinal plants
and synthetic drugs, as well as to ensure accurate pharmaceutical advice and
prescription by health professionals. On the other hand, they constitute the
first step of a bioprospecting process, which may be the basis for new drug
research and development.
Informants continue to use natural therapies learned from past times,
especially for minor ailments (digestive, respiratory, etc.), and are receptive
to learn new ones. The natural therapies are taken, in most cases, as a
complement to conventional drugs. However, many of the collected use
reports have stopped their usage in the present social setting due to
sociocultural changes. Therefore, their collection prior their loss is very
important, not only as cultural heritage, but also as a possible source of new
medicines both for animals and for people.
The collected information, which may open new perspectives of plant
use, is a good starting point for future studies, in both applied scientific
research (especially related to ethnopharmacological activities of plants) and
social research. In Mallorca, ethnobotanical intergenerational dialogue
among citizens is necessary because the pressure of acculturation on the
subject of plants, their names and their traditional uses is very remarkable.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to all the informants who were willing to share with us their time
and knowledge of plants. E.C. benefited from a pre-doctoral grant from the
Spanish Ministry for Education, Culture and Sport (AP2007-00766). Both
authors are members of GReB (from the abbreviation in Catalan of: Plant
Biodiversity and Biosystematics Research Group), from which they received
some funding (project 2009SGR0439, Generalitat de Catalunya, Catalan
government). This research has also been funded by the Spanish Ministry for
Economy and Competitiveness (project CSO2011-27565).
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