PERCEIVED LOCAL EVIDENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND
VARIABILITY IMPACTS ON NATURAL RESOURCES IN
SMALLHOLDER COMMUNITIES OF EASTERN ZIMBABWE
BY
CHRISTOPHER CHAGUMAIRA
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY
DEPARTMENT OF SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE
AUGUST 2015
DECLARATION
I, Christopher Chagumaira, do hereby declare that this thesis is a result of original research
work undertaken by myself except where clearly and specifically acknowledged. It is being
submitted for the partial fulfilment of the degree of Master of Philosophy in Agriculture. It
has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other University.
Date:
……………………………………………………………………….
Signed:
………………………………………………………………………
At:
……………………………………………………………………….
i
ABSTRACT
Declining crop and livestock production due to a degrading land resource base and changing
climate among other biophysical and socio-economic constraints, are increasingly forcing
rural households in Zimbabwe and other parts of southern Africa to rely on common natural
resource pools (CNRPs) to supplement their household food and income. This study
investigated the nature and dynamics of CNRPs that are utilised by smallholder-farming
communities of Dendenyore and Ushe wards (local development unit) in Hwedza district in
eastern Zimbabwe, as influenced by climate change and variability. Special attention was paid
to quantifying how community responses to climate change and variability have influenced
natural resource use patterns and gender roles among households differing in resource
endowments in Dendenyore and Ushe wards. A combination of farmer participatory research
approaches, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing were employed
between 2011 and 2013 to characterise the contribution of CNRPs to household food and
income of these smallholder communities. Across study sites, wetlands and woodlands were
ranked as the most important CNRPs. These were given highest priority because of their
provisioning services by providing fruits (Mazhanje (Uapaca kirkiana) and Hacha (Parinari
curatellifolia)), raw materials for crafts (Tsanga (Phragmites mauritianus) and Mutsvairo
(Miscanthidium sorghum)), and firewood for energy. The extraction and use patterns of
products obtained from the wetlands and woodlands varied significantly by household
resource endowment, with the resource-constrained (RG3) depending more on natural
resources. For example, RG3 households extracted greatest quantities of fruits such as
Mazhanje approximately 35 kg per capita-1 year-1 between 2011 and 2012 compared to RG1
and RG2 households who only extracted 11 and 25 kg per capita-1 year-1, respectively.
Despite their importance CNRPs, wetlands and woodlands, decreased by > 30% between
1972 and 2011. This reduction in prioritised CNRPs was attributed to a number of factors
which were ranked in the order: land use changes (33% of the respondents) < less rainfall
(31%) < and increasing temperatures (27%). The communities also perceived that the severe
droughts of 1983/1984, 1991/1992, 2002/2003 and 2007/2008 seasons increased the rate of
extraction of natural resources and this resulted in depletion of the natural resource base. For
example during a drought, participation of men in extraction of water and indigenous fruits
increased at least 40%, from a good (favourable season) to a bad (drought season) year.
Provisional services of CNRPs are likely to be affected directly and indirectly by factors such
as projected increase in rainfall variability and population increase amongst other factors.
Despite their apparent decline communities in Dendenyore and Ushe are continually relying
on a degraded natural resource base, suggesting limited livelihood options to adapt to climate
change and variability, and other existing socio-economic and biophysical challenges. This
suggests limited options for rural communities to adapt to the changing food production
systems in the wake of climate change and variability and other challenges such as declining
soil fertility. There is therefore a need to design adaptive farm management options that
enhance both crop and livestock production in a changing climate as well as identifying other
livelihood alternatives outside agriculture to reduce pressure on CNRPs. There need for active
participation of communities and government agencies in proper land use planning and
management of natural resources. In addition, promotion of alternative resources options to
firewood (e.g. solar, woodlots) and indigenous fruit trees (e.g. orchards) among rural
communities could reduce extraction of natural resources from wetlands and woodlands.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The EU-funded FAO-SOFECSA-UZ Climate Risk Project ‘supporting smallholder farmers in
southern Africa to better manage climate-relate risks to crop production and post-harvest
handling’ funded this study. I also wish to acknowledge funding from the Deutscher
Akademischer Austausch Dienst (DAAD) In-country scholarship award (A/11/95775) and
global SysTem for Analysis, Research and Training (START) International Climate Change
project to kick start the studies. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors
Professor Paul Mapfumo, Professor Florence Mtambanengwe and Professor Regis Chikowo
for their time, guidance, and support during this study. I would also want to thank Dr Jairos
Rurinda and Mr Hatirarami Nezomba for the overwhelming technical support, advice, and
guidance during the course of this study.
I would also want to thank the following UZ-SOFECSA team members for their assistance:
Ms Muneta G Manzeke, Mr Tongai Mtangadura, Ms Natasha Kurwakumire, Ms Tariro
Gwandu, Mr Tinashe Mashavave, Ms Grace Kanonge and Mr E Mbizah. Special thanks goes
to Mr M Shekede of UZ-Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences and Mr W
Gumindoga of UZ-Department of Civil Engineering for their assistance with GIS and remote
sensing; Hwedza district Mr Johnson Mupanga and Mr Peter Munodawafa (Field assistants),
Mrs Magwenzi, Mr Garwe, Mrs Mazivanhanga and the late Mr Kahiya (AGRITEX staff) for
their hospitality and technical assistance during field work. To my church, St Andrews Glen
Norah circuit of the United Methodist Church and UZ Prayer group thank you for the prayers
and spiritual support.
To you my wife and friend Kudzai I thank you for the moral support and enduring these
difficult times we went through. My son Tawananyasha, thank you for always cheering me up
when I would be drowned in my studies for you gave me much needed inspiration. I would
also want to express my gratitude, to my siblings who gave me much needed support;
William, Masimba, and Tendai you guys are wonderful and not to forget my niece Praise, I
love you all!
iii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis to a brave and loving woman, Onis Chikwakwate-Chagumaira. Your
love, dedication, and support were overwhelming. When the Lord took Dad in 1992, you took
it upon yourself the burden to raise us up in a home full of love, even though life was rough at
times; you never gave up hope on giving us a better life and education. An amazing woman
you were. I wish you were still around and could see where God is taking me. I thank God for
the time we spent together, without your encouragements I would not have made it this far! I
remember in 2007, you publicly announced that you wanted me to do masters and there I have
done it ‘ndazadzisa chido chenyu amai vangu, chizororai zvenyu murugare!’
Finally yet importantly, I thank God for the gift of life and wisdom he gave me. Because of
you Lord, I can now say Ebenezer ‘Thus far the LORD has taken’
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ...................................................................................................................... I
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................. III
DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................... IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................ V
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. VIII
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... IX
LIST OF PLATES ................................................................................................................. XI
LIST OF APPENDICES ...................................................................................................... XII
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................... XIII
CHAPTER ONE ....................................................................................................................... 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 RATIONALE OF STUDY........................................................................................................ 2
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................ 3
1.4 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................ 4
1.5 THESIS STRUCTURE ............................................................................................................ 4
CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................................... 6
LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................ 6
2.1 COMMON NATURAL RESOURCE POOLS IN SMALLHOLDER COMMUNITIES............................ 6
2.1.1 Importance of wetlands to rural communities ........................................................... 7
2.1.2 Importance of woodlands to rural communities- The Miombo ................................. 8
2.1.3 Gender roles and extraction of natural resources .................................................. 10
2.2 CLIMATE CHANGE AND VARIABILITY IMPACTS ................................................................ 10
2.2.1 Impacts on ecosystems ............................................................................................. 10
2.2.2 Droughts .................................................................................................................. 11
2.2.3 Climate change studies in Hwedza .......................................................................... 13
2.3 CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION IN HWEDZA DISTRICT .................................................... 14
2.4 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER THREE................................................................................................................ 16
GENERAL MATERIALS AND METHODS ...................................................................... 16
3.1 STUDY AREA .................................................................................................................... 16
3.2 A BRIEF BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY AND OVERALL RESEARCH APPROACH ................... 18
3.3 CHARACTERISATION OF COMMON NATURAL RESOURCE POOLS ........................................ 21
3.4 CHANGES IN AVAILABILITY OF COMMON NATURAL RESOURCE POOLS ............................. 23
v
3.5 USE PATTERNS OF NATURAL RESOURCES ......................................................................... 24
3.6 CHANGES IN GENDER ROLES IN RELATION TO CHANGING PATTERNS IN AVAILABILITY OF
COMMON NATURAL RESOURCE POOLS ................................................................................... 25
3.7 ANALYSIS OF PROJECTED CHANGES AND MANAGEMENT OF COMMON NATURAL RESOURCE
POOLS FOR CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION ........................................................................... 25
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................. 27
USE PATTERNS OF NATURAL RESOURCES SUPPORTING LIVELIHOODS OF
SMALLHOLDER COMMUNITIES AND IMPLICATIONS ON CLIMATE CHANGE
ADAPTATION IN ZIMBABWE♣ ........................................................................................ 27
4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 27
4.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................................................................... 29
4.2.1 Participatory identification and ranking of common natural resource pools ......... 29
4.2.2 Use patterns of natural resources ........................................................................... 31
4.2.3 Changes in availability of common natural resource pools .................................... 33
4.3 RESULTS ......................................................................................................................... 34
4.3.1 Prioritised common natural resource pools ............................................................ 34
4.3.2 Availability of natural resources ............................................................................. 37
4.3.3 Use patterns of natural resources in wetlands ........................................................ 41
4.3.5 Spatial and temporal changes in common natural resource pools ......................... 44
4.4 DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................... 48
4.5 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................. 53
CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................... 54
CHANGING HOUSEHOLD GENDER ROLES IN EXTRACTION OF NATURAL
RESOURCES IN RURAL COMMUNITIES OF ZIMBABWE IN RESPONSE TO
AVAILABILITY OF NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS .......................................... 54
5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 54
5.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................................................. 56
5.2.1 Study sites ................................................................................................................ 56
5.2.2 Qualitative data collection approaches ................................................................... 57
5.2.3 Quantitative data collection approaches ................................................................. 58
5.3 RESULTS .......................................................................................................................... 59
5.3.1 Major determinants for declining in common natural resource pools in rural
communities. ..................................................................................................................... 59
5.3.2 Dynamics in gender roles in relation to availability of natural resources ............. 63
5.4 DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................................... 69
5.5 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 73
CHAPTER SIX ....................................................................................................................... 74
OPTIONS FOR MANAGING COMMON NATURAL RESOURCE POOLS TO
SUPPORT LIVELIHOODS OF RURAL COMMUNITIES IN THE FACE OF
INCREASING CLIMATIC RISKS ...................................................................................... 74
vi
6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 74
6.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................................................. 75
6.2.1 Projected changes in temperature and rainfall conditions by 2045 ....................... 75
6.2.2 Options for managing common natural resource pools for climate change
adaptation ......................................................................................................................... 76
6.3 RESULTS .......................................................................................................................... 77
6.3.1 Historical and projected changes in temperature and rainfall in Hwedza district by
2045 .................................................................................................................................. 77
6.3.2 Identified potential changes in common natural resource pools and management
options based on future climate change projections ........................................................ 80
6.4 DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................................... 83
6.5 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................. 87
CHAPTER SEVEN ................................................................................................................ 88
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................... 88
7.1 IMPORTANCE OF COMMON NATURAL RESOURCE POOLS IN SMALLHOLDER COMMUNITIES 88
7.2 IMPLICATIONS OF A DECLINING NATURAL RESOURCE BASE ON CLIMATE CHANGE
ADAPTATION .......................................................................................................................... 89
7.3 POSSIBLE ENTRY POINTS FOR IMPROVING NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE FACE
OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND VARIABILITY ................................................................................ 90
7.4 AREAS OF FUTURE STUDIES .............................................................................................. 93
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 94
APPENDICES....................................................................................................................... 117
APPENDIX 1: CHECKLIST FOR FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS DURING COMMUNITY MEETINGS 117
APPENDIX 2: TRANSECT WALKS, SELECTION OF HOUSEHOLDS FOR NATURAL USE RESOURCE
MONITORING, SPECIES DIVERSITY ........................................................................................ 119
APPENDIX 3: NATURAL RESOURCE USE MONITORING DIARIES ............................................. 123
APPENDIX 4: HOUSEHOLD DATA COLLECTION QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................... 125
APPENDIX 5: PUBLICATIONS FROM THESIS........................................................................... 129
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4. 1 Composition of community meeting participants in Dendenyore and Ushe wards,
Hwedza district, Zimbabwe. ............................................................................................. 30
Table 4. 2 Main natural resources extracted from wetlands and woodlands supporting
livelihoods of smallholder communities in Dendenyore and Ushe communities in the
Hwedza District in Zimbabwe. ......................................................................................... 36
Table 4. 3 Selected non-timber forest products extracted and sold in Dendenyore and Ushe
wards in Hwedza district from November 2011 to October 2012 .................................... 43
Table 4. 4 Changes in landcover classes (ha) in Dendenyore and Ushe communities in
Hwedza in Zimbabwe ....................................................................................................... 45
Table 5. 1 Key natural resources extracted from common natural resource pools and their use
patterns in Dendenyore and Ushe communities in Hwedza District in Zimbabwe. ......... 64
Table 5. 2 Seasonal calendar for extraction and availability of the main natural resources from
wetlands in Dendenyore and Ushe wards, Hwedza district.............................................. 65
Table 5. 3 Seasonal calendar for availability of main natural resources from woodlands in
Dendenyore and Ushe wards, Hwedza district ................................................................. 66
Table 6. 1 Farmer-identified potential changes in common natural resource pools based on
projected future climate changes, and subsequent management options in Dendenyore
and Ushe in Hwedza district (n = 60). .............................................................................. 79
Table 6. 2 Identified natural resource management options by two communities in Hwedza,
district Zimbabwe1 ............................................................................................................ 81
Table 6. 3 Alternative resource options for firewood, indigenous fruits, and water sources
identified in Hwedza district, Zimbabwe ......................................................................... 82
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 1 Ecosystem services derived from common natural resource pools by rural
communities (Adapted from MEA, 2005a) ........................................................................ 6
Figure 2. 2 Four dimensions of the interface within Miombo woodlands (adapted from
Lowore, 2006) .................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 3. 1 Location and natural regions of Dendenyore and Ushe wards in Hwedza district in
Zimbabwe ......................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 3. 2 Mean annual distribution of rainfall in Hwedza and mean maize yields in
communal areas in Zimbabwe from 1993 to 2011 (Zimstat, unpublished data). ............. 17
Figure 3. 3 Schematic representation of the overall approach used in this study..................... 19
Figure 4. 1 Natural resource map showing spatial distribution of common natural resource
pools and villages in Dendenyore and Ushe communities, Hwedza district. ................... 35
Figure 4. 2 Communities’ perceptions on availability of natural resources utilised as (a) food
and (b) making crafts and (c) as energy extracted from wetlands and woodlands in
Hwedza district ................................................................................................................. 38
Figure 4. 3 Species richness and relative abundances of wetland plant species in the
abandoned fields in wetland, Hwedza district. ................................................................. 39
Figure 4. 4 Species richness and relative abundances of wetland plant species in the grazing
areas in wetlands, Hwedza district. .................................................................................. 40
Figure 4. 5 Consumption of indigenous vegetables per capita extracted from wetlands in
Dendenyore and Ushe, Hwedza district by households of different resource endowments
from 2011 to 2012 (Bars represent SED). ........................................................................ 41
Figure 4. 6 Extraction of small wild animals in Dendenyore and Ushe wards, Hwedza district
per households annually. .................................................................................................. 44
Figure 4. 7 Land cover changes in Dendenyore ward, Hwedza district for three time periods.
.......................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 4. 8 Land cover changes in Ushe ward, Hwedza district for three time periods ........... 47
Figure 5. 1 Historical timeline of the major climatic and non-climatic events that affected the
availability of natural resources that sustain livelihoods of smallholder communities in
Hwedza district, Zimbabwe .............................................................................................. 60
ix
Figure 5. 2 Ranking of main factors causing (a) shrinking of wetlands and (b) drying of sacred
pools and springs in Dendenyore and Ushe communities, Hwedza district. (Weight index
was calculated from frequency divided by rank, n = 100). .............................................. 62
Figure 5. 3 Ranking of main factors causing (a) declining of woodlands, and (b) low
availability of indigenous fruits in Dendenyore and Ushe communities in Hwedza
district. (Weight index was calculated from frequency divided by rank, n = 100). ......... 62
Figure 5. 4 Changing gender roles in extraction of water during ‘good years’ and ‘bad years’
in Dendenyore and Ushe wards, Hwedza district. ............................................................ 67
Figure 5. 5 Changing gender roles in extraction of Mazhanje during ‘good years’ and ‘bad
years’ in Dendenyore and Ushe wards in Hwedza district ............................................... 68
Figure 5. 6 Changing gender roles in extraction of Hacha during ‘good years’ and ‘bad years’
in Dendenyore and Ushe wards in Hwedza district .......................................................... 68
Figure 6. 1 Projected changes in minimum and maximum temperatures between 1960 and
2045 for the summer and winter seasons in Hwedza district Zimbabwe. (RCP 8.5 data
not shown because similar trends were observed)............................................................ 78
Figure 6. 2 Projected changes in rainfall between 1960 and 2045 based on RCP 4.5 in Hwedza
district Zimbabwe. (RCP 8.5 data not shown because similar trends were observed) ..... 78
Figure 7. 1 Possible entry points of improving natural resource management of CNRPs in the
face of climate change and variability, and other biophysical and socio-economic
challenges ......................................................................................................................... 92
x
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 3. 1 Research approaches used in study to identify and quantify the natural resources
drawn by different categories of households from natural resource pools ....................... 20
xi
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Checklist for focus group discussions during community meetings ................. 117
Appendix 2: Transect walks, selection of households for natural use resource monitoring,
species diversity.............................................................................................................. 119
Appendix 3: Natural resource use monitoring diaries ............................................................ 123
Appendix 4: Household data collection questionnaire ........................................................... 125
Appendix 5: Publications from thesis ..................................................................................... 129
xii
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AgritexCNRPs
EMA
FGDs
GCM
GHG
GIS
GPS
HFC
IFAD
IFPRI
ILWIS
IPCC
IPs
MEA
MSS
NR
NDVI
NTFP
RCP
RDC
SOFECSA
SI
SSA
TM
UNFCCC
UNEP
USGS
UZ
Department of Agricultural Technical and Extension Services
Common Natural Resource Pools
Environmental Management Agency
Focus group discussions
General Circulation Model
Greenhouse gas
Geographic Information System
Geographic Positioning System
Hydro-fluorocarbons
International Fund for Agricultural Development
International Food Policy Research Institute
Integrated land and water information system
Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change
Innovation Platforms
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Multi-Spectral Scanner
Natural Region
Normalised Difference Vegetation Index
Non-timber forest products
Representative Concentration Pathways
Rural District Council
Soil Fertility Consortium for Southern Africa
International System of Units
Sub-Saharan Africa
Thematic Mapper
United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change
United Nation Environment Programme
United States Geological Surveying
University of Zimbabwe
xiii
CHAPTER ONE
General Introduction
1.1 Background
Erratic rainfall, increased temperatures and frequency of drought occurrences in sub-Saharan
Africa (SSA) are some of the major factors attributed to effects of climate change and
variability (O’ Brien et al., 2008; IPCC, 2013; IPCC, 2014). These changes in climate are
predicted to reduce crop yields and ecosystem productivity by between 5-25% by the year
2020 in SSA, including Zimbabwe, (IPCC, 2007a; Hein et al., 2008; IFPRI, 2013). Reduction
in crop productivity will result in increased pressure on common natural resource pools
(CNRPs) as communities seek alternative sources of food and income. CNRPs such as
woodlands, wetlands, rangelands, rivers and springs, have traditionally supported livelihoods
of smallholder communities in SSA (Kandji et al., 2006; Brown et al., 2012). However, the
natural resource base that supports smallholder communities currently faces pressure from
poor management practices and increasing population pressure amongst other factors
(Mapfumo, 2009; IFAD, 2012), and the impacts of climate variability and change will likely
further increase the pressure. Approximately 60% of the key ecosystem services either have
been degraded or used unsustainably resulting in the decline of natural resources crucial for
food and agricultural production in this region (MEA, 2005a). Therefore, empirical evidence
and analysis of the changing use patterns in CNRPs as impacted by climate change and
variability is necessary to improve management options and enhance resilience of smallholder
communities.
Cultivation of wetlands and riverbeds, fishing, cattle grazing and consumption of non-timber
forest products (including fruits, fibre, mushrooms, honey, animals, and insects both larvae
and adults) are some of the ways in which communities have traditionally utilised CNRPs
1
(Shackleton and Shackleton, 2004; Maroyi, 2011; Zwane et al., 2011). Increased reliance on
CNRPs can often be attributed to the recurrent crop failures in addition to poverty (Matarira et
al., 2004; Maroyi, 2011). A recent study done in eastern Zimbabwe indicated that
consumption of indigenous fruits of wild loquat Mazhanje (Uapaca kirkiana) and Mobola
plum Hacha (Parinari curatellifolia) increased from 239 to 609 kg per household per year
and from 62 to 489 kg per household per year, respectively, during the periods of climatic
stress (Woittiez et al., 2013). Therefore, CNRPs play a crucial role in providing natural
resources that supply energy, minerals and vitamins to smallholder communities during both
the good and bad cropping seasons (Frost et al., 2007).
1.2 Rationale of study
The impacts of climate change and variability have been projected to be more prominent in
SSA, particularly in the smallholder farming sector (Easterling et al., 2007). The smallholder
farming sector is particularly vulnerable because they have a high dependence on rain-fed
agriculture and CNRPs for food and income which are sensitive to any change in climatic
variables (IPCC, 2014, Rurinda et al., 2013). This is in addition to limited livelihood options,
poverty and weak social services to effectively cope with or adapt to a changing climate and
other socio-economic challenges (IFAD 2012; Mapfumo et al., 2013). Research done in the
Sahel and eastern Africa demonstrated that when rainfall decreases by at least 23%, closed
woodlands can shift to open woodlands (Hély et al., 2006; Hein et al., 2008). Findings from
these studies indicate that CNRPs supporting the livelihoods of smallholder communities
could severely be reduced by negative impacts of climate change and other factors such as
land use change linked to population increase and poverty. Therefore, an in-depth analysis of
the severity of the impacts of climate change as well as variability in sizes, availability and
use patterns of CNRPs supporting livelihoods of smallholder communities such as Hwedza
2
district in Zimbabwe is necessary. While there is recognition of the importance of natural
resources as “safety nets” in periods of climatic stress (Frost et al., 2007; Neufeldt et al.,
2013), knowledge gaps still exist with regard to understanding the dynamics in resource
access and utilisation patterns within communities as well as the influences of gender roles
and resource endowments at household level. The extent to which access and dependence on
such products and services by different categories of households and communities has not
been quantified in the face of increasing adverse impacts of climate change and increasing
population pressure amongst other factors. Although several studies focusing on natural
resource management have been conducted in Hwedza and other similar smallholder
communities of Zimbabwe in the past (Frost et al., 2007; Svotwa et al., 2008; Maroyi, 2011),
the relative impacts of climate change and variability on availability and use patterns of
CNRPs remain largely unknown. Emerging trends suggest changes in use patterns of natural
resources due to increased incidences of drought (Woittiez et al., 2013), with implications on
how men and women’s roles and values in agriculture and rural development are changing.
This study therefore investigated how climate change and variability could be influencing the
way smallholder communities have been accessing and utilising CNRPs over time.
1.3 Objectives of the study
This study aimed to investigate the nature and changing patterns of common natural resource
pools that are utilised by two smallholder communities Dendenyore and Ushe in Hwedza
district in eastern Zimbabwe, as impacted by climate change and variability. The study had
the following hypotheses:
1. Marked increases in utilisation of wetland and woodland resources have been a result
of changes in rainfall patterns among smallholder communities.
3
2. Changes in availability of wetland and woodland resources due to rainfall variability
influences gender roles and natural resource access within households and among
communities.
1.4 Specific Objectives
1. To characterise the contribution of common natural resource pools to the livelihoods
of smallholder households in Dendenyore and Ushe communities in Hwedza district.
2. To evaluate the perceived impacts of climate change and variability on changing use
patterns of common natural resource pools in Dendenyore and Ushe communities in
Hwedza district.
3. To evaluate dynamics in gender roles within smallholder communities of Dendenyore
and Ushe communities in Hwedza in response to perceived changes in availability of
common natural resource pools.
4. To identify options for managing common natural resource pools in Dendenyore and
Ushe communities in Hwedza district to enable smallholder communities to adapt to
the emerging climate change impacts.
1.5 Thesis structure
The background, the problem, and rationale of the study are described in Chapter 1. A review
of literature on the use and management of common natural resource pools (CNRPs) in
smallholder communities, causes, and impacts of climate change is shown in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 describes the study area, and some of the common experimental designs and
approaches employed in the study. Characterisation of CNRPs significantly contributing to
livelihoods of smallholder communities and implications of their decline on climate change
adaptation are described in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 describes the dynamics in gender roles in
4
response to availability of non-timber forest products (NTFP) and the causes of decline in
CNRPs. Chapter 6 focuses on identifying options of managing common natural resource
pools to order to adapt to the impacts climate change. The summary and conclusions are given
in Chapter 7.
5
CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review
2.1 Common natural resource pools in smallholder communities
Common natural resource pools (CNRPs) form a class of resources which produce finite
quantities of natural resources in which exclusion of users is difficult and joint use involves
subtractability (Berkes et al., 1989). These include rangeland resources, woodland resources,
wildlife resources, wetland, aquatic resources, minerals, and stones. Rural communities derive
a diverse range ecosystems services from these CNRPs (Fig. 2.1).
Figure 2. 1 Ecosystem services derived from common natural resource pools by rural
communities (Adapted from MEA, 2005a)
The four ecosystem services derived by smallholder communities are provisioning services
(e.g. water, and fibre) ; regulating services (e.g. climate regulation and water purification);
cultural services (e.g. spiritual and cultural heritage) and supporting services (e.g. nutrient
cycling) (Fig. 2.1; MEA, 2005a). Ecosystem services are important in sustaining the
livelihoods of rural communities, particularly in developing countries of SSA, including
Zimbabwe. Data from the Ministry of Public Service (2006) indicated that about 31% of the
households in rural areas of Zimbabwe depended on CNRPs for food, fibre, feed, fuel, and
income. In addition, up to 91% of the rural households in the country extract firewood from
6
these resource pools, 65% harvest indigenous fruits to supplement dietary requirements and
32% use leaf litter in agricultural production to reduce the cost of crop production and
improve soil fertility. Dependence on CNRPs will likely increase with the changes in food
production as influenced by climatic changes and increased variability and the extent on
natural resources remains unknown
2.1.1 Importance of wetlands to rural communities
Wetlands are areas of marsh, swamp, fen, peat or bog, typifying land or water bodies whether
natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh,
brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not
exceed six metres (Ramsar Convention, 1971). Wetlands are areas that are saturated by
surface or ground water frequently, long enough to sustain hydrophytes such as Phragmites
australis and Cyperus latifolius, and associated animal life (Compton, 1976). Wetlands are
valuable resources to communities by providing ecosystem services that are vital to human
health and well-being such as flood control, water purification, reservoirs of biodiversity and
ground water retention. Wetlands provide communities with edible fruits of Mashangadede
(Eugenia malangenis), and waterberry (Hute, Syzygium cordatum); natural resources for
economic benefits such as crafts material (Tsanga-Phragmites mauritianus, MutsvairoMiscandithidium sorghum), and shallow wells for domestic water (Svotwa et al., 2008;
Zwane et al., 2011).
Natural resource extracted from wetlands are known to buffer communities in periods of
need, therefore any changes in climate and land use may adversely impact the ability of
wetland to maintain their services to communities. Besides provisioning services wetlands are
critical in erosion control and water regulation (MEA, 2005b). Previous studies on wetlands
7
have shown on the importance of wetlands during the dry season dry-land crop production
would be low (Kundhlande et al., 1995; Nyamadzawo et al., 2015). As the adverse impacts of
climate change and human pressure become more pronounced on wetlands, the ability of
wetlands to provide goods and services to communities’ maybe undermined. This is needed in
order identify suitable practices for conservation, and rules governing access rules and
management of CNRPs need to be addressed for increasing resilience of smallholder
communities to shocks such as inflation, drought etc.
2.1.2 Importance of woodlands to rural communities- The Miombo
Miombo woodlands are central to human needs by providing various products utilised as
fertilisers, medicines, food, energy, fibre, crafts, and construction materials (Figure 2.2)
(Campbell et al., 1996; Clarke et al., 1996; Frost 1996). In addition, services such as climate
regulation, erosion control, and hydrological control, cultural and spiritual values are typical
ecosystem services associated with the miombo (Clarke et al., 1996; Lowore, 2006). Hence
any changes, be it climate or land use related in miombo woodlands, the key ecosystems may
be largely compromised. If key ecosystem services are undermined, many rural households
will be negatively impacted hence there is need therefore to ascertain how changes in miombo
woodlands will affect households who depend on these woodlands for food and income.
Miombo woodlands also are the main source of energy for the smallholders as they provide
firewood, where the dominant tree species are harvested for firewood (Maroyi, 2011). Women
often are the principal collectors and consumers of firewood especially for domestic use and
results have indicated that they are highly selective in the species used (Clarke et al., 1996;
Ndungo et al., 2010). Studies have shown that the area under woodlands is decreasing by at
least 20-40% per decade (Mapedza et al., 2003; Matsa and Muringanizi, 2011); therefore, it is
8
most likely that women will invariably walk longer distances and spend more time searching
for firewood.
Figure 2. 2 Four dimensions of the interface within Miombo woodlands (adapted from
Lowore, 2006)
Lowore (2006) also indicated that in Malawi firewood is becoming scarcer and men will
likely get involved in firewood collection. However, the extent to which men are contributing
into such activities largely remains unknown especially with increased pressure in response to
a changing climate. Communities also extract NTFPs such as fruits for economic benefits in
order to meet household income needs (Brigham et al., 1996; Musvoto et al., 2006; Jumbe et
al., 2008). Emerging evidence is indicating towards increased utilisation of indigenous fruits
in supplementing food during periods of climatic stress (Frost et al., 2007; Woittiez et al.,
2013). Knowledge gaps exist in quantifying whether communities can still draw from
woodlands sufficient quantities of natural resource for household use and consumption.
9
2.1.3 Gender roles and extraction of natural resources
Men and women have different roles, interests and stakes in natural resource use, which have
been socially constructed following attribution of gender roles (Musvoto et al., 2006;
Fonjong, 2008). Gender roles are socially constructed activities, behaviours, roles, and
attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women (FAO, 2004a; World
Bank, 2009). These determine the relationship between men and women in terms of access to
and control over resources, division of labour and interests and needs (Chitsike, 2000;
Fonjong, 2008). Traditionally NTFPs such as indigenous fruits were mostly collected by
children and adults, especially women, when passing through woodlands or when herding
cattle (Shackleton and Clarke, 2007; Maroyi, 2011). Previous studies have suggested that
deforestation and increased population pressure were causing miombo woodlands to recede
with serious implications in reduction in availability of indigenous fruits (Akinnifesi et al.,
2006; Shackleton and Clarke, 2007). This may eventually result in increased vulnerability of
poorer households, particularly women and children due to reduced income and food
especially at time of needs. A gap in literature exists in terms of how roles of men and women
are likely to change as the availability and demand for NTFPs is increasing in most
smallholder communities.
2.2 Climate change and variability impacts
2.2.1 Impacts on ecosystems
Continuously ecosystems have been under pressure from human activities such as extractive
use of goods, increased fragmentation and degradation of habitats (Fischlin et al., 2007;
Mapfumo, 2009), and climate change alters the functions of ecological ecosystems (Nelson et
al., 2013). Consequently, key ecosystem services would be compromised particularly those
10
that provide provisioning services. The quality and quantity of natural resources produced will
be significantly reduced, some of which maybe irreversibly damaged (Boko et al., 2007).
McClean et al. (2005) predicted that by the year 2085, the areas suitable for about 25-42 % of
the 5197 plant species in Africa, would be lost and over 80% of these plant species would
decrease in size and shift to other locations. Availability of non-timber forest products
(NTFP) such as Mawuyu (Adansonia digitata) will reduce by at least 50% by the year 2050
(Heubes et al., 2012).The reduced availability of NTFP will burden communities and the
severity of this depends on socio-economic status of households. Gaps in literature exists on
how changes in availability of natural resources will affect women and poorer households are
expected to be affected, mainly due to their unavoidable dependence on natural resources
(Boko et al., 2007).
2.2.2 Droughts
Cumulative occurrences of severe and extreme droughts in smallholder communities of
Zimbabwe since 2002 have culminated in the stagnation of rural livelihoods that depend on
agriculture and CNRPs for food and income (Nangombe, 2015). A drought is deficiency in
precipitation over an extended period resulting in water shortages that causes adverse impacts
on vegetation, animal and people (FAO, 2004b). Drought was categorised into four types by
Wilhite and Glantz (1985):
a) Meteorological drought occurs when there is a reduction in rainfall supply of e.g. 75
% of the total amount of normal precipitation received over an extended period.
b) Agricultural drought occurs when there is reduction in water availability below the
optimum level required by a crop during each different growth stage and results in
impaired growth and reduced yields.
11
c) Hydrological drought is associated with effects precipitation shortfalls on both
surface and sub-surface water supplies.
d) Socio-economic drought relates to impacts of drought on human activities taking into
perspective of supply and demand of some economic goods with elements of
meteorological, hydrological, and agricultural drought. Supply of goods such as water,
forage, food grains, fish, and hydro-electrical power depends on weather.
All four categories of drought have occurred in Zimbabwe, each having a different severity
(see Table 2.1; DEWFORA, 2011; Nangombe, 2015). The hydrological drought of 1991/92
was ranked the most driest to be recorded in the history of Zimbabwe (FAO, 2004b) and the
drought resulted in the decline in maize production of about 75% and death of approximately
1 million head of cattle (Nangombe, 2015). Previous studies have identified impacts of
droughts on natural resources (FAO, 2004b; Boko et al., 2007), however not much has been
done to determine how roles of men and women are affected during a drought year.
Table 2. 1 Droughts years in Zimbabwe from 1960 to 2010 (Source DEWFORA, 2011;
Nangombe, 2015)
Magnitude/
Drought
Meteorological
Extreme
Severe
Mild
1967/68; 1972/73;
1981/82;1982/83;
1986/87; 1991/92;
1994/95
1972/73; 1981/82;
1991/1992
1963/64; 1964/65;
1983/84; 1990/91;
2001/02
1969/70; 1993/95;
1997/98; 2004/05
Agricultural
1972/73; 1981/82;
1986/87; 1991/92;
2007/08
1964/65; 1967/68;
1990/91; 1993/94;
1994/95; 2001/02;
2006/07
2009/10
Socio-economic
2007/08
Hydrological
12
2.2.3 Climate change studies in Hwedza
Research has been done to understand the vulnerability of smallholder households to impacts
of climate change and variability in Zimbabwe and Hwedza in particular. Mtambanengwe et
al. (2012) analysed the perceptions of smallholder farmers to climate change and variability
and found out that increased rainfall variability and increased temperatures are the major
indicators of climate change in Hwedza smallholder communities. The perceptions of farmers
were supported by the meteorological data that the temperatures have increased, and the mean
annual total rainfall has not changed but within season rainfall variability has increased
(Rurinda et al., 2013). The impacts of a chnaing climate has dramatic effetcs on crop
production increasing the food insecurity of smallholder households. Maize production is
projected to decline by about 50% by the year 2100. This implies that smallholder farmers
will rely on other sub-systems for their livelihood. Mapfumo et al. (2015) investigated the
how indigenous knowledge may enable farmers to construct appropriate responses and
strategies to adverse impacts of climate change and variability and make key agricultural
decisions. Their findings concluded that communities used a range of biological indicators
such as profuse fruiting of Muhacha tree to denote a poor season, and farmer’s coping
mechanisms were built on indigenous knowledge and driven by experiential learning.
Woittiez et al., 2013 reported that during drought years smallholder households rely on
common natural resource pools. Although this study provided insights on the importance of
NTFPs to enhance household food against periods of climatic stress, the extent to which
common resource pools can provide sufficient quantities of natural resources largely remains
unknown.
13
2.3 Climate change adaptation in Hwedza district
Adaptation refers to the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or
expected climate stimuli (IPCC, 2007b). The vulnerability of Africa has been due to multiple
stresses and low adaptive capacity. In a bid to increase adaptive capacity of smallholder
households, the Soil Fertility Consortium for Southern Africa (SOFECSA) introduced the
concept of Learning Centre. A ‘Learning Centre’ is a field-based, interactive platform
integrating local, conventional and emerging knowledge on superior agricultural innovations
requiring promotion or farm level adaptive testing with the participation of all (Mapfumo et
al., 2013). Farmers are encouraged to plant different maize varieties at different planting
windows (early, normal, and late) on each Learning Centre with the joint participation of
other farmers, agricultural extension workers, researchers, and relevant agro-service
providers.
Rurinda et al. (2013) demonstrated that different maize cultivars planted at early and normal
planting windows were similar but yields declined by > 50% when maize was sown in the late
planting window despite the amount of fertilizer applied. The results suggest that soil fertility
management is effective for improving maize yields during periods of poor rainfall thereby
reducing adverse impacts of dry spells on food security. Therefore, timely planting and
appropriate fertilisation strategies reduce the risks of crop failure and farmers ought to
maximise yields during favourable season with good rainfall so that they can store or sell
maize to buffer against drought years (Rurinda, 2014). Other ways of increasing adaptive
capacity include crop diversification by growing small grains, cultivation of drought tolerant
and early maturing crop varieties and selective keeping of livestock in areas experiencing
declining rainfall (Mtambanengwe et al., 2012). Although small grain such as finger millet
experience less post-harvest losses than maize, without farmers accessing mineral fertilizers at
14
affordable prices, use of small grains as climate change adaptation of options is likely not to
succeed (Rurinda et al., 2014a). Woodland products are alternative sources of food and
income especially for poorer households (Woittiez, 2010). Detailed land-use planning at local
level will be also important in adapting to climate change and variability, especially in the use
and management of CNRPs that support livelihoods of smallholder communities.
2.4 Conclusion
CNRPs provide communities with important and diverse natural resources for household food
security. Natural resources often buffer communities during periods of climatic stressors such
as droughts. Given the importance of CNRPs for increasing the adaptive capacity of
smallholder households against a changing climate, it is very important to understand the
changing use patterns of natural resources to be able to design appropriate mechanisms for
managing them.
15
CHAPTER THREE
General Materials and Methods
3.1 Study area
The study was conducted in two contrasting wards in Hwedza district (18º41´S; 31º42´E),
namely Dendenyore and Ushe. Hwedza district is about 150 km southeast of Harare,
Zimbabwe (Fig. 3.1). Each ward is approximately 25 km2 in area, and Dendenyore has 34
villages while Ushe is comprised of 29 villages.
Figure 3. 1 Location and natural regions of Dendenyore and Ushe wards in Hwedza district in
Zimbabwe
Dendenyore in NR IIb and III and Ushe lies within Natural Region (NR) III. Natural region
III receives 650-800 mm of rainfall per annum and NR IIb receives between 750-1000 mm of
rainfall per annum (Vincent and Thomas, 1960). Both Dendenyore and Ushe are semi16
intensive farming regions characterised by unimodal rainfall lasting from November to April.
The average temperature ranges from 22°C to 25°C. The study area characterises over two
thirds of Zimbabwe’s smallholder communities, where drought is a major risk to both crop,
and livestock production (Woittiez et al., 2013; Rurinda, 2014). Hwedza is drought prone
(Rurinda et al., 2013; Rurinda, 2014), and existing rainfall data show marked variability
-1
Mean maize yield (kg ha )
Mean rainfall per annum (mm)
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
10
20
05
20
00
20
95
0
19
Mean maize yields (kg ha-1) and rainfall mm year-1
between the years 1993 to 2010, with an average of 800 mm year-1 (Fig. 3.2).
Year in Hwedza and mean maize yields in
Figure 3. 2 Mean annual distribution of rainfall
communal areas in Zimbabwe from 1993 to 2011 (Zimstat, unpublished data).
The lowest amount of rainfall was received in the year 2008, amounting to 319 mm year-1,
and the highest of 1113 mm year-1 was received in 2001. In the last two decades, Hwedza has
received rainfall below 650 mm year-1 in the years of 1995, 2002, 2005, 2008, and 2011.
Farmers have consistently harvested less than 1000 kg ha-1 of maize during these last two
decades (Fig. 3.2). The lowest yields were attained in 1995 and 2002 with figures averaging
239 kg ha-1 household
-1
and 251 kg ha-1 household
-1
respectively. The farming system of
both communities is dominated by maize (Zea mays L.) based rain-fed subsistence farming
17
and grain legumes such as cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L]. Walp), the Bambara nut (Vigna
subterranea L.) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). The soils are generally granite derived
sands with poor water holding capacity, exacerbating the challenge of soil moisture deficits
and poor soil fertility (Nyamapfene, 1991). The dominant vegetation type is dry miombo
woodland spread in open lands, mountains and hill slopes, with Mupfuti (Brachystegia
boehmii), Munhondo (Julbernardia globiflora) and Musasa (Brachystegia spiciformis) being
the major tree species. These woodlands have some scattered indigenous fruit trees, such as
Muzhanje (Uapaca kirkiana), Mutohwe (Azanza garkeana), Mushambahuro (Lannea
discolour), Muhacha (Parinari curatellifolia) and Mutsubvu (Vitex payos).
3.2 A brief background to the study and overall research approach
This study builds on the Soil Fertility Consortium for Southern Africa (SOFECSA)’s research
for development initiatives on climate change adaptation in smallholder farming communities
in SSA and in particular, Hwedza district in Zimbabwe (Mapfumo et al., 2008; Mapfumo et
al., 2013). At community level, the SOFECSA research initiatives were characterized by
local-level innovation platforms (IPs) coordinated jointly by farmers, agricultural extension
workers, and community leaders using the Learning Centre as a rallying point. A Learning
Centre is a field-based knowledge-sharing platform to capacitate smallholder farmers to
increase crop and livestock productivity and sustainably manage natural resources in the face
of climate variability and change (Mapfumo, 2009; Gwandu et al., 2014). An in-depth
understanding of changing use patterns of common natural resource pools (CNRPs), as they
relate to climate change and variability, was done through farmer participatory techniques,
and formal surveys (see Fig. 3.3 and Plate 3.1).
18
Figure 3. 3 Schematic representation of the overall approach used in this study.
19
Plate 3. 1 Research approaches used in the study to identify and quantify the natural resources
drawn by different categories of households from natural resource pools
The changing patterns in the identified CNRPs were measured through spatial analysis of
classified satellite images. Access and use patterns of natural resources were established by
monitoring equal proportions of households utilising a prioritised CNRPs in Dendenyore and
Ushe communities, with different resource endowments. An understanding of the changes in
roles between men and women in relation to changing patterns of CNRPs as influenced by
20
climate change and variability was also sought through focus group discussions and formal
surveys. Community visioning was used to identify options for managing natural resources in
the face of increasing climatic risks and alternatives based on current and possible future
climate conditions. Community visioning is an interactive process for establishing dialogue
and engaging with farmers to identify opportunities and facilitate community action planning
to develop their visions of desired future (Sanginga and Chitsike, 2005).
3.3 Characterisation of common natural resource pools
Social resource mapping was used to identify the CNRPs that contribute significantly to the
livelihoods of smallholder communities in Dendenyore and Ushe communities. Social
resource mapping is a visual method for locating human settlements, natural resources, and
social infrastructure available in an area (Langill and Landon, 1998). This data collection
technique allows farmers to depict the occurrence, distribution, and access to and use of
natural and social resources by different households in a community (World Bank, 2005).
Once mapping is completed, more in-depth participatory mapping of resources can be done
with assistance of a geographic positioning system (GPS). Several studies have adapted social
resource mapping to: (i) map resource flow, soils, and farm typologies and in rural areas in
southern and eastern Africa (Zingore et al., 2006; Tittonell, 2007; Ebanyat, 2010), and (ii)
mapping of natural resource collection points (Woittiez et al., 2013). However, social
resource mapping is easier when the communities are small and becomes complex when they
are many households (World Bank, 2005). In this study, social resource mapping was adopted
to get an overview of the community structure and available natural resources. Data from
resource mapping can be integrated with GIS through the assistance of hand held GPS.
21
Through focus group discussions (FGD), participants ranked and prioritised the CNRPs in
terms of contribution to household income, food and livestock feed. Focus groups are
renowned as an investigative tool for social and market research (Masadeh, 2012) and are a
series of carefully planned discussions with individuals, between 5- 12 people having a
common characteristics or interest in order to obtain perceptions on a defined area through a
moderator in a permissive and non-threatening environment (Krueger and Casey, 2000). The
permissive group environment allows individuals to divulge emotions that often do not
emerge in other data collection methods such as questionnaires’ and focus groups can be used
in conjunction with other methods as means of gaining triangulation (Ogunbameru, 2003; Gill
et al., 2008). Focus group have been used in several studies as primary data collection
methods by establishing general perceptions regarding to climate change and variability in
SSA (Mubaya et al., 2012; Mtambanengwe et al., 2012). Owing to the small sample number,
focus groups cannot be used as the sole research methods (Casell and Symon, 2004). In this
study, focus groups were used as collecting exploratory data that informed the designing of a
detail study on CNRPs contributing to livelihood of people in Hwedza district.
Transect walks were then used to: (i) identify the prioritised CNRPs providing fruits,
firewood and domestic water, (ii) identify households and communities extracting natural
resources from each of the prioritised CNRPs. Transect walks have a diverse range of uses
that include determining the cause and effect relationships among topography, soils, natural
vegetation, cultivation, and other production activities and human settlement patterns (Langill
and Landon, 1998). Transect walks have been employed studies done in rural communities of
east Africa and Bangladesh to map transitions between soil types according farmer’s
knowledge (Oudwater and Martin, 2003; Ebanyat, 2010). They have also been used in natural
resource studies to map the extent of NFTP extraction in the amazon basin (Peres and Lake,
2003) and in valuation of natural resources in southern parts of Zimbabwe (Campbell et al.,
22
1997). However, transect walks are only able to depict the current observable situation and
features in a particular location (World Bank, 2005). In order to overcome this setback,
transect walks were used to geo-reference the CNRPs and associated natural resource
collection points in order to combine with GIS and remote sensing to able to capture the past
and present changing spatial patterns in CNRPs. A hand held Geographic Positioning Systems
(GPS) was used to geo-reference the centre of each of the prioritized CNRPs and particular
areas where most of the natural resources were extracted.
3.4 Changes in availability of common natural resource pools
Landsat multi-spectral scanner (MSS) images of May 1972 and thematic mapper (TM)
images of May 1989 and 2011 were used to determine trends in size of the CNRPs. The
images for May were considered in this study because they coincide with the period when the
wetlands can clearly be demarcated. Geographic Information System (GIS) and remote
sensing are powerful tools in natural resource management that can be used to analyse longterm land cover changes. Analysis of long term land cover changes is crucial in providing
information for managing natural resources (Matsa and Muringanizi, 2011). However, they
need to be supported by indigenous knowledge obtained from farmer participatory research
approaches (Yeshaneh et al., 2013). Hence in this study GIS and remote sensing was
combined with farmer participatory approaches to full assess the changing patterns in CNRPs
in space and time.
The Landsat MSS images were downloaded from the Global Land Cover Facility
(http://glcfapp.glcf.umd.edu:8080/esdi/index.jsp), and the Landsat TM images from the
United States Geological Survey (USGS) EarthExplorer (http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/) and
USGS Global Visualisation Viewer (http://glovis.usgs.gov/). Training samples for supervised
23
classification of the images were obtained during field surveys with the help of a GPS.
Supervised classification involved assigning a land thematic cover class to each pixel (Jyothi
et al., 2013). The thematic classes included wetland, woodland, bare area, grassland, shrubs
and bushes, water and cultivated land. Wetlands and grasslands have similar spectral values,
and were therefore distinguished by calculating the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index
(NDVI) values for each year. NDVI maps were overlaid on the sample set to obtain the
wetland class in ILWIS. A confusion matrix was used to assess the accuracy of image
classification. The test of likelihood of agreement between the landcover maps was calculated
using the Kappa statistic (Cohen, 1968).
3.5 Use patterns of natural resources
An equal proportion of households with different resource endowments were selected in order
to monitor how the communities prioritised use of natural resources from the CNRPs in
Dendenyore and Ushe using diaries (Plate 3.1). A diary is a type of self-administered
questionnaire often used to record frequent or contemporaneous events or experiences
(Krishnamurty, 2008). The main types of diary designs include: (i) the event-based were
respondents’ record when an event occurs; (ii) the time-based were respondents answer a
series of questions at the same time each day or week or month, and (iii) expenditure diaries
where respondents record expenses incurred over a time period (Krishnamurty, 2008; Iida et
al., 2012). Diaries are effective at recording events that are difficult to recall accurately or
those that can be easily forgotten compare to household questionnaires (Iida et al., 2012).
They also provide accurate and rich sources of information on respondents’ behaviour and
expenses on a daily basis (Krishnamurty, 2008). Rurinda et al. (2014) used diaries to monitor
farming activities of smallholder communities in eastern Zimbabwe for two agricultural
24
seasons. They have also been used to capture personal reflection on the most important forest
values in Nova Scotia, Canada by rural and urban people (Owen et al., 2009).
3.6 Changes in gender roles in relation to changing patterns in availability of common
natural resource pools
Patterns of natural resource extraction between men and women during both a favourable
season (good year) and drought season (bad year) were determined through focus group
discussions, diaries and household questionnaire surveys. Special attention was given to
changing patterns in availability of NTFPs extracted from CNRPs. The data obtained from the
questionnaire surveys were cleaned and entered into the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) version 16 (SPSS., 2007). Data were disaggregated into two clusters
according to gender and then frequencies, cross tabulations, and means were calculated.
3.7 Analysis of projected changes and management of common natural resource pools
for climate change adaptation
Projected spatial and temporal changes in CNRPs based on plausible future climate change
scenarios were established during focus group discussions. The plausible climate change can
be defined as an alternative image of how future climate can unfold (IPPC, 2014). The
discussions were centred around three potential scenarios of what would happen to prioritised
CNRPs if households (i) continue extracting natural resources at the current rate?, (ii) increase
the rate of extraction of natural resources?, and (iii) rely more on alternative resources? These
were then analysed against the plausible future climatic conditions to identify with projected
changes. The plausible future climate for the study area was obtained from the Representative
Concentration Pathways (RCP) based climate projections used by the IPCC (2013) in the fifth
assessment report. The RCPs are four possible climate future scenarios that are considered
25
possible depending on how much greenhouse gas (GHG) are emitted in years to come (IPCC,
2013). The GHGs trajectories assume differences in factors such as future economic activity,
energy sources, population growth, land cover changes and historical climate, and mitigation
measures of reducing GHGs emissions by the year 2100 (Wayne, 2013). The four RCPs have
radiative forcing of 2.6, 4.5, 5, and 8.5 Watts per metre squared (W m-2). The RCP 8.5 is
based on minimal effort to reduce emissions will have atmospheric concentration of CO2 of
936 ppm by the year 2100 and has a radiative forcing of 8.5 W m-2 (Riahi et al., 2007). The
RCP 4.5 is based on intermediate scenario characterised by continuously increasing human
population (less than in the RCP 8.5) and will have an atmospheric concentration of 650 ppm
of CO2 by the year 2100 and a radiative forcing of 4.5 W m-2 (Moss et al., 2010). Alternative
resource and natural resource management options were identified based on the plausible
changes in climatic variables and in projected spatial changes prioritised CNRPs through
community visioning. Community visioning is useful as a vehicle for identifying
opportunities, facilitating community action plans, learning about change and facilitating
communities to develop their visions of a desired future condition (Sanginga and Chitsike,
2005). Therefore assisting communities to realise the potential for change by understanding
forces that can facilitate or constrain change through defining strategies for dealing with
potential challenges.
26
CHAPTER FOUR
Use patterns of natural resources supporting livelihoods of smallholder communities
and implications on climate change adaptation in Zimbabwe♣
4.1 Introduction
Rural households in Zimbabwe, as in other parts of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), have
traditionally consumed natural resources such as indigenous fruits to enrich their starch-based
diets with vitamins and minerals (Shackleton et al., 2004; Frost et al., 2007). The extraction of
non-timber forest products (NTFP) such as Mazhanje fruits (Uapaca kirkiana), and Mopani
worms (Imbrasia belina) has also been primarily driven by the need to generate cash to pay
for basic household needs that include hiring farm labour, paying school fees and grinding
maize meal (Musvoto et al., 2006; Jumbe et al., 2008). Recent studies have, however,
demonstrated that the extraction of natural resources is no longer mainly to meet income
needs, but also to supplement household food stocks, particularly when crop production fails
mainly due to climatic stressors such as droughts (Maroyi, 2011; Woittiez et al., 2013).
Consequently, rural households have adopted new and different strategies of using natural
resources to supplement their household food (Brown et al., 2012). During a severe drought
of 2008 in Zimbabwe, rural households responded by baking bread and preparing porridge
from Hacha fruits (Parinari curatellifolia) to supplement household food (Woittiez et al.,
2013). Similarly, in South Africa, Shackleton and Shackleton (2004) reported increased
♣
This chapter has been published in a modified format as:
Chagumaira, C., Rurinda, J., Nezomba, H., Mtambanengwe, F., & Mapfumo, P. (2015). Use
patterns of natural resources supporting livelihoods of smallholder communities and
implications on climate change adaptation in Zimbabwe. Environment, Development and
Sustainability. DOI: 10.1007/s10668-015-9637-y
27
consumption of some indigenous fruits that have not been traditionally consumed by rural
households as a buffer from starvation during drought years.
The increasing reliance of smallholder households on common natural resource pools
(CNRPs) has largely been attributed to declining crop and livestock production, and land use
change (Matarira et al., 2004; Vermeulen et al., 2012). Often, wealthier rural households are
generally food secure, but in times of crop failure, they compete with their poorer
counterparts for natural resources such as indigenous fruits (Rurinda et al., 2014b). Resourceendowed rural households in Zimbabwe have increased their energy intake from indigenous
fruits by 20% during a drought period (Woittiez et al., 2013). Diminishing crop production
has mainly been attributed to land degradation, suboptimal use of mineral fertilizers and weak
markets (Nyikahadzoi et al., 2012; Nezomba et al., 2015). On top of these biophysical and
socio-economic challenges, climate change and increased climate variability have become
major constraints to both crop and livestock production (IPCC, 2013). Maize, the main staple
food in southern Africa, has been projected to decline by between 10% and 40% by 2100
(Lobell and Burke, 2008; Rurinda, 2014) due to a combination of rising temperatures and
changes in rainfall patterns. Given that the frequency of crop failure has worsened due to
increased occurrence of droughts in southern Africa (Shongwe et al., 2009; Rurinda et al.,
2013); more smallholder households will likely resort to CNRPs for food and other services.
The negative impacts of a changing climate not only affect agricultural productivity, but may
also have considerable impacts on the ecosystem provisioning services provided by CNRPs
such as woodlands and wetlands (Fischlin et al., 2007). Hély et al. (2006) predicted reduced
productivity of woodlands and a shift of closed canopy savannah woodlands into open
savannah woodlands due to reduced rainfall in East Africa. Changing of CNRPs such as
wetlands into grasslands has also been predicted for southern Africa due to increased
28
temperatures (Desanker and Magadza, 2001). Given the increasing dependence of many rural
communities on CNRPs for their livelihoods, understanding how households of different
socio-economic circumstances access and use natural resources is important to inform
ecosystem management and possible livelihood options (Vermeulen et al., 2012). The study
was conducted in two contrasting communities, Dendenyore and Ushe in Hwedza district of
Zimbabwe. The objectives of the study were to (i) quantify the contribution of CNRPs to food
and income of smallholder households, (ii) assess the changing use patterns of CNRPs in
space and time, and (iii) assess the implications of the changing use patterns of CNRPs for
climate change adaptation.
4.2 Materials and Methods
4.2.1 Participatory identification and ranking of common natural resource pools
This study was conducted in Dendenyore and Ushe wards in Hwedza district in eastern
Zimbabwe. In each ward, a community meeting organised through local leaders and local
agricultural extension workers, as part of the local-level IP, were conducted to identify
CNRPs supporting livelihoods and obtain an overview of communities’ experiences on use
patterns of the CNRPs. In Dendenyore, the meeting was held on 18 July 2011 and in Ushe on
19 July 2011. During this preliminary meeting, participants were asked to construct a map
indicating the relative locations of villages, community boundaries, schools, dip tanks, and
CNRPs using social resource mapping techniques. The participants comprised men and
women from different villages (Table 4.1), agricultural extension workers (AEW), and local
leadership including village heads, headmen, and councillors. With the assistance of an
extension worker, participants were grouped into two separate groups of men and women for
the social resource mapping exercise. Men and women were separated into different groups as
29
the extraction and use patterns of natural resources is known to be influenced by gender
(Musvoto et al., 2006). Each group was provided with an A0-sized sheet of paper and marker
pens of different colours to denote the different natural resource pools and the particular
village(s), which accessed the identified CNRPs.
Table 4. 1 Composition of community meeting participants in Dendenyore and Ushe wards,
Hwedza district, Zimbabwe.
Ward
Dendenyore
10
Number of participants
Women AEW Village Councillor Headman
head
20
4
12
1
1
Ushe
10
27
Men
3
15
1
1
Total
Villages
Present Total
50
34
21
57
29
29
To identify goods and services obtained from the identified CNRPs, as an in-depth inquiry of
the use patterns of natural resources, two focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted in
each community. With the assistance of the local IP, a maximum of 24 participants (8-12 men
and 8-12 women) of varying age groups (between 25 and over 60 years) and varying resource
endowment were selected for the FGDs. During the meetings, participants were again
separated into men and women groups. Overall, the FGDs were guided by the following
questions: (i) what is the availability of natural resources over time? (ii) What challenges do
communities face when accessing CNRPs in the area? (iii) Are the challenges different for
varied households of the same community?
After the FGDs, plenary sessions were conducted to rank the identified CNRPs. The
participants defined a criterion to be used to evaluate the importance of each of the identified
CNRPs. The criterion was based on the contribution of a CNRP to household food and
income, and livestock feed. Each CNRP was given a score one to five (one being the most
important and five the least important) based on a head count of participants who had selected
it. It was agreed that each participant would only select one CNRP that the individual
30
prioritised the most. In each community, after the mapping and ranking exercises, transect
walks were subsequently conducted for detailed mapping and locating of the CNRPs. The
participants consisted of men and women aged between 25 and 60, the elderly of over 60
years and livestock herders. These participants were selected based on their knowledge about
the terrain, especially routes travelled by people to extract resources and history of the
prioritised CNRPs. Transect routes were mapped to cover all prioritised CNRP that provided
natural resources such as firewood and domestic water. The transect walks were used to map
households and communities using a particular CNRP.
A hand-held Global Positioning System (GPS) was then used to geo-reference the centre of
each prioritised CNRPs and areas where most of the natural resources were extracted. Using
the coordinates, and attribute data collected from the transect walks, the preliminary natural
resource map developed in each community was overlaid with Google Earth Images of 13
May 2009 in ILWIS GIS. Themes of rivers, villages, roads, and business centres were added
to the modified Google earth images to develop a consolidated natural resource map for each
community in the GIS environment.
4.2.2 Use patterns of natural resources
To quantify the contribution of the CNRPs to food and income at household level, households
in each study area were selected and monitored using diaries between 2011 and 2012.
Households were selected based on the characterisation of farming households by
Mtambanengwe and Mapfumo (2005) that classifies smallholder households into three
resource groups: resource-endowed (RG1), resource-intermediate (RG2), and resourceconstrained (RG3). The characterisation was based on farm-level resources such as farm size,
capacity to secure crop production inputs, livestock ownership, and adequate accommodation
among other factors. With the assistance of the local extension, 9 households that represented
31
RG1 (comprising households owning >7 head of cattle; own farm implements; and the main
house is brick under galvanized iron sheets or asbestos), 9 households representing RG2 (seek
to enhance their production through communal social arrangements e.g. may have a plough
but not enough draught animals; cattle ownership ≥ 4), and 9 households representing RG3
(no draught power; limited remittances; and sell labor to the wealthier farmers) were
purposefully selected from different villages in each area. Preliminary qualitative evaluation
with extension workers confirmed that the criteria represented the breadth of households in
each resource group and altogether represent the community as whole, and was therefore 'true
to type'. This selection of households can help to acquire more relevant information, even
with small sample sizes, as also supported by Zingore et al. (2009). The households were
selected to cover the breath of each group based on attributes that define the group.
SOFECSA had been using the same typologies in its research for development initiatives in
Hwedza and other areas and as such, the local extension workers in the target communities
had gained knowledge and experience of the attributes used to categorize the different
households. An additional criterion was that the selected households should have been
practicing farming for > 40 years to be able to give informed perceptions about the
implications of a changing climate on their livelihoods. These households were supplied with
diaries, where they would record the following: (i) the natural resources extracted from each
of the prioritised CNRPs, (ii) the quantity extracted and use per month from November 2011
to October 2012 and (iii) the dynamics of each prioritised natural resource in space and time,
particularly in terms of availability. Based on the household data derived through diaries, the
average household size in the two communities was five. Most responses in the diaries were
given in local units, such as ‘one full wheelbarrow’, ‘two cups’ or ‘bundle of firewood’,
which were then converted to SI units using conversion factors and direct field measurements.
The weight of materials such as bundles of firewood, water reeds (Phragmites mauritianus)
32
and sweeping brooms (Miscanthidium sorghum) were measured in kilograms using a hanging
scale. One-way analysis of variance with two-tailed 95% confidence intervals were used to
test whether consumption of natural resources differed across resources groups in GenStat
version 14 (VSN International, 2011). At each household, the household head was assigned
the responsibility to fill-in the diary although during monitoring of diaries other members of
the household would also contribute. In each community, agricultural extension workers
assisted the households to record the use patterns of the natural resources in the diaries. On a
monthly interval, the researcher would also visit the households to monitor the recording
process. No incentives were provided to households to fill-in the diaries as they participated
willingly due to the trust built with SOFECSA through establishment of local IPs and
promotion of information and knowledge sharing platforms in the study areas.
4.2.3 Changes in availability of common natural resource pools
During the FGDs, the participants indicated that reeds Tsanga (Phragmites mauritianus) used
for making crafts and traditional vegetables such as Chirevereve (Senecio erubescens) and
Chijonga (Truimfetta rhomboidea) were dwindling in prioritised wetlands. This formed the
basis of determining the species diversity and richness of the wetlands. Current land use
patterns in wetlands identified during transect walks were then used to cluster wetlands into
different homogenous units (grazing areas – where most livestock grazes; gardens – where
farmers grow horticultural crops and maize and abandoned fields – mostly low-lying fields
where farmers used to cultivate rice and Coleus esculentus). Participatory identification and
counting of plant species within a 1m2 quadrat at different catena positions (upland, upper
margin, lower margin and the heart of the wetland) were done along a transect. The 1m 2
quadrats were used because they have a greater precision than the other quadrats used for
sampling plants in community ecology (Dennison and Barry, 1993). Plant identification guide
33
books by Makanganise and Mabasa (2000), Mangosho and Mupambwa (2011) and Zimbabwe
Flora website (www.zimbabweflora.co.zw), were used to assist in plant identification. For the
plants that could not be identified, samples were collected for further analysis at the National
Herbarium and Botanical Gardens in Harare. Species diversity and richness were calculated
using the Shannon-Weaver diversity index as follows:
S
H'= ∑ -(Pi *ln Pi )
i=1
Where:
H’ = the Shannon diversity index
Pi = fraction of the entire population made up of species i
S = numbers of species encountered
∑ = sum from species 1 to species S (Weaver and Shannon, 1963)
Spatial changes in the CNRPs where then determined through land cover change analysis in a
GIS system. Land cover change analysis was done for the years 1972, 1989 and 2011 in
Integrated land and water information system (ILWIS) GIS software (see section 3.4, Chapter
3 for detailed description).
4.3 Results
4.3.1 Prioritised common natural resource pools
Wetlands, woodlands, rivers, springs, and rangelands were identified as the CNRPs
supporting livelihoods in Dendenyore and Ushe communities (Fig. 4.1). When ranked,
wetlands and woodlands were prioritised as the major CNRPs supporting livelihoods in the
two communities. Wetlands were valued for providing food (vegetables, fruits, fish and
water), fibre for making crafts (Miscanthidium sorghum and Phragmites mauritianus), and
rich livestock pastures, particularly in dry seasons (Table 4.2).
34
Figure 4. 1 Natural resource map showing spatial distribution of common natural resource pools and villages in Dendenyore and Ushe
communities, Hwedza district.
35
Table 4. 2 Main natural resources extracted from wetlands and woodlands supporting livelihoods of smallholder communities in Dendenyore and
Ushe communities in the Hwedza District in Zimbabwe.
CNRP
Wetland
Woodland
Local Name
Tsanga
Mutsvairo
Magwavha
Hute pasi
Chirevereve
Chijonga
Nama
Samwenda
Magwaya
Masindi
Key natural resources extracted
Scientific Name
Other common names*
Phragmites mauritianus Kunth
Reed grass (E)
Miscanthidium sorghum (Nees) Stapf
Broom grass (E)
Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae
Common guava (E)
Syzygium cordatum Hochst. Ex Krauss
Water berry (E); Mukute pasi (S)
Senecio erubescens Aiton
Chiribwiribwi (S); Ragwort (E)
Truimfetta rhomboidea Jacq.
Burrweed (E); Idelele (N);
Triumfetta annua L.
Derere renama (S)
Sesamum angustifolium (Oliv.) Engl.
Derere resamwenda (S);
Sargochromis codringtonii Boulenger
Green happy (E); Green bream (E)
Schilbe intermedius Rüppell
Silver catfish (E)
Mazhanje
Uapaca kirkiana Müll. Arg.
Hacha
Parinari curatellifolia Planch. Ex Benth.
Matamba
Strychnos spinosa Lam
Tsubvu
Vitex payos (Lour.) Merr.
Tsuro
Lepus capensis L.
Mbira
Cavia porcellus L.
Chifumuro
Dicoma anomala Sond.
Gavakawa
Aloe aculeata Pole Evans
Nyeve
Cleome gynandra L.
Nhedzi
Amanita zambiana L.B. Smith & Ayensu
*Abbreviation: (S= Shona; N = Ndebele; E= English).
**Rank 1 most important; 10 least important.
Mahobohobo (E); Mushuku (S)
Muchakata (S); Mobola plum (E)
Bitter monkey orange (E)
Chocolate berry (E); Muhubvu (S)
Umvundla (N); Cape hare (E)
Guinea pig (E)
Fever bush (E); Stomach bush (E)
Mother-in-law’s tongue (E)
Runi (S); Spider-wisp (E)
Mushroom (E)
Rank**
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Type
Fibre
Fibre
Fruit
Fruit
Vegetable
Vegetable
Vegetable
Vegetable
Fish
Fish
Use
Crafts
Crafts
Food
Food
Food
Food
Food
Food
Food
Food
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Animal
Animal
Herb
Herb
Vegetable
Mushroom
Food
Food
Food
Food
Food
Food
Medicine
Medicine
Food
Food
36
Woodlands were valued for providing energy (firewood), food (vegetables and fruits such as
Uapaca kirkiana and Parinari curatellifolia) and medicinal herbs (e.g. Dicoma anomala).In
both areas, eleven natural resources were prioritised as the most important extracted from
wetlands, and nine of these were used as food and the others as raw materials for making
crafts such as sweeping brooms, baskets, and mats. Of the natural resources extracted from
woodlands, nine were ranked as the most important. Only two of the resources were extracted
for medicinal purposes whilst the remainder were taken as food. Amongst the indigenous
fruits identified, the rural people in the study area identified Mazhanje (Uapaca kirkiana) and
Hacha (Parinari curatellifolia) as the most important in contribution of household food and
income.
4.3.2 Availability of natural resources
Of the households provided with diaries, 60% perceived that CNRPs and the associated
natural resources had decreased in quantities available since 1980 (Fig. 4.2). The major
indicator species included Mutsvairo (M. sorghum) and Tsanga (P. mauritianus) used for
making crafts, and traditional vegetables such as Chijonga (Triumfetta rhomboidea) and
Chirevereve (Senecio erubescens). Across sites, 87% of the households also indicated that the
availability of water in wetlands had also declined. Indigenous fruits, Hacha (P.
curatellifolia) and Mazhanje (U. kirkiana), and firewood were regarded as key natural
resources extracted from woodlands, but they have decreased in availability. Across sites,
80% of the respondent households attested to a decrease in availability of U. kirkiana fruits
while only 11% of the households perceived an increase since 1980. An apparent decline in
the availability of P. curatellifolia fruits was, however, slightly less than that observed for U.
kirkiana. Trees extracted for firewood were perceived to have decreased in availability
compared to the 1980 levels and this was concurred by >80% of the households. The trees,
37
which were mainly used for firewood included Brachystegia spiciformis, B. boehmii and
Julbernardia globiflora. Indigenous fruits were particularly important to poorer households.
Indigenous fruits
ite
an
Mi
(Ts
gm
Ph
ra
na
Pa
ri
Ua
fet
im
Tru
Se
n
Vegetables
ew
oo
un d
i)
0
(H
0
Fir
20
nth
id
(M ium
uts
s
va orgh
iro
um
)
20
sca
40
sm
au
riti
ga
an
)
us
40
ri c
ur
(H atelli
ac
ha folia
)
60
pa
c
(M a kir
az
ha kiana
nje
)
60
ta
r
(C hom
hijo
b
ng oide
a
a)
80
ec
io
(C eru
hir
b
ev esc
ere en
ve s
)
Percentage of respondents (%)
80
Increased
Decreased
No change
(b)
Wa
(M ter
vu
r a)
100
100 (a)
Fibre for crafts
Figure 4. 2 Communities’ perceptions on availability of natural resources utilised as (a) food
and (b) making crafts and (c) as energy extracted from wetlands and woodlands in Hwedza
district
Species diversity and richness calculations confirmed the low availability of prioritised
natural resources in the clustered wetlands. The clusters were: (i) grazing areas- where most
livestock grazes, (ii) gardens- where farmers grow horticultural crops and maize, and (iii)
abandoned fields- mostly low-lying fields where farmers used to cultivate rice and Tsenza
(Coleus esculentus). In these clusters, twenty-three (23) plant species were identified (15
grasses; 6 herbs and 2 shrubs) in the wetlands that were clustered into different homogenous
units based on current land use. Lower margin catena positions for the abandoned fields had
more diversity of species (H´=4.09) and evenness compared to other catena positions (Fig.
38
C
So ype
rg ru
hu s e
m sc
C ari ule
Sp yp nd nt
or eru ina us
ob s
c
o l a rt eu
us ic m
u
py la
ra tus
m
M
H
id
is
S
y
a
ca p
i
d
nd err a a lis
ith ah cu
id an ta
C ium ia r
yn
u
od sor fa
Sc on ghu
le da m
C ra v cty
yp
l
Py er erru on
ce us co
Fi
m rus rotu sa
br
is lanc ndu
ty
lis eo s
fe latu
rru s
gi
ne
C
a
So ype
rg ru
hu s e
m sc
u
C a
Sp yp rind lent
e
i
or ru na us
ob s
c
ol art eu
us ic m
py ula
ra tus
m
M
is Hy S ida
ca p
id
lis
e
a
nd rr
ith ah acu
a
id
n ta
C ium ia r
yn
u
s
od or fa
Sc on ghu
le da m
C ra v cty
yp
l
Py er erru on
ce us co
Fi
m rus rotu sa
br
is lanc ndu
ty
lis eo s
fe latu
rr u s
gi
ne
a
Species counted
C
So ype
rg r u
hu s e
m sc
u
C a
Sp yp rind lent
e
i
or ru na us
ob s
c
ol art eu
us ic m
py ula
ra tus
m
M
is Hy S ida
ca p
i
d
e
nd rr a a lis
ith ah cu
id an ta
C ium ia r
yn
u
od sor fa
Sc on ghu
le da m
C ra v cty
yp
l
Py er erru on
c u
c
Fi eru s ro os
a
m
br s la tun
is
d
n
ty ce us
lis
o
fe latu
rr u s
gi
ne
C
a
y
So pe
rg r u
hu s e
m sc
C ari ule
Sp yp nd nt
or eru ina us
ob s
c
ol art eu
us ic m
u
py la
ra tus
m
M
H
id
is
S
y
a
ca p
i
d
nd err a a lis
ith ah cu
id an ta
C ium ia r
yn
u
od sor fa
Sc on ghu
le da m
C ra v cty
yp
l
Py er erru on
ce us co
Fi
m rus rotu sa
br
is lanc ndu
ty
lis eo s
fe latu
rr u s
gi
ne
a
Species counted
4.3). Lower species diversity (H´=3.23) was observed in the heart of the wetland position in
the same homogenous unit.
35
50
(a) Upland
30
H' = 3.99
E = 0.67
S=8
20
15
5
(c) Lower margin
40
H' = 4.09
E = 0.79
S=6
10
250
0
80
0
Species Collected
(b) Upper Margin
H' = 3.70
E = 0.73
S=6
25
200
150
100
10
50
0
(d) Heart of wetland
H' = 3.23
E = 0.65
S=6
60
30
40
20
20
0
Species Collected
Figure 4. 3 Species richness and relative abundances of wetland plant species in the
abandoned fields in wetland, Hwedza district.
Key natural resources such as Mutsvairo (M. sorghum) used for making crafts were present
only in the upper catena of abandoned fields in wetlands and they constituted about 2%. In the
grazing areas, the heart of the wetland had greater species diversity (H´=5.67) and species
were more evenly distributed (E=0.97) (Fig. 4.4).
39
yp
e
C rus
y
e
S Tri nod sc
M por um on ule
is ob fe d nt
ca o tta a u
c s
l
H ndit us co tylo
et h py rd n
er idi ra ifo
op um m li
og s id a
So
a
rg R on org lis
hu ica co hu
S e m r d nt o m
n ar ia rtu
Tr H eci ind sca s
ic y o e ina br
ho p r c a
e u e
Fi sde rra be um
m m h a sc
br a n en
is z ia s
Ph Pyc tyl eyl ru
ra re is f an fa
g u e ic
R Pol mit s la rrug um
hy yg es n in
nc on m ce ea
ho um a ola
sp s uri tu
or al tia s
a ici nu
co fo s
ry liu
m m
C
bo
yp
sa
er
u
C s
y e
S Tri nod sc
M por um on ule
is ob fe d nt
ca o tta a u
c s
l
H ndit us co tylo
et h py rd n
er idi ra ifo
op um m li
og s id a
So
a
rg R on org lis
hu ica co hu
n
Se m r d t o m
n ar ia rtu
Tr H eci ind sca s
ic y o e ina br
ho p r c a
e u e
Fi sde rra be um
m m h a sc
br a n en
is z ia s
Ph Pyc tyl eyl ru
r
ra e is f an fa
g u e ic
R Pol mit s la rrug um
hy yg es n in
nc on m ce ea
ho um a ola
sp s uri tu
or al tia s
a ici nu
co fo s
ry liu
m m
bo
sa
C
Species counted
yp
e
C rus
yn e
T
S ri od sc
M por um on ule
is ob fe d nt
ca o tta a u
c s
l
H ndit us co tylo
et h py rd n
er idi ra ifo
op um m li
og s id a
So
a
rg R on org lis
hu ica co hu
n
Se m rd to m
n ar ia rtu
Tr H eci ind sca s
ic y o e ina br
ho p r c a
e u e
Fi sde rra be um
m m h a sc
br a n en
is z ia s
Ph Pyc tyl eyl ru
r
ra e is f an fa
g u e ic
R Pol mit s la rrug um
hy yg es n in
nc on m ce ea
ho um a ola
sp s uri tu
or al tia s
a ici nu
co fo s
r y liu
m m
C
bo
yp
sa
er
C us
y
e
S Tri nod sc
M por um on ule
is ob fe d nt
ca o tta a u
c s
l
H ndit us co tylo
et h py rd n
er idi ra ifo
op um m li
og s id a
So
a
rg R on org lis
hu ica co hu
Se m rd nto m
n ar ia rtu
Tr H eci ind sca s
ic y o e ina br
ho p r c a
e u e
Fi sde rra be um
m m h a sc
br a n en
is z ia s
Ph Pyc tyl eyl ru
ra re is f an fa
g u e ic
R Pol mit s la rrug um
hy yg es n in
nc on m ce ea
ho um a ola
sp s uri tu
or al tia s
a ici nu
co fo s
ry liu
m m
bo
sa
C
Species counted
14
(a) Upland
12
30
H' = 4.54
E = 0.84
S=6
(c) Lower margin
25
H' = 2.87
E = 0.66
S=4
20
10
Species collected
70
10
50
8
40
6
30
4
20
2
10
0
0
(b) Upper margin
60
7
5
1
0
0
H' = 2.89
E = 0.59
S=6
(d) Heart of wetland
6
H' = 5.67
E = 0.97
S=6
5
15
4
3
2
Species collected
Figure 4. 4 Species richness and relative abundances of wetland plant species in the grazing
areas in wetlands, Hwedza district.
The least species diversity was observed in the upper and lower margins (H´=2.89) of the
wetland were grazing is usually intensified. Key natural resources utilised as food
Chirevereve (S. erubescens) and Chijonga (T. rhomboidea) were found in the zones of
intensified grazing where they constituted about 3% and 10% of the plant biomass. Mutsvairo
(M. sorghum) were present only in the upper margin of the grazing areas, and constituted only
40
10%. Other key natural resource for making crafts Tsanga (P. mauritianus) were found in the
centre of the wetland constituted about 12%. Most key natural resources were identified in the
grazing areas, however these area were largely dominated by Tsinde (Sporobolus pyramidalis
P. Beauv.), which constitute about 26%, 23%, 63% and 20% in the upland, upper margin,
lower margin and heart of wetland, respectively.
4.3.3 Use patterns of natural resources in wetlands
Traditional vegetables were of great importance to RG3 households as they provided a ready
source of relish. RG3 extracted about 1.2 kg of S. erubescens capita-1 year-1 compared with
0.3 kg extracted by RG1 households (Fig. 4.5). Natural resources used for making crafts, such
as M. sorghum and P. mauritianus, were particularly important for the RG3 households.
Vegetables extraction per capita
(kg fresh weight)
5
Resource-endowed (RG1)
Intermediate (RG2)
Resource-constrained (RG3)
4
3
2
1
ne
c
(C io e
hi ru
re b
ve es
r e ce
ve ns
)
Se
m
(S um
am an
w gis
en ti
da fol
) iu
sa
Se
Tr
ui
m
fe
tt
(C a r
hi ho
jo m
ng bo
a ) id
ea
m
0
Figure 4. 5 Consumption of indigenous vegetables per capita extracted from wetlands in
Dendenyore and Ushe, Hwedza district by households of different resource endowments from
2011 to 2012 (Bars represent SED).
41
While RG1 and RG2 households extracted M. sorghum and P. mauritianus for household use,
RG3 households extracted them both for sale and household use. RG3 sold about 8.2 kg of P.
mauritianus capita-1 year-1 as mats and baskets between November 2011 and October 2012
and obtained US$ 13.60 per capita-1 year-1 (Table 4.3). The same group of households also
sold approximately 1.6 kg M. sorghum capita-1 year-1 traded as sweeping brooms to
neighbouring villages and realised an average of US$ 0.80 per capita-1 year-1. Consequently,
the RG3 households extracted greater quantities of the same natural resources compared to the
other resource groups. RG3 extracted greater quantities of M. sorghum and P. mauritianus 3.6
and 33 kg capita-1 year-1 compared to RG1 and RG2 who extracted less.
4.3.4 Use patterns of natural resources in woodlands
Indigenous fruits were particularly important to poorer households. For example, RG3
extracted greater quantities of Mazhanje fruits estimated to be approximately 35 kg per capita
between November and December 2011 (Table 4.3). During the same period, the RG3
households sold about 28 kg capita-1 of U. kirkiana fruits compared with 22 kg capita-1 for
RG2 and netted almost US$ 9.20 capita-1 compared with US$ 5.67 capita-1 for RG2.
Mazhanje fruits were consumed in larger quantities compared to other fruits. Even though
other fruits were consumed in smaller quantities, RG3 households consumed more fruits
compared to the other resource groups. During 2011/2012 seasons indigenous fruits
contributed, approximately 6% of the energy requirements for poorer households and 4% for
wealthier households (Fig. 4.7). Intermediate (RG2) and RG3 households obtained greater
quantities of protein from Mbira (Cavia porcellus) as they consumed approximately 0.16 kg
capita-1 year-1, respectively (Fig. 4.6). Resource-endowed (RG1) households only consumed
about 0.1 kg capita-1 year-1 of Mbira (C. porcellus). In addition, RG3 households consumed
greater quantities of Tsuro (Lepus capensis).
42
Table 4. 3 Selected non-timber forest products extracted and sold in Dendenyore and Ushe wards in Hwedza district from November 2011 to
October 2012
Natural resource
Local Name
Scientific Name
RG1
Tsanga
Mutsvairo
Mazhanje
Hacha
Tsvanzva
Tsubvu
Matufu
Phragmites mauritianus
Miscanthidium sorghum
Uapaca kirkiana
Parinari curatellifolia
Ximenia caffra
Vitex payox
Vanqueriopsis lanciflora
5.01
0.53
10.67
1.07
0.20
1.13
0.13
1
Quantity extracted
(kg)
RG2
RG3
SED
9.70
1.20
25.00
1.47
1.50
2.00
3.00
32.80
3.63
35.22
2.47
1.53
1.60
0.30
5.03
0.24
2.31
0.16
0.22
0.36
0.29
RG1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Quantity sold
(kg)
RG2
RG3
SED
0
0
22.33
0
0
0
0
8.20
1.60
27.60
0
0
0
0
1.55
-
Amount obtained per
capita (USD $)
RG1 RG2 RG3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5.67
0
0
0
0
13.60
0.80
9.20
0
0
0
0
n/a, natural resource not sold by the resource group
43
Amount consumed per capita
(kg fresh weight)
Resource-endowed (RG1)
Intermediate (RG2)
Resource-constrained (RG3)
4
3
2
1
pu
s
c
(T ap
su en
ro si
s
)
Le
C
av
ia
p
(M orc
bi ell
ra us
)
0
Figure 4. 6 Extraction of small wild animals in Dendenyore and Ushe wards, Hwedza district
per households annually.
RG1 households consumed an average of 1.3 kg capita-1 year-1 of Tsuro (L. capensis) whereas
RG2 consumed an average of 1.8 kg and 2.4 kg per capita were consumed by RG3
households.
4.3.5 Spatial and temporal changes in common natural resource pools
The major land cover and land use types identified in Dendenyore and Ushe wards in Hwedza
district, were grassland, woodland, wetland, shrub and bushes, water, cultivate land and bare
areas (land with no dominant vegetation cover). Overall accuracy of 81% was achieved
during image classification, with a Kappa statistic of 0.17 for Ushe and 0.16 for Dendenyore.
Therefore, kappa statistic values for Ushe and Dendenyore indicate that there was land cover
change since there is less agreement in thematic classes of 1972 and 2011.
44
Table 4. 4 Changes in landcover classes (ha) in Dendenyore and Ushe communities in
Hwedza in Zimbabwe
Ward/
Landcover
Dendenyore
Bare
Cultivated land
Grassland
Shrubs and Bushes
Wetland
Woodland
Ushe
Bare
Cultivated land
Grassland
Shrubs and Bushes
Wetland
Woodland
1972
Year (ha)
1989 2011
% Change
1972-1989 1989-2011 1972-2011
2189
2319
2219
2957
2881
2467
2496
3073
2442
1731
2143
2106
2002
2136
3986
3095
1459
1562
14.02
32.51
10.05
-41.46
-25.62
-14.63
-19.79
-30.49
63.23
78.80
-31.92
-25.83
-8.54
-7.89
79.63
4.67
-49.36
-36.68
1490
1601
2715
2707
1464
1498
1999
2187
1831
3995
1231
1323
1707
1521
2425
2438
1039
929
34.16
36.60
-32.56
47.58
-15.92
-11.68
-14.61
-30.45
32.44
-38.97
-15.60
-29.78
14.56
-5.00
-10.68
-9.94
-29.03
-37.98
In Dendenyore, wetlands decreased by 26% between 1972 and 1989, and by a further 32%
between 1989 and 2011 (Table 4.4, Fig. 4.7). Woodlands reduced by 15% between 1972 and
1989, and further reduced by 25% between 1989 and 2011. On the contrary, grasslands
increased by 10% between 1972 and 1989 and 63% between 1989 and 2011. Area under
cultivation also increased by about 33% between 1972 and 1989, but decreased by 31%
between 1989 and 2011. In Ushe, wetlands also decreased by 16% between 1972 and 1989,
and a further 16% between 1989 and 2011 (Table 4.4, Fig. 4.8). Between 1972 and 1989,
woodlands decreased by 12% and further by 30% between 1989 and 2011. Cultivated areas
increased by about 37% between 1972 and 1989. There was however an apparent decrease
between 1989 and 2011 where the total area under cultivation reduced by about 30%. Area
under grasslands decreased between 1989 and 1972, but then increased between 1989 and
2011.
45
Figure 4. 7 Land cover changes in Dendenyore ward, Hwedza district for three time periods.
46
Figure 4. 8 Land cover changes in Ushe ward, Hwedza district for three time periods.
47
4.4 Discussion
Rural communities in eastern Zimbabwe ranked wetlands and woodlands as the most
important CNRPs significantly contributing to their livelihoods. Wetlands were given the
highest priority mainly because they provided perennial grazing pasture for livestock, and
they are a source of water for both livestock and domestic use. Livestock, particularly cattle,
are an important asset in rural communities of SSA because of their multiple roles in
supporting livelihoods (Barret, 1992; Chawatama et al., 2005). Wetlands store water during
the rainy season and slowly release it during the dry season, enabling rural households to
harness water for domestic use, livestock and irrigation (Mharapara et al., 1999; MEA,
2005b). In particular, wetlands support dry season farming in home gardens thereby enabling
rural households to supplement food and income (Mutambikwa et al., 2001). Nyamadzawo et
al. (2015) reported that rural households who grew maize in wetlands obtained yields of
between 2 and 3 t ha-1, higher than the typical yields of <1 t ha-1 on most smallholder farms.
Wetlands are therefore buffering households against hunger associated with perennial crop
failures now typical in most upland fields. Wetlands were not only prioritised for their role in
providing water for dry season cropping, but also for being major sources of key natural
resources such as traditional vegetables, fish, and fibre for making crafts. Zwane et al. (2010)
also reported that wetlands provided diverse plant species such as Phragmites australis and
Cyperus latifolius, which are of varying socio-economic importance to rural communities in
Swaziland, southern Africa. Similarly, in east and central Africa, over 40% of rural
households engaged in the sale of NTFPs such as vegetables, fruits and honey in order to cope
with crop failures caused by poor rains (Nkem et al., 2010; Msalilwa, 2013). These sales
provide cash, albeit in small amounts, but sufficient to meet critical household food
requirements (Shackelton and Shackleton, 2004; Maroyi, 2011).
48
Because of provision of firewood, fruits, fibre and medicinal herbs, woodlands were also
highly prioritised in Hwedza. Indigenous fruits such as Hacha (P. curatellifolia) and
Mazhanje (U. kirkiana) harvested from woodlands were highly prioritised because they are
normally available during critical periods of food shortage from September to January when
food stocks at household level are often low. Studies by Frost et al. (2007), and Shackleton
and Clarke (2007) in rural communities in southern Africa also indicated that woodlands
provided fruits and other NTFP that were exchanged for food or sold for cash to buy food
during critical hunger months. In semi-arid zones of Zimbabwe, woodlands were found to
contribute up to 30% of total income accrued by rural households (Cavendish, 2000; Frost et
al., 2007). According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005a), woodlands provide
various ecosystem services that are central to human needs such as shelter, health, food. The
extraction and use patterns of products obtained from the woodlands varied by household
resource endowment. Resource-endowed (RG1) households ate less fruits from woodlands
than their intermediate (RG2 households) and resource-constrained counterparts (RG3
households), suggesting the former have enough food resources to maintain their old dietary
habits. Often, both RG2 and RG3 households produce maize yields of < 1 tonne ha-1 which is
not adequate to last them for a year (Mtambanengwe et al., 2012) hence they depend on
NFTPs for additional energy intake to meet the recommended daily energy intake of 7 531kJ
per day according to the FAO Food Security Indicators of Zimbabwe (2009). When the
quantities of fruits consumed are converted to daily energy intake using FAO’s food
composition table of use in Africa (1968), the data indicates that between November 2011 and
January 2012, indigenous fruits provided 3.5%, 5% and 6% energy to RG1, RG2 and RG3
households, respectively. A similar study showed that during drought years all households can
increase energy intake from fruits to between 22% and 40% (Woittiez et al., 2013).
49
Suggesting that indigenous fruits are important to all household despite their socio-economic
status.
Rural households in Hwedza perceived that the availability of natural resources derived from
woodlands and wetlands had declined over time. Similarly, analysis of land cover changes
indicated that CNRPs declined over the period from 1972 to 2011, supporting the farmers’
observations. The decline in CNRPs was also observed in similar rural communities of
southern Zimbabwe, where wetlands and woodlands declined by 54% within 20 years
between 1991 and 2009 (Matsa and Muranganizi, 2011). The apparent degradation of CNRPs
could be linked to a number of factors. First, the decline in CNRPs could be attributed to land
use changes. Studies conducted in similar communities in Zimbabwe have reported that due
to population pressure, households, particularly young families, encroach into areas
traditionally designated as grazing and woodlands, and convert wetlands into permanently
cultivated fields (Vermeulen, 1996; Mapedza et al., 2003). Second, the general decline in crop
yields despite the study area being traditionally considered a high potential agro-ecological
region (Vincent and Thomas, 1960), has increased dependencies on CNRPs. Crop yields in
these communal areas, particularly maize, have been declining due to soil degradation linked
to suboptimal use of mineral fertilizers, and within-season poor rainfall distribution
(Mapfumo et al., 2013; Rurinda, 2014). The poor crop yields could also explain the reduction
in area under crop production between 1989 and 2011, as households abandon some of the
degraded croplands to natural fallowing (Nezomba et al., 2015). Manzungu and Mtali (2012)
reported an increase in fallowing and the fallowed fields were covered with grass
characterised by little or no encroachment. This could explain the increase in grasslands in
both wards.
50
Besides these inherent problems, climatic variables such as increased rainfall variability and
severe droughts are currently seen as major threats to crop production in southern Africa
(Lobell et al., 2011). Projections indicate that Hwedza is one the areas to be negatively
affected by rising temperatures and increased frequency of occurrence droughts (Rurinda,
2014). Consequently, maize yields have been projected to decrease by between 12% and 30%
in Hwedza by 2100 (Rurinda, 2014). Given the reduction in crop production associated with
these negative impacts of climate variability and change as well as limited alternative sources
of food and income, these communities are bound to increasingly rely on CNRPs for food and
income during climatic shocks. This has already been evidenced by coping strategies such as
baking bread and preparing porridge from Hacha fruits (Parinari curatellifolia) as rural
households supplemented household food during the 2008 drought (Woittiez et al., 2013) and
increased consumption of fruits, which are not normally consumed when households harvest
sufficient grain during normal cropping seasons (Shackleton and Shackleton, 2004). Woittiez
et al. (2013) reported increased intake of energy from fruits obtained from woodlands by both
RG1 and RG3 households after a drought season. Thus, in drought years, the wealthier
households compete with poor households for natural resources leading to increased
extraction and use of CNRPs.
The changing climate does not only affect natural resources indirectly, but can have direct
negative impacts on ecosystem productivity. For example, a combination of decreased rainfall
and rising temperatures can potentially transform wetlands into dry-land environments such as
grasslands and savannah (Desanker and Magadza, 2001). Evidence has also shown that
increased rainfall variability and increased rate of evapotranspiration alter hydrological
regimes of wetlands (IPCC, 2001; IPCC, 2007; Fischlin et al., 2007). Such changes in water
budgets of wetlands are also known to significantly alter local environments for sessile plants
in wetlands (van der Valk, 2006). This also explains the low availability of key indigenous
51
vegetables previously known to dominate wetlands (e.g. Chijonga (T. rhomboidea) and
Chirevereve (S. erubescens)), fibre materials used for making crafts (P. mauritanus and M.
sorghum). Possibly the high abundance of Tsinde (Sporobolus pyramidalis) in wetlands could
suggest the evidence of adverse impacts of land use in the study area. Hyde et al. (2014)
suggested that S. pyramidalis is widespread on disturbed soil and including damp cultivated
areas where it is a common weed. Therefore, without proper management of the CNRPs, the
declining natural resource base and poor crop productivity, compounded by limited livelihood
opportunities, will undoubtedly increase vulnerability of many rural households to climate
variability and change.
The overall decline in the CNRPs, as shown in this study, suggests the need to put in place
mechanisms for sustainable extraction and use of CNRPs to increase resilience of
communities who draw their livelihoods from these resources to both impacts of climate
change and socio-economic change. Local institutional arrangements governing access to
CNRPs and for excluding outsiders (free riders) from using the resources could be key to this
end (Ostrom et al., 1999). Such mechanisms are important as they reduce conflicts and
strengthen ‘social safety nets’ (Mapfumo et al., 2013). Alternatively, technologies and/or
management practices that can enhance both crop and livestock production under a changing
climate should be promoted to minimise rapid extraction of natural resources. Such strategies
could include development and integration of alternative sources of energy such as solar
power and biogas among rural communities to minimize dependency on firewood.
The data in this study has mainly been collected through GIS, farmer participatory approaches
and quantitative approaches using dairies in monitoring natural resource use. The diaries were
used to collect quantitative data on natural resource extraction and they provide rich sources
of information on respondents’ behaviour and expenses on a daily basis (Butcher and
52
Eldridge, 1990; Krishnamurty, 2008). Although the filling in of dairies had periodically been
checked by trained agricultural extension workers, there are some concerns regarding use of
diaries, as respondents may forget to fill in the diaries resulting in missing data (Crosbie,
2006).
4.5 Conclusions
Wetlands and woodlands were identified as the most important CNRPs significantly
supporting livelihoods of rural communities in Hwedza. Rural households extract and use
natural resources uniquely depending on their socio-economic circumstances. Poorer
households use natural resources mainly for food and income whereas wealthier households
occasionally consume natural resources only as food. Only in drought years do the wealthier
households increase consumption of natural resources to supplement household food. The
differential extraction of natural resources among households suggests the need for local
institutional arrangements to manage the natural resources. Empirical data closely supports
communities’ perceptions that CNRPs have declined suggesting that the application of geoinformation sciences can be useful in the management of natural resources. On the other hand,
rural communities can provide useful information that can be used in the management of
natural resources. Although the major CNRPs, wetlands and woodlands have declined by >
30% in the last two to three decades, rural households are increasingly relying on them
suggesting limited alternative livelihood opportunities. Designing technologies and practices
that can increase and stabilize crop production and/or enhance food sufficiency among these
smallholder communities can be a strategy for safeguarding natural resources even in the face
of climate change and increased climate variability.
53
CHAPTER FIVE
Changing household gender roles in extraction of natural resources in rural
communities of Zimbabwe in response to availability of non-timber forest products
5.1 Introduction
Making a living is a matter of daily struggle for many rural households in sub-Saharan Africa
(SSA), including Zimbabwe. As such, many households in rural communities are increasingly
resorting to extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) for food and income to
complement food derived from agricultural production (Shackleton and Shackleton, 2004;
Woitteiz et al., 2013). Common natural resource pools (CNRPs) are becoming major fall-back
sources of food during periods of climatic stresses such as droughts and floods (Frost et al.,
2007; Woittiez et al., 2013).
Despite their increasing importance in rural communities, CNRPs have been declining in
Zimbabwe (Matsa and Muringanizi, 2011; Woittiez et al., 2013) and other parts of SSA
(Yeshaneh et al., 2013). Wetlands and woodlands have declined by >30% in Zimbabwe in the
last two to three decades with predictions of further decline by >50% by 2050 in most parts of
southern Africa (Matsa and Muringanizi, 2011; Barnes et al., 2012; Heubes et al., 2012).
Although the decline in CNRPs is apparent in rural communities, there is still lack of
sufficient knowledge about the major causes of the decrease. Some studies have attributed the
decline to land use change (Vermeulen, 1996; Mapedza et al., 2003). On the other hand, the
deteriorating natural resource base has also been linked to declining livestock and crop
productivity (Mapfumo et al., 2013; Rurinda, 2014) as communities extract food from the
CNRPs to supplement food and income needs. These inconsistencies suggest the need for an
in-depth understanding of the major causes for declining CNRPs in rural communities as
informed by both empirical and local knowledge. The identification of major causes for
54
declining CNRPs does not only assist rural communities, policy-makers and other relevant
stakeholders to understand changing use patterns of CNRPs, but also to design robust natural
resources management strategies. This will enhance the adaptive capacity of smallholder
communities who rely on CNRPs for both food and income.
Given that rural communities are faced with multiple challenges, including the inflation,
adverse impacts of a changing climate and declining crop production (Mertz et al., 2009;
Mapfumo et al., 2013), in addition to these a declining natural resource base is highly likely to
reduce the resilience of communities to respond to the changing human and ecological
conditions. Recent studies have reported changes in use patterns of natural resources in
periods of food shortages (Woittiez et al., 2013; Msaliwa, 2014) and these changes may have
implications on men’s and women’s roles and values in extraction and use natural resources.
Studying gender roles is important to identify the most vulnerable households to design best
fit adaptation options. Traditionally, men and women have different roles and responsibilities
in natural resources extraction (Cavendish, 1998; Ndungo et al., 2010). Generally, women
play a greater role in the collection of water, smaller quantities of firewood using their heads
and fruits such as Mazhanje (Uapaca kirkiana) and Hacha (Parinari curatellifolia) from
woodlands, to enhance household food security and income (Ndungo et al., 2010; Gonzalez et
al., 2011). On the other hand, men have traditionally been responsible for hunting, and
collection of poles for construction and large quantities of firewood and water using ox-drawn
cart (Clarke et al. 1996). Also, in the past men seldom have had the responsibility of
collecting natural resources for household use (World Bank, 2009) and frequently are, absent
from rural homes to earn alternative income (FAO, 2004).
A study in southern Africa has indicated that during periods of food shortages in the event of
drought, men often take up the women’s roles in natural resource extraction (Babugara et al.,
55
2009). Such changes in resource use patterns may bring about competition for natural
resources from the declining CNRPs leading to changes in roles of men and women. This
suggests that female-headed households will have to walk relatively long distances and spend
more time to extract natural resources competing with men, making them highly vulnerable to
declining CNRPs (Lowore, 2006). Thus, understanding communities’ perceptions regarding
major causes of declining natural resources and the changing gender roles between men and
women are key for improved management of CNRPs and hence building resilience of rural
households to pressures of climate change and increased climate variability, as well as other
socio-economic changes. This study therefore sought to: (i) understand the major causes for
declining in CNRPs in rural communities drawing from both local and empirical expect
knowledge; and (ii) assess changes in gender roles regarding extraction of natural resources in
rural communities in the face of declining CNRPs.
5.2 Materials and Methods
5.2.1 Study sites
The study was conducted between 2011 and 2013 in Dendenyore and Ushe wards in Hwedza
district in eastern Zimbabwe. In times of crop failure, these communities rely on NTFPs,
mainly indigenous fruits such as Mazhanje (Uapaca kirkiana) and Hacha (Parinari
curatellifolia) for food, including the resource-endowed households (Woittiez et al. 2013). In
both communities, the most prioritised CNRPs are wetlands and woodlands. However, these
resource pools have declined by over 30% from 1972 to 2011 (see Chapter 4). These CNRPs
provide natural resources such as firewood used for energy and NTFPs such as Tsanga
(Phragmites mauritianus) and Mutsvairo (Miscanthidium sorghum) used for making crafts.
56
5.2.2 Qualitative data collection approaches
Community meetings were organised at each site through local leaders and extension workers,
as part of the local-level IPs, to get an overview of the perceptions of people regarding the
determinants of declining CNRPs and their implications on the roles of men and women in
natural resource extraction. The participants consisted of a mix of elderly men and women (>
60 years), and youthful men and women (between 25 and 60 years) as well as community
leaders such as village heads and councillors. Between eight to 12 participants were selected
for focus groups discussions (FGDs) on the premise that men and women with varied age and
resource endowment use natural resources differently (Cavendish, 2000; Musvoto et al.,
2006). The participants were divided into three groups: women only group, men only group,
and key informant group that consisted of the community leaders who had lived in the area
for > 40 years.
Focus group discussions within men and women groups were guided by questions that
included: (i) How has the availability of natural resources extracted from CNRPs changed
over time? (ii) What are the causes for declining CNRPs and the associated natural resources?
(iii) What are the consequences of declining natural resources on the duties and
responsibilities of men, women and children in natural resource extraction? Within each
group, the causes of declining CNRPs were ranked on a score of 1 to 5 (1 most critical and 5
least critical) based on a head count of participants who had selected the cause. The
participants agreed that each of them would only select one cause of decline to rank as the
most critical.
The third group of key informants were assigned to recall the major events such as droughts,
floods, political events, and land use changes linked to population changes that communities
57
perceived could have affected CNRPs using historical timeline techniques. The participants
were also asked to indicate the events that had the greatest impacts on CNRPs.
In the same meeting, key informants constructed a seasonal calendar to show the different
times when key natural resources extracted from declining CNRPs would be available.
Seasonal calendars explore seasonal changes in a phenomenon (e.g. income, expenditure,
diseases) (FAO, 1994). They are useful in identifying periods when specific groups of people
usually suffer particular hardship so that appropriate “safety nets” can be put in place or other
remedial actions taken (World Bank, 2005). The participants created seasonal calendars to
demonstrate the time of the year when the key natural resources used for energy, food, crafts
and medicine were available for collection. The qualitative data obtained from FGDs,
seasonal calendars and timelines was categorised and analysed into two themes: (i) factors
causing changes and decline in CNRPs, and (ii) events (climatic and non-climatic) that had
the greatest impacts on CNRPs.
5.2.3 Quantitative data collection approaches
A questionnaire survey was administered to collect data on the perceptions of households on
the status of CNRPs. The survey also collected data on the household members’ responsible
for collecting key natural resources during both good years (when harvest is good and there is
less demand for natural resources) and bad years (when harvest is poor and there is increased
demand for natural resources). The household questionnaire complemented the information
obtained from the FGDs on the identified factors causing changes and decline in CNRPs.
Informed by the participatory work, 50 households using prioritised wetland and woodland
were picked from 12 villages in Dendenyore, and 50 households from 10 villages in Ushe
were randomly selected for the questionnaire survey. The list of households were obtained
58
from the local agricultural extension working in each community. In order to understand the
different roles played by household members in extracting natural resources, dairies were
used to monitor households belonging to different resource endowments. The monitoring was
conducted for 12 months from November 2011 to October 2012. The households were
selected based on endowment: resource-endowed (RG1), intermediate (RG2) and resourceconstrained (RG3), closely matching a model developed by Mtambanengwe and Mapfumo
(2005) working in similar communities. With the assistance of extension workers, nine
households were selected per resource group in each community to cover the breath of each
group in terms of the attributes that define the group. In each household, the household head
assumed responsibilities of filling in the diary, although other household members
contributed. On a regular basis, the extension workers would assist in the supervision of the
process of filling in the diaries. In order to monitor the recording process, the researcher
would visit the households once every month. Many variables such as perceptions of major
causes of decline in CNRPs and changes in roles of extraction of key natural resources during
both the good and cropping seasons were analysed. Descriptive statistics were used for
analysis of data using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16.
5.3 Results
5.3.1 Major determinants for declining in common natural resource pools in rural
communities.
Through historical timelines, rural communities in Dendenyore and Ushe identified droughts,
increased rainfall variability, deterioration of crop and livestock production, and land use
change as the major drivers for declining natural resource pools and associated natural
resources (Fig. 5.1).
59
Figure 5. 1 Historical timeline of the major climatic and non-climatic events that affected the availability of natural resources that sustain
livelihoods of smallholder communities in Hwedza district, Zimbabwe
60
The participants also identified the declining crop and livestock production as the main reason
for increased extraction of NTFP such as Mazhanje (Uapaca kirkiana) and Hacha (Parinari
curatellifolia) fruit for increased household food security. Rural households increased
extraction and use of natural resources during the extreme and severe droughts of 1983/1984,
1991/1992, 2002/2003 and 2007/2008 seasons. The rural communities highlighted that most
land use changes occurred in the period when previous government regulations on natural
resources management were relaxed in 1980. This resulted in expansion of cattle grazing
areas, increase in number of gardens, and building of homesteads within or surrounding
wetlands.
Ranking of factors causing shrinking of wetlands followed the order: land use change (33% of
the respondents) < less annual rainfall (31%) < increasing temperatures (27%) (Fig. 5.2). In
terms of factors causing the drying of sacred pools and springs, communities ranked
increasing temperatures in summer (25% of the respondents) as the main cause, followed by
land use change (23%) and low rainfall (22%). In addition, rural people ranked erosion of
cultural values and norms, which "angered" the ancestors as another cause of drying of sacred
pools and springs. The main causes of decline in woodlands were identified as land use
change (28%) increased cutting down of trees for firewood due to increasing energy demands
(25%), and poor resource conservation and management practices (24%) (Fig. 5.3). Low
temperatures experienced in winter (31% of the respondents) was identified as the main cause
of the low availability of indigenous fruits such as Hacha and Mazhanje during the period
when they will be ripe. In addition, other factors such as land use change (23%), increased
population (17%), and increased rainfall variability (16%) were also given priority as
probable causes for low availability of indigenous fruits.
61
ral
Incre
ased
Incre
temp
eratu
res in
Less
Cultu
er
summ
rainf
ral
Less
Cultu
rainf
know
Dont
ased
Incre
ased
Incre
temp
eratu
popu
er
res in
summ
use c
hang
e
Land
s
0
use c
hang
e
0
Land
10
know
10
Dont
20
lation
20
popu
30
all
30
all
40
lation
40
(b) Drying of springs and sacred pools
ased
50
(a) Shrinking of wetlands
s
Weighted frequency index (%)
50
Figure 5. 2 Ranking of main factors causing (a) shrinking of wetlands and (b) drying of sacred
Factors causing decline of CNRPs
pools and springs in Dendenyore and Ushe communities, Hwedza district. (Weight index was
calculated from frequency divided by rank, n = 100).
ter
ity
tures
w tem
pera
Very
lo
Incre
ased
rainf
all va
in win
riabil
know
Dont
lation
Incre
ased
popu
er
ter
tures
w tem
pera
Very
lo
ased
rainf
all va
in win
riabil
know
Dont
Incre
ased
Incre
eratu
temp
ased
Incre
popu
er
summ
res in
use c
hang
Land
summ
0
res in
0
eratu
10
temp
10
ased
20
es
20
use c
hang
30
Incre
30
ity
40
lation
40
(b) Low availability of indigenous fruits
Land
50
(a) Decline of woodlands
es
Weighted frequency index (%)
50
Factors causing decline of CNRPs
Figure 5. 3 Ranking of main factors causing (a) declining of woodlands, and (b) low
availability of indigenous fruits in Dendenyore and Ushe communities in Hwedza district.
(Weight index was calculated from frequency divided by rank, n = 100).
62
5.3.2 Dynamics in gender roles in relation to availability of natural resources
Across study sites, men and women had different roles in extraction of natural resources
(Table 4.1). Women were responsible for extraction of traditional vegetables. Traditional
vegetables such as Samwenda (Sesamum angistifolium) and Chirevereve (Senecio erubescens)
were identified as important food sources, especially for the poorer households. Women were
also responsible for extraction of Mutsvairo (M. sorghum) used for making sweeping brooms.
Men were responsible for extracting Tsanga (P. mauritianus) used for making crafts such as
baskets, and mats. Men were responsible for fishing and the main fish types caught were
Magwaya (Sargochromis codringtoni) and Masindi (Schilbe intermedius). Women were also
responsible for extracting herbs e.g. Chifumuro (Dicoma anomala) for stomach and fever
pains. Both men and women were responsible for firewood extraction. Natural resources
extracted from wetlands that provided both food and income were available for extraction at
different periods of a year (Table 5.2). Fish such as Magwaya (Sargochromis codringtoni)
and Masindi (Schilbe intermedius) were only available for extraction between December and
May. Indigenous fruits such as Tsokotsiana (Rhus longipes) and Mashangadede (Eugenia
malangensis) were available between the months of November and February. Vegetables
prioritised by women were only available for extraction between December and February.
Tubers such as Tsenza (Coleus esculentus) and Tsombori (Eriosema pauciflorum) were
extracted during part of the rainy season from January to May. Water was extracted from
wetlands throughout the year.
Between July and November, men hunted small wild animals such as Mbira (Cavia porcellus)
and Tsuro (Lepus capensis). Indigenous fruits were extracted between September and March,
except for Matohwe (A. garckeana), which were only available between July and September.
Mazhanje (U. kirkiana), Hacha (P. curatellifolia), and Matamba (S. spinosa) provided food to
63
the communities for the longest duration of at least four months. Between July and
November, men hunted small wild animals such as Mbira (Cavia porcellus) and Tsuro (Lepus
capensis). Indigenous fruits were extracted between September and March, except for
Matohwe (A. garckeana), which were only available between July and September. Mazhanje
(U. kirkiana), Hacha (P. curatellifolia), and Matamba (S. spinosa) provided food to the
communities for the longest duration of at least four months. However, vegetables (e.g. C.
gynandra) and mushrooms (e.g. A. zambiana) were only extracted between November and
January. Natural resources such as firewood that provided energy, and medicinal herbs such
as Chifumuro (D. anomala) and Gavakava (A. aculeata) were available for extraction
throughout the year. The months of June, July, August, and October had the least diversity of
NTFPs extracted from wetlands. While, the months of April, May and June had the least
diversity of NTFPs extracted from woodlands.
Table 5. 1 Key natural resources extracted from common natural resource pools and their use
patterns in Dendenyore and Ushe communities in Hwedza District in Zimbabwe.
CNRP
Local Name
Scientific Name
Type
Collected by
Wetland
Magwaya
Masindi
Samwenda
Chirevereve
Magwavha
Mashangadede
Tsanga
Mutsvairo
Sargochromis codringtonii
Schilbe intermedius
Sesamum angistifolium
Senecio erubescens
Psidium guajava
Eugenia malangensis
Phragmites mauritianus
Miscanthidium sorghum
Fish
Fish
Vegetable
Vegetable
Fruit
Fruit
Craft
Craft
Men
Men
Women
Women
Men &Women
Men &Women
Men
Women
Tsubvu
Hacha
Mazhanje
Magodzvombo
Tsuro
Mbira
Chifumuro
Gavakawa
Nyeve
Nhedzi
Vitex payos
Parinari curatellifolia
Uapaca kirkiana
Hexalobus monopetalus
Lepus capensis
Cavia porcellus
Dicoma anomala
Aloe aculeata
Cleome gynandra
Amanita zambiana
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Wildlife
Wildlife
Herb
Herb
Vegetable
Mushroom
Men &Women
Men &Women
Men &Women
Men &Women
Men
Men
Women
Women
Women
Women
Woodland
64
Table 5. 2 Seasonal calendar for extraction and availability of the main natural resources from wetlands in Dendenyore and Ushe wards, Hwedza
district.
Natural resource/
Local Name
Crafts
Tsanga
Mutsvairo
Fish
Magwaya
Masindi
Tubers
Tsenza
Tsombori
Fruits
Mashangadede
Magwavha
Tsokotsiana
Hute
Vegetables
Chirevereve
Chijonga
Nama
Samwenda
Water
Scientific Name
Sept
Oct
Nov
Phragmites mauritianus Kunth
Miscanthidium sorghum (Nees) Stapf
Sargochromis codringtonii Boulenger
Schilbe intermedius Rüppell
▲
▲
Dec Jan
Feb
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
Coleus esculentus (N.E. Br.) G. Taylor
Eriosema pauciflorum Klotzsch
Eugenia malangensis (O. Hoffm.) Nied.
Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae
Rhus longipes Engl
Syzygium cordatum Hochst. Ex Krauss
▲
▲
▲
▲
Senecio erubescens Aiton
Truimfetta rhomboidea Jacq.
Dicerocaryum senecioides (Klotzsch) Abels
Sesamum angistifolium (Oliv.) Engl.
▲
▲
▲
▲
Mar
Apr
May
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
Jun
July
Aug
▲
▲
▲
▲
65
Table 5. 3 Seasonal calendar for availability of main natural resources from woodlands in Dendenyore and Ushe wards, Hwedza district
Natural resource/
Local name
Fruits
Maroro
Magodzvombo
Mazhanje
Hacha
Hute
Matamba
Matohwe
Wild animals
Tsuro
Mbira
Herb
Chifumuro
Gavakava
Energy (Firewood)
Mupfuti
Munhondo
Musasa
Muunze
Vegetable
Nyeve
Mushroom
Nhedzi
Scientific Name
Anona senegalensis Pers.
Hexalobus monopetalus (A. Rich.) Engl. & Diels
Uapaca kirkiana Müll. Arg.
Parinari curatellifolia Planch. Ex Benth.
Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC.
Strychnos spinosa Lam.
Azanza garckeana (F. Hoffm.) Exell & Hillc.
Sept
▲
▲
Oct
▲
▲
Nov
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
Feb
Mar
▲
▲
▲
▲
Apr
May
Jun
July
Aug
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
Lepus capensis L.
Cavia porcellus L.
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
Dicoma anomala Sond.
Aloe aculeata Pole Evans
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
Brachystegia boehmii Taub.
Julbernadia globiflora (Benth.) Troupin
Brachystegia spiciformis Benth.
Brachystegia tamarindoides Benth.
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
▲
Cleome gynandra L.
Amanita zambiana L.B. Smith & Ayensu
▲
Dec Jan
66
Participants described a ‘bad year’ as a year in which precipitation fails to adequately support
crop production. The harvest do not last households for 12 months. The drought years
1991/1992, 2001/2002 and 2007/2008 were regarded as ‘bad seasons’ Whilst a ‘good year’
was described as, a year characterised by good rainfall distribution and no soil water deficits
such that maize and cowpea yields are sufficient to last households until the next harvest. The
‘good year’ is also characterised by plenty of pastures and no incidences of livestock disease
outbreaks and deaths. The season 2006/2007 and 2008/2009was given as an example of a
Participation in extraction of water (%)
‘good year’ as well as.
100
100
(a) Male headed households
80
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
(b) Female headed households
0
0
Good
Good
Bad
Bad
Year
Year
Men
Women
Figure 5. 4 Changing gender roles in extraction of water during ‘good years’ and ‘bad years’
in Dendenyore and Ushe wards, Hwedza district.
Between good and bad years, the extraction of water and indigenous fruits differed between
men and women on the circumstances of household type. In male headed households during
bad year, men dominate extraction of water (Fig. 5.4). The participation of men in extraction
increased by 40%. In female headed households, participant of men does not differ between
both good and bad years. In extraction of Mazhanje fruits, the participation men in male
67
headed households increased by 28% from a good to a bad year, whereas in female headed
households did not change (Fig. 5.5). Participation of men from both male headed and female
headed households increased by 52% and 36% from a good to a bad year, respectively (Fig.
Participation in extraction of Mazhanje (%)
5.6).
80
70
(a) Male headed households
(b) Female headed households
60
60
50
40
40
30
20
20
10
0
0
Good
Good
Bad
Men
Women
Year
Bad
Year
Participation in extraction of Hacha (%)
Figure 5. 5 Changing gender roles in extraction of Mazhanje during ‘good years’ and ‘bad
years’ in Dendenyore and Ushe wards in Hwedza district
100
100
(a) Male headed households
80
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
(b) Female headed households
0
0
Good
Good
Bad
Bad
Year
Year
Men
Women
Figure 5. 6 Changing gender roles in extraction of Hacha during ‘good years’ and ‘bad years’
in Dendenyore and Ushe wards in Hwedza district
68
5.4 Discussion
The decline in CNRPs that provide important natural resources to smallholder communities in
Dendenyore and Ushe was apparently due to a number of factors that included land use
change, increased frequencies of drought cycles, changing temperatures and poor
conservation practices. Dale (1997) and Kigomo (2003) also found that the decline of
wetlands and woodlands in dry lands of SSA could not be pin-pointed to one factor, but a
combination of factors such as overgrazing, land use, and poor management of resources.
Studies in similar communities of Zimbabwe have suggested that this decline is mainly due to
land use change such as wood harvesting, expansion of cultivated land and encroachment by
young families into areas traditionally designated as grazing and woodlands, largely because
of population increase (Vermeulen, 1996; Chipika and Kowero, 2000; Mapedza et al., 2003).
Hamandawana et al. (2005) showed that over 80% of woodland decline in smallholder community
is explained by strong negative correlation between population density and woodland density (r2 =
-0.932). Population densities in Hwedza district increased from 32 people per square kilometre
(people km-2) in 1992 to 35 people km-2 in 2002 and to 42 people km-2 in 2012 (CSO, 1994,
CSO, 2004, ZIMSTAT, 2012). Annually, approximately 75,000 hectares of woodlands are
converted to arable land in smallholder communities, giving deforestation rates of 1.5% per
year (Nyoka et al., 2010). In addition to increasing population pressures, many changes in
communal areas were brought about during the post-independence era during the 1980s when
over 70% of rural inhabitants who were in marginal lands were resettled with increased access
to woodlands, wetlands and grazing areas (Mutepfa et al., 2010).
Communities ranked land use changes such as encroachment followed by climatic factors
such as increased rainfall variability, droughts, and increased temperatures, as major causes of
declining wetlands and woodlands. Adverse impacts of climate change such as droughts and
69
hot temperatures during the 1990s, which were recorded as the driest and hottest periods of
the 20th century, contributed significantly to the decline of both wetlands and woodlands
(Ramsar COP, 2002; IPCC, 2007b; Feresu et al., 2010). Increased evapo-transpiration,
because of above normal daily temperatures, alters hydrological regimes of wetlands, causing
them to dry (IPCC, 2007; Shackleton et al., 2008; IPCC, 2013). Apart from these climatic
factors having direct impacts of CNRPs, they have also caused a decline in crop and livestock
production, which has forced rural people to substantially rely on natural resources as
alternative sources of food (Woittiez et al., 2013; Rurinda et al., 2014b). Therefore, pressure
has been mounting on CNRPs such as wetlands and woodlands for both food and income, and
this resulted in over-exploitation of resources causing their decline (Chipika and Kowero,
2000; Nyoka et al., 2010). The majority of the cropping seasons are likely to be described as
‘bad years’ by rural households who have depend on climate sensitive sectors that have been
projected to decline in crop and livestock production (Lobell et al., 2011; Rurinda, 2014).
Participation of men in male headed households in extraction of natural resources increases
during bad years which are characterised by severe and extreme drought occurrences. Severe
and extreme droughts occurred in the study area during the 1983/1984, 1991/1992 and
2008/2009 seasons (Unganai and Bandason, 2005; Nangombe, 2015). The increase in
participation of men can be explained by increase in consumption of indigenous fruits and
allocation of more time in collection of the resources to relieve food insufficiency during
periods of severe droughts (Nkem et al., 2010; Msalilwa, 2013; Woittiez at al., 2013). During
times of severe droughts households and communities adapt their activities, roles and
responsibilities in order to increase their survival chances (FAO, 2004), explaining the
increase in participation of man. More labour has to be allocated to extraction of fruits such as
Hacha and Mazhanje that ripen during the hunger months, between September and
December, a time when food stocks of most households would be low. Indigenous fruits such
70
as Hacha and Mazhanje are preferred because they have high-energy content, and they can be
used to prepare drink, porridge and bread (Woittiez et al., 2013). Most NFTPs are available at
critical periods of food shortages from the peak of the dry season October to April when most
crops would be ripening. Other studies done in Burkina Faso and South Africa, observed
similar increases in the participation of men in extraction of NTFPs during periods of
droughts (Wamukonya and Rukato, 2001; Babugara et al., 2009; Gonzalez et al., 2011).
A combination of factors such as population increase and degradation of CNRPs leads to
scarcity of NTFPs, and therefore influences changes in the roles of men and women in natural
resource extraction (FAO, 2004). Scarcity of NTFPs increases inter-household competition
for natural resources, forcing women to spending more to collect resources (Lowore, 2006;
Fonjong, 2008). Competing claims on natural resources increasingly become acute within
rural communities as competition increases, with female headed and poorer households being
most vulnerable (Giller et al., 2008). The male-headed households are not vulnerable because
during a bad year both men and women will be extracting resources making them more
competitive unlike their female-headed household counterpart. The occurrence and intensity
of competing claims for natural resources will rise with increasing human pressure. In order
for households to be competitive, men are forced to collect natural resources using ox drawn
carts to assist women who often carry using their heads (FAO, 2004; Shackleton et al., 2004).
Therefore, given the increasing incidences of severe and extreme droughts and declining
CNRPs resulting in increased competition for resources, men are likely to play the leading
role in extraction of natural resources in future. This is contrary to the established knowledge
that women and children play the leading roles in extraction of water and NFTPs (Shackleton
and Clarke, 2007; Maroyi, 2011).
71
In most rural set-ups in Zimbabwe, men and women are responsible for different specialised
activities for maintaining the family (FAO, 2004). Men often are responsible for building and
maintaining the house, tillage, livestock production and selling of labour. Women on the other
hand are in charge of providing food for the whole family, taking care of children and sick
family members, cooking, finding water and wood, gathering and processing forest products,
and working on the family farm (Ndungo et al., 2010; UNEP, 2013). According to the FAO
(1987, 1994) men do 90% of land clearance and hunting in rural communities of Africa. On
the other hand, women do > 70% of work related to weeding, storage and marketing of
harvest, extraction of water and indigenous fruits and feeding the family is done by women.
Work related to harvesting and planting is evenly distributed between men and women.
Previous studies have shown that women in rural communities in southern Africa have been
burdened with duties of extracting natural resources (Shackleton and Clarke, 2007; Maroyi,
2011); however, emerging trends are suggesting that men are increasingly engaging in
traditionally female oriented activities such as firewood, indigenous fruit, and water
extraction. This suggests that men will increasingly dedicate more time and walk longer
distances in order to fulfil what the women should be doing. This will be at the expense of
duties performed by men at household and community level such as crop and livestock
production and other off-farm income generating activities. Whilst men are foraging for
NTFPs, women have been reported to be engaged in selling of NFTPs harvested by men and
get engage in irregular daily labour (casual work) and petty trade (Babugara et al., 2009;
Nkem et al., 2010; Msalilwa, 2013). It is most likely that households without cattle are at risk
during climatic stressors such as droughts (Rurinda et al., 2014b). Therefore, the resourceendowed (RG1) households with cattle will be at an advantage because they can have access
to draught power. Nevertheless, for resource-constrained (RG3) households, both men and
72
women will have to spend more time harvesting resources at the expense of crop and
livestock production.
5.5 Conclusion
Reduction in availability of CNRPs in Dendenyore and Ushe wards, Hwedza district can be
attributed to factors such as land use change, increased frequencies of droughts, rising
temperatures, and increased rainfall variability. The availability of indigenous fruits often
coincided with peak periods of low grain food stocks particularly for the poorest households.
This coincidence increased the demand for the extraction of natural resources to supplement
household food and income. The roles in extraction of natural resources between men and
women is dynamic in time depending on the demand for and availability of resources. In
periods of climatic stress such as droughts when there is increased competition for natural
resources, men take up the greatest responsibility in extraction of natural resources such as
water and indigenous fruits who carry using carts (Shackelton et al., 2004). There is a need for
detailed land use planning at community level in response to human, climatic and ecological
changes to increase resource use efficiency and enhance the resilience of rural households.
73
CHAPTER SIX
Options for managing common natural resource pools to support livelihoods of rural
communities in the face of increasing climatic risks
6.1 Introduction
Managing natural resources in rural communities has been a great challenge for many decades
(see Hardin, 1968; Ostrom et al., 1992; Ostrom et al., 2003). Many models have been
developed to describe the complexity of managing common pool resources in rural
communities such as the Prisoners’ Dilemma (Ostrom, 1990) and Game Theory (Hardin,
1968). The models show that governing of access to natural resources by individuals and
exclusion of outsiders (free riders) is difficult (Ostrom et al., 1999). In addition to the
complex nature of managing natural resources, other factors such as declining crop and
livestock production, improper land use planning, land use changes and lack of enforcement
of natural resource management policies (Mohamed-Katerere, 2001; Mapedza et al., 2003;
Mutepfa et al., 2010) have contributed to the downward spiral of CNRPs in rural communities
of Zimbabwe. Due too many socio-economic challenges like inflation and poverty faced by
developing countries (NEWCOURSE, 2012), fewer resources have been channelled to
support policies and programmes aimed at managing CNRPs. Given the extra load on
declining CNRPs because of the adverse impacts of climate change and variability and other
existing pressures such as land use changes, management of natural resources will become
more difficult. Therefore, to increase the resilience of rural households to manage climaterelated risks such as droughts, and other socio-economic challenges there is therefore need to
identify options to improve management of CNRPs.
Previous studies on natural resource management have focused on the top down approaches
(Dore, 2001, Ham et al., 2008); however, with the increasing complexity of managing natural
74
resources in the wake of climate change and variability, there is need for integrating both
indigenous and empirical knowledge. Previous studies on natural resource management have
suggested a need for participatory management options that define the benefits of users and
involve women due to their vast knowledge and experience in use and management of
resources (Ham et al., 2008; Boon and Ahenkan, 2012). Gaps exist in literature on studies on
participatory scenario planning for management of natural resource based in a sustainable
way. Therefore, it is important to combine multiple factors such as predictions of future
climate change, diversified backgrounds of the communities, and levels of education, cultural
beliefs and norms (IPCC, 2007a; IPCC, 2013; Mtambanengwe et al., 2012) through
community visioning to identifying with options for managing CNRPs because these factors
influence the way people use natural resources. This study sought to identify options for
managing CNRPs to enable rural communities to adapt to the increasing climatic risk and
other socio-economic and biophysical challenges.
6.2 Materials and Methods
This study was carried out in Dendenyore and Ushe wards in Hwedza district, in Zimbabwe.
The qualitative approaches used in this study were key informant interviews and community
meetings using tools such as scoring (Langill and Landon, 1998), matrix rankings (World
Bank, 2005), and community visioning (Sanginga and Chitsike, 2005).
6.2.1 Projected changes in temperature and rainfall conditions by 2045
The projected temperature and rainfall for Hwedza until 2045 were obtained from an
ensemble of five global circulation models (GCMs) for two representative concentration
pathways (RCP) based climate projections used in an IPCC report (2013). Climate data was
downloaded
from
the
Coupled
Model
Inter-comparison
Project
Phase
5
75
(http://pcmdi3.llnl.gov/esgcet/home.htm ) was in the form of daily time-series of climate
variables of precipitation (mm), maximum and minimum temperature (°C) based on the RCP
4.5 and RCP 8.5 pathways. The five year moving averages for precipitation (mm), maximum
and minimum temperature (°C) was calculated both for the historical climate data for Hwedza
(1960 to 2010) and projected weather.
6.2.2 Options for managing common natural resource pools for climate change adaptation
In each study site, a community meeting was organised through the local leaders and
extension workers, as part of the local-level innovation platforms (IPs) to identify potential
changes in CNRPs based of future climatic conditions, human impacts, resource alternatives,
and natural resource management options. The participants included men and women of
various age groups from villages using prioritised wetlands and woodlands, agricultural
extension workers, and local leadership (village heads, headmen, and councillors). Overall,
there were 31 farmers (16 women and 15 men) in Dendenyore and 29 farmers (15 women and
14 men) in Ushe. During the community meeting, the potential changes in CNRPs based on
future climate projections derived from the RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 were identified using
community-visioning techniques. Participants identified potential changes in CNRPs based on
future climate projections and three states of extraction rate of natural resources: (i) current
(see chapter 4), (ii) in the event of increased rates, and (iii) in event of alternatives.
In the same meeting, participants were grouped into either women only or men only groups
because men and women prioritised CNRPs differently and they have different natural
resource uses and demands (Cavendish, 1998; Musvoto et al., 2006). The alternative resource
options for key natural resources such as firewood, indigenous fruits, and water sources were
identified in the men only group and women only groups in each site. Matrix ranking was
76
conducted in each group to prioritise identified alternative resource options to reduce
dependence on CNRPs. Matrix ranking useful in identifying the preferences and priorities of
the respondents’ as well as the advantages and disadvantages of the identified options (Langill
and Landon, 1998). The participants defined a criterion used to evaluate the importance of the
identified alternative resource options. The criterion was based on the provisioning of the
resource to household food, income and energy and livestock feed. In the same groups, the
participants were asked to identify options for managing CNRPs to adapt and cope with the
projected adverse impacts of climate change on natural resources. The communities also
identified potential key players who could assist them in managing CNRPs. When the
participants had identified the options for managing CNRPs, a ranking exercise was
conducted to rank the options that are likely to yield positive outcomes. The qualitative data
collected from the community meetings was categorised and analysed into three distinct
themes, (i) potential changes in CNRPs, (ii) alternative resource options for firewood,
indigenous fruits, and water, and (iii) options for managing CNRPs.
6.3 Results
6.3.1 Historical and projected changes in temperature and rainfall in Hwedza district by
2045
The minimum temperature for Hwedza is projected to increase by 1°C by 2045 for the
summer season under radiative forcing of 4.5 W m-2 (Fig. 6.1). Similar results were obtained
using the projections under the radiative forcing of 8.5 W m-2 for this short-term period. By
the year 2045, minimum temperatures for the winter season have been projected to increase
by at least 0.4°C. By the year 2045, maximum temperatures for both summer and winter
seasons have been projected to increase by 0.5°C. The direction of possible change in total
77
rainfall for Hwedza is unclear and is unlikely to change by 2045 (Fig. 6.2). Average similar
but there are much broader variations every year between 500 & 11500 mm which hasn’t
happened before.
Temperatures (°C )
30
30
(a) Minimum temperatures (1960 - 2045) (RCP 4.5)
25
25
20
20
15
15
10
(b) Maximum temperatures (1960 - 2045) (RCP 4.5)
10
5
1960
1980
2000
2020
2040
1960
1980
2000
2020
2040
Winter
Summer
Figure 6. 1 Projected changes in minimum and maximum temperatures between 1960 and
2045 for the summer and winter seasons in Hwedza district Zimbabwe. (RCP 8.5 data not
shown because similar trends were observed)
Rainfall amount per annum (mm)
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
1960
1980
2000
2020
2040
Year
Figure 6. 2 Projected changes in rainfall between 1960 and 2045 based on RCP 4.5 in Hwedza
district Zimbabwe. (RCP 8.5 data not shown because similar trends were observed).
78
Table 6. 1 Farmer-identified potential changes in common natural resource pools based on projected future climate changes, and subsequent
management options in Dendenyore and Ushe in Hwedza district (n = 60).
Projected future
Impacts on common natural resource
Management options
Proposed key players1
climate
pools
Temperatures
Wetlands will dry out resulting in loss of Collection and propagation of key
Local leaders, farmers,
extremes
key vegetables and fruits
wetland plant species still present in
(hot summers,
wetlands
cold winters)
Drying up of rivers, springs and dams in
Gulley reclamation to reduce
Local leaders, farmers,
dry season
siltation and run-off
Increase in
variability of
rainfall
(dry spells;
droughts)
Reduced productivity of indigenous fruit
trees
Planting of exotic fruit trees at
homesteads
Local leaders, farmers
Deforestation due over extraction of
firewood
Alternative sources of energy
Reviving local institutional
arrangements of managing natural
resources
Local leaders, farmers, EMA, Agritex, RDC,
SOFECSA, NGOs
Woodlands will be dominated by ‘shrubs’ Establish community woodlots and
only and ‘no fully grown trees’
planting of indigenous trees at
homesteads
Less fruits and woodland biomass
Reviving local institutional
productivity
arrangements to strengthen social
safety nets
Drying of rivers, springs and dams due to Alternative sources of water e.g.
low recharge
deeper wells
Drying of wetlands due to low recharge
Local leaders, farmers
Local leaders, farmers, EMA, Agritex, RDC,
SOFECSA
Local leaders, farmers, Rural district council,
EMA
Wetland and gulley reclamation
Local leaders, farmers, EMA, Agritex, RDC,
SOFECSA
1
(Agritex- Department of Agricultural Technical and Extension Services; EMA- Environmental Management Agency; NGO- Non Governmental
Organisation;
RDCRural
district
council;
SOFECSASoil
Fertility
Consortium
for
Southern
Africa).
79
6.3.2 Identified potential changes in common natural resource pools and management options
based on future climate change projections
Participants in Dendenyore and Ushe identified potential changes in prioritised CNRPs such
as wetlands and woodlands based on projected increase in rainfall variability. Drying of
wetlands due to temperatures extremes (hot summers and cold winters) resulting in high rates
of evapotranspiration coupled with variable rainfall was projected (Table 6.1). Another
climate sensitive sector likely to be affected is woodland productivity whereby the production
of indigenous fruits and firewood species was likely to be reduced. In response to these
changes, participants identified natural resource management options such as reviving local
institutions for managing natural resources. The communities identified the participation of
local leaders, farmers, Environmental Management Agency (EMA), Department of
Agricultural Technical and Extension Services (Agritex), Rural district council (RDC),
SOFECSA, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as crucial in reviving these
institutions. Other options acknowledged also included identification of alternative resource
options to firewood, water, and fruits. Groups of men and women prioritised options for
managing natural resources identified during the plenary discussions differently (Table 6.2).
Men prioritised options for managing wetlands in the order (1) land use planning- limiting the
number of gardens, (2) wetland and gulley reclamation, and (3) collection and propagation of
key wetland plant species. Women prioritised collection and propagation of key wetland
indigenous vegetables species such as Chirevereve (Senecio erubescens) and Chijonga
(Triumfetta rhomboidea) while managing succession by invasive grass species such as Tsinde
(Sporobolus pyramidalis). This was followed by land use planning particularly limiting the
number of gardens as well as wetland and gulley reclamation. For woodland management,
men prioritised natural resource management options transfer of ownership and user rights to
80
village surrounding a particular woodland < land use planning and < setting up village natural
resource management committees supported by government agency.
Table 6. 2 Identified natural resource management options by two communities in Hwedza,
district Zimbabwe1
Common
natural
resource pool
Wetland
Woodland
1
Natural resource management option
Men
(n=29)
Women
(n=31)
Land use planning- limiting the number of gardens
†††
††
Wetland and gulley reclamation
††
†
Collection and propagation of key wetland plant
species
†
†††
The transfer of ownership and use rights to village
surrounding a particular woodland
††††
†
Land use planning
†††
†††
Strengthening traditional institutions of managing
common property resources
†
††
Setting up village natural resource management
committees that are supported by responsible
government bodies
††
††††
(†††† most important and † least important)
Women concurred that setting up village natural resource management committees supported
by government agency < land use planning, and < strengthening traditional institutions of
managing common property resources. Alternative resource options for the key natural
resources (e.g. fruits, firewood and water sources) received different ranking between the two
groups. However, both men and women identified and ranked planting of gum trees
(Eucalyptus spp) woodlots as the best option for reducing dependency on indigenous trees for
energy and timber (Table 6.3). Adoption of Tsotso stoves, which utilises twigs and small tree
branches, was another viable alternative with promise to reduce dependency on firewood.
Paraffin (kerosene) was seen as an alternative to firewood, although its cost implications
81
particularly for the resource-constrained (RG3) households was acknowledged. Planting of
orchards with exotic fruit trees such as sweet oranges (Citrus sinensis), Mexican apple
(Casimiroa edulis), mango (Mangifera indica) and avocado (Persea americana) was
prioritised by both men and women as the best alternative to indigenous fruits. Men identified
aquaculture and rabbit rearing as other options of generating income for the resourceconstrained (RG3) households rather than relying on the sale of indigenous fruits. Women on
the other hand were keen on increasing agricultural production in order reduce reliance on
external food and income sources. Construction of deeper wells and boreholes to counter the
drying water sources in their communities were prioritised by both men and women.
Table 6. 3 Alternative resource options for firewood, indigenous fruits, and water sources
identified in Hwedza district, Zimbabwe
Natural
resource
Alternative resources
Men
(n= 29)
Gum tree plantations
Tsotso stoves
Paraffin (expensive)
Shelled cobs (only available
after harvest)
Firewood
1.
2.
3.
4.
Fruits
1. Exotic fruit trees such as
oranges (Citrus sinensis);
Mexican apple (Casimiroa
edulis), mango (Mangifera
indica) and avocado (Persea
americana)
2. Aquaculture and rabbit
rearing during the off-season
to reduce over-reliance of
indigenous fruits.
1. Exotic fruit trees such as oranges
(Citrus sinensis) and avocado
(Persea american)
1. Construction of deeper wells
and boreholes in every village
2. Construction of water storage
equipment such as water
tanks for irrigation and
domestic use
1. Construction of deeper wells and
boreholes
2. Water harvesting and storing in
water tanks for household use
and irrigation
Water
sources
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Women
(n=31)
Gum tree plantations
Tsotso stoves
Paraffin (expensive)
Cow dung
Electricity
2. Increase crop productivity on
croplands to reduce over-reliance
on indigenous fruits
82
6.4 Discussion
There are no clear indications that the total amount of rainfall will change by 2045, but shows
an increased variability. Studies by Rurinda (2014) observed similar findings and further
predicted a decrease in rainfall days coupled with an increase in temperatures extremes
(increase in hot and cold days). The results of increased rainfall variability are similar to
projections in Zimbabwe’s National Climate Change Response Strategy (2013). However this
in contrast with studies by Unganai (1996) and Christensen et al. (2007) that projected a 1520% decrease in rainfall in Southern Africa. RCPs projections are from an ensemble of five
global circulation models, therefore predictions from multiple models improves accuracy and
precision compared to stand alone models. This explains the difference with studies done by
Unganai (1996) and Christensen et al. (2007) who based the projections on a single global
circulation model that can have considerable outliers, making the data less reliable (Ruane et
al., 2013; IPCC, 2014). Based on climatic projections, smallholder communities predicted
conversion of wetlands into grasslands due to increasing temperatures. Desanker and
Magadza (2001) also predicted transformation of wetlands into grasslands in parts of southern
Africa mainly because of increasing rainfall variability and temperatures extremes,
corroborating communities’ perceptions. The increasing variability will affect the recharging
of wetlands and consequently the temperature extremes of increasing number of hot days will
increase the rate of evapotranspiration which then alters the hydrological regimes of wetlands
(IPCC, 2001; IPCC, 2007c; Fischlin et al., 2007) consequently resulting in the drying of
wetlands and loss of biodiversity.
Communities predicted a decrease in provisioning services of woodlands, particularly
indigenous fruit, due to increasing rainfall variability and temperatures extremes. Barnes et al.
(2012) and Heubes et al. (2012) made similar predictions of a decrease in ecosystem83
provisioning services of CNRPs by at least 50% by 2050 in most parts of southern Africa,
supporting farmer’s perceptions. Indigenous fruit trees such as Muzhanje (Uapaca kirkiana)
and Muhacha (Parinari curatellifolia) are susceptible to cold winds and frost (Orwa et al.,
2009); therefore, temperatures extremes and rainfall variability in Hwedza will reduce fruiting
of both key trees. The RCP 8.5 is a high emission scenario; hence the increase in carbon
dioxide was predicted to shift savannah biomes towards greater tree dominance due to CO2
rises, coupled with diminishing grass suppression by faster growing trees (Bond et al., 2003).
In addition, the rising CO2 concentrations were likely to favour C3 plant such as beans
(Phaseolus vulgaris), rice (Oryza sativa), and wheat (Triticum aestivum) as opposed to C4
plants such as maize (Zea mays) and sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) (Thuiller et al.,
2008), suggesting a likely decrease in the productivity of C4 plants. This suggests further
decline in maize production, worsening the food security situation within households and
across communities. Both the RCP 4.5 and 8.5 are characterised by increasing human
population, hence there will be more demand for natural resources. Increasing human
population will result in increased rates of deforestation as CNRPs are converted to arable
land (Hamandawana et al., 2005; Nyoka et al., 2010), resulting in further decline in
availability of CNRPs.
Women prioritised setting up of village natural resource management committees with full
participation from both men and women with adequate institutional support from a
responsible body such as Environmental Management Agency (EMA), as a viable natural
resource management option. Women have vast knowledge and experience in use and
management of resources because they are involved in over 50% of natural resource
extraction activities; hence, they should be closely involved in management of natural
resources (Lowore, 2006). Participation of both men and women in such committees will be
necessary to allow women to be involved in natural resource use issues and as men are
84
already involved with governance issues. Institutional support is required because lack of
enforcement of legislation is the key constraints to participatory management of resources
(Chirwa et al. 2008). In addition, increasing the capacity of government bodies responsible for
natural resource management is essential because this ensures monitoring of compliance with
legislation (Chirwa et al. 2008).
Men on the other hand prioritised the transference of ownership and use rights to rural people.
The preference of men to be custodians of natural resources would then allow them to use
their acquired knowledge and innovations resulting in full participation of the communities in
the management initiatives thus yielding positive outcomes (Campbell and Shackleton, 2001;
Hagmann et al., 2002). Ham et al. (2008) suggested that the most plausible way of ensuring
sustainable management of natural resources was to adopt participatory management options
that clearly indicate the benefits and access of communities in proximity to resources. This
could involve formulating resource management committees supported by a responsible
national body (Luckert et al., 2000; Campbell and Shackleton, 2001). In the Zimbabwean
context, EMA would have to deploy a natural resource extension worker in order to assist
communities. Many governments have also realised that climate change adaptation options
with components of sustainable forest management may be effective if there is promotion of
active participation of local communities in the conservation of resources, and this
consequently can improve their livelihoods (Boon and Ahenkan, 2012). Hence, increased
participation of communities in combination with detailed land use mapping would be ideal
for managing woodlands and wetlands in the study area because the other natural resource
management options identified are weak in the sense that they lack a clear legal framework
and external support from a government hierarchy (Mohamed-Katerere, 2001). Detailed land
use planning and mapping at community level in response to human, climatic and ecological
changes is a prerequisite to increase resource use efficiency thereby enhancing the resilience
85
of CNRPs to external forces such as climate change. Prioritisation of participatory natural
resource management by both men and women reflects the benefits of policies that empower
community groups to better management natural resources.
The failures in current natural resource management options perhaps suggest a need for policy
changes in order to capacitate local institutional arrangements that monitor access to CNRPs
and exclusion of outsiders (free riders) from using the resources could be key to arrest the
decline (Ostrom et al., 1999). This suggests the need to build capacity through training and
resource availability aimed at sustainable use of natural resources. Integration of resource
alternatives identified by communities through participatory land use mapping and planning
will be essential to reduce reliance on a declining natural resource base. Revival of ‘social
safety nets’ such as Humwe and Zunde raMambo that encourage farmers to work in groups,
acquiring inputs on time and enhance soil productivity through integrated soil fertility
management (ISFM) to improve crop and livestock production (Mapfumo et al.,
2013;Rurinda et al., 2014a) is necessary to reduce reliance on natural resources. This could
contribute further to the strengthening of livelihoods outside farming systems. In addition,
encouraging communities to diversify crop and livestock production by growing small grains,
and rearing of small livestock such as rabbits and goats for income generation will be
important in reducing reliance on a declining natural resource base. Such strategies will help
in improving the resilience of CNRPs to multiple challenges such as the adverse impacts of
changing climate, biophysical and socio-economic constraints. The data generated in this
study is not sufficient to predict and explain changes in availability of natural resources by the
year 2045. Perhaps inclusion of tools such as scenario planning that can generate creative
approaches to climate change adaptation by identifying the most uncertain and most
worrisome drivers of change thereby addressing uncertainty in natural resource management
(Moore et al., 2013).
86
6.5 Conclusions
A combination of human factors such as land use due to population pressure and increasing
rainfall variability in Hwedza by 2045 amongst other factors will continue to affect
availability of CNRPs. Developing alternatives for firewood, indigenous fruits and water
sources is key in reducing dependency on ecosystem services. Natural resource management
options that recognise gender roles and uneven power relations within households and
communities are likely to yield positive outcomes because men and women have different
resource needs.
87
CHAPTER SEVEN
Summary and recommendations
7.1 Importance of common natural resource pools in smallholder communities
Wetlands and woodlands were the most important common natural resource pools (CNRPs)
significantly contributing to food and income of smallholder communities in Hwedza district
particularly in times of climatic stress. These CNRPs were prioritised because of their
provisioning services as they provided diverse natural resources utilised as food (e.g. water,
Mazhanje (fruits of Uapaca kirkiana), and Hacha (fruits of Parinari curatellifolia)), raw
materials for crafts (Tsanga (Phragmites mauritianus) and Mutsvairo (Miscanthidium
sorghum)) and energy (firewood) (Chapters 4 & 5). The indigenous fruits have high-energy
content (Mithöfer and Waibel, 2003; Woittiez et al., 2013) and are available at the end of the
dry season to the beginning of the rainy season when most households have low food stocks.
Rural people in Hwedza prioritised Hacha and Mazhanje fruits because they have abundant
fruit yields during years of drought compared to other indigenous and exotic fruits (Woittiez,
2010).
Significant utilisation of wetlands and woodlands for food and income, especially by the
resource-constrained (RG3) households was influenced by smallholder communities’
perceptions on changes rainfall patterns. Because the RG3 households often do not produce
adequate maize yields that can suffice them until the next harvest, therefore in order to have
some form of food on their table; such households have to rely on alternative food sources
such as indigenous fruits. For example, RG3 households obtained 6% of their energy intake
between November 2011 and January 2012 compared to 4% by RG1 households (see Chapter
5). Fruits of U. kirkiana and P. curatellifolia reduce food insecurities among rural
communities during droughts because apart from being eaten as a whole fruit, they can be
88
processed into drink, porridge, and bread. These poorer households also engage in selling
both indigenous fruits and crafts made from Tsanga and Mutsvairo in order to have money to
buy more maize. Resource-endowed (RG1) households consume less fruits because they
usually can afford to buy maize during periods of severe drought, ensuring their food selfsufficiency. Therefore, utilisation of wetlands and woodlands is an important way of coping
during periods of climatic stress such as drought particularly for the RG3 households and
intermediate (RG2) households.
7.2 Implications of a declining natural resource base on climate change adaptation
The major CNRPs, wetlands and woodlands, have been declining at a rate of between 10%
per decade from 1972 (Chapter 4). This decline is due to multiple factors such as land use
changes, over reliance of natural resource due to crop and livestock failure, increasing rainfall
variability and increasing temperatures (Chapter 5). Despite the observed trends in availability
of CNRPs, smallholder communities continue to increasingly rely on natural resources due to
limited livelihood options thereby exacerbating pressure on the resource pools. The decline in
ecosystem provisioning services impacts negatively on households and communities,
especially the RG3 households, who depend more on natural resources particularly during
periods of climatic stress such as droughts (Woittiez et al., 2013; Chapter 4). Increased
frequency of severe droughts per decade in Hwedza (Mtambanengwe et al., 2012) has seen
most years being described as ‘bad years” and this has resulted in RG3 households obtaining
poor maize yields lasting between 4-8 months, leaving them with little choice but to heavily
rely on a declining natural resource base. Owing to the low food stocks in most households,
there is increased demand for food from the declining CNRPs thereby creating competition
between households of different social circumstances. Such circumstances have forced
households to increase their labour investments from 17 hours year-1 during a normal year to
89
236 hours year-1 during a bad year when collecting indigenous fruits of Mazhanje and Hacha
(Woittiez, 2010). This has seen men increasingly playing a key role in extraction of water and
indigenous fruits people have to walk longer distances to collect natural resources than before
(Chapter 5). Projected changes in climate are perceived to decrease maize production by 30%
in smallholder communities such as Hwedza by the year 2030 due to low rainfall (IPCC,
2007a; Lobell et al., 2011; Rurinda, 2014) and reduce provisioning services of CNRPs
(Chapter 6). Besides reducing provisioning services, adverse impacts of climate change will
also reduce benefits from regulating ecosystem services such as livestock disease regulation
and pollination (IPCC, 2013). In addition, the microclimate effect that woodlands bring to
communities surrounding woodland will be lost. Therefore, a combination of low and poor
crop productivity and declining natural resource base will cause many smallholder
households, particularly RG3, to be more vulnerable and continue to be trapped in a vicious
cycle of poverty. This scenario may cause conflicts to arise that would impact negatively on
the ‘social safety nets’, thereby reducing resilience and further magnifying the vulnerability of
poorer households to both climatic and socio-economic stresses.
7.3 Possible entry points for improving natural resource management in the face of
climate change and variability
Natural resources extracted from CNRPs buffer communities in periods of need by providing
edible NTFPs that can supplement energy deficit in households and sold to obtain cash (Nkem
et al., 2010; Woittiez et al., 2013). Usually the money comes in small quantities but is critical
to meet household food requirements. Wetlands can be used to grow crops, such that in the
event of rain-induced crop failure, crops harvested from wetlands can buffer households
against food insecurities (Nyamadzawo et al., 2015). Continuous cultivation in wetlands will
90
disturb the hydrological patterns of the wetlands, therefore permanently destroying the
resource pool in the long term.
Therefore, to enhance adaptive capacities of rural communities who depend on natural
resources for both food and income there is need for management options that increase
resilience of CNRPs to adverse impacts of climate change and other biophysical challenges.
Currently in Dendenyore and Ushe wards, there are local by-laws that prohibit cutting down
of indigenous fruit trees such as Muzhanje and Muhacha and this by-law was strengthened by
the 2007/2008 drought when most people relied on edible NTFPs for food. Despite the bylaws in the study area, the decline in wetlands and woodland suggests failures of current
management schemes. Previous studies have suggested that the reasons for failure of bylaws is due to lack of community participation, improper land use planning, land use changes
and lack of enforcement of natural resource management policies (Mohamed-Katerere, 2001;
Mapedza et al., 2003; Mutepfa et al., 2010). Therefore, participation of local leadership,
farmers, Agritex extension workers, Environmental Management Agency (EMA) and other
stakeholders such as SOFECSA and NGOs may be crucial in natural resource management
(see Fig. 7.1). Their participation can pave the way for participatory land use planning and
mapping to integrate alternative resource opportunities to support the regeneration of CNRPs
that could have been degraded to an extent that they can no longer supply adequate quantities
of natural resources to households.
Through SOFECSA’s Learning Centres (LCs), smallholder communities may access
technical information on alternative resource options and how to diversify crops and improve
yields. Activities oriented towards LC’s are implemented coordinated by farmers, agricultural
extension workers, and community leaders.
91
Figure 7. 1 Possible entry points of improving natural resource management of CNRPs in the face of climate change and variability, and other
biophysical and socio-economic challenges.
92
Through IPs, organisations which develop and promote use of solar power (e.g. Solar
Zimbabwe and Poweron Solar private limited), biogas (Rural Electrification Agency and
Saigel Zimbabwe) and other university and NGOs interested in renewable projects such as
Development Technology Centre (DTC) based at the University of Zimbabwe can be invited
to LCs. These organisations can take advantage of LCs to sensitise communities and promote
adoption of their technologies. Adoption of these alternative options reduce dependence on
CNRPs, thereby resulting in improved resilience of CNRPs to impacts of climate change and
other biophysical challenges.
7.4 Areas of future studies
Favourable rainfall distribution during the period of study did not allow this study to quantify
how division of tasks and allocation of scarce natural resources within households and
communities will change in the face of increasing climatic risks such as droughts and rainfall
variability. Despite the apparent changes in gender roles an in-depth study is necessary. With
the apparent decrease in availability of CNRPs, studies aimed at developing models to predict
further changes in CNRPs is critical to effectively manage natural resources. Research aimed
at identifying entry points of integrating alternative resource options such as harnessing solar
power and biogas would be help to release pressure on CNRP under a changing climate
through detailed land use planning.
93
REFERENCES
Akinnifesi, F., Waibel, H., & Mithöfer, D. 2006. The role of food from natural resources in
reducing vulnerability to poverty: a case study from Zimbabwe. Proceedings of the
German Development Economics Conference, Berlin 2006 / Verein für Socialpolitik.
Berlin: Research Committee Development Economics No 28.
Babugara, A., Mtshali, N., & Mtshali, M. 2009. Gender and Climate Change: South African
Case Study. South Africa: Heinrich Boll Stiftung Southern Africa.
Barnes, J., MacGregor, J., & Alberts, M. 2012. Expected climate change impacts on land and
natural resource use in Namibia: exploring economically efficient responses.
Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice 2:1-23.
Barrett, J.C. 1992. The economic role of cattle in communal farming systems of Zimbabwe.
London: Overseas Development Institute, Pastoral Development Network.
Berkes, F., Feeny, D., McCay, B., & Acheson, J. 1989. The benefits of the commons. Nature
340: 91-93.
Boko, M., Niang, I., Nyong, A., Vogel, C., Githeko, A., Medany, M., Osman-Elasha, B.,
Tabo, R., & Yanda, P. 2007. Africa. In M. L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J.
van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, (Eds.), Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation
and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (pp 101-136). Cambridge UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Bond, W.J., Midgley, G.F., & Woodward, F.I. 2003. The importance of low atmospheric CO2
and fire in promoting the spread of grasslands and savannas. Global Change Biology
9: 973-982
Boon, E., & Ahenkan, A. 2005. Assessing Climate Change Impacts on Ecosystem Services
and Livelihoods in Ghana: Case Study of Communities around Sui Forest Reserve.
Ecosystem & Ecography S3. doi:10.4172/2157-7625.S3-001.
Brigham, T., Chihongo, A., & Chidumoyo, E. 1996. Trade in Woodland Products from the
Miombo Region. In B. Campbell (Ed.), The Miombo in Transition: Woodlands and
Welfare in Africa (pp. 137-174). Bogor, Indonesia: Centre for International Forestry
Research.
94
Brown, D., Chanakira, R. R., Chatiza, K., Dhliwayo, M., Dodman, D., Masiiwa, M.,
Muchadenyika, D., Mugabe, P., & Zvigadza, S. 2012. Climate change impacts,
vulnerability and adaptation in Zimbabwe. IIED Climate Change Working Paper No.
3.
Butcher, R., & Eldridge, J., 1990. The Use of Diaries in Data Collection. Journal of the Royal
Statistical Society. Series D (The Statistician) 39(1): 25-41.
Campbell, B., & Shackleton, S. 2001. The Organizational Structures for Community-Based
Natural Resources Management in Southern Africa. African Studies Quarterly 5(3):
73-86.
Campbell, B., Luckert, M. & Scoones, I. 1997. Local-level valuation of Savannah resources:
A case study from Zimbabwe. Economic Botany 51(1): 59-77.
Campbell, B., Frost, P., & Byron, N. 1996. Miombo woodlands and their use: overview and
key issues. In B. Campbell (Ed.), The Miombo in Transition: Woodlands and Welfare
in Africa (pp. 1-5). Bogor, Indonesia: Centre for International Forestry Research.
Casell, C., & Symon, G. 2004. Essential Guide to Qualitative Methods in Organizational
Research. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Cavendish, W. 1998. The Complexity of the Commons: Environmental Resource Demands in
Rural Zimbabwe. Oxford: Centre for the Study of African Economies.
Cavendish, W. 2000. Empirical Regularities in the Poverty-Environment Relationship of
Rural Households: Evidence from Zimbabwe. World Development 28(11):1979-2003.
Cavendish, W., & Campbell, B. 2008. Annex5: Poverty, Environmental Income and Rural
Inequality: A case study from Zimbabwe. In World Bank (Ed), Managing the Miombo
Woodlands of Southern Africa: Policies, Incentives and Options for the Rural Poor
Technical Annexes (pp. 106-124). Washington DC: Sustainable Development
Department Environment and Natural Resources Management Unit Africa Region.
Chawatama, S., Mutisi, C., & Mupawaenda, A. 2005. The socio-economic status of
smallholder livestock production in Zimbabwe: a diagnostic study. Retrieved April 15,
2013, from Livestock Research for Rural Development. Volume 17, Article #143:
http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd17/12/chaw17143.htm
Chenje, M., & Johnson, P. Eds. 1996. Water in Southern Africa. Harare/Maseru:
SADC/IUCN/SARDC.
95
Chenje, M., Sola, L., & Paleczny, D. 1998. The State of Zimbabwe's Environment 1998.
Harare: The Government of the Republic of Zimbabwe, Ministry of Mines,
Environment and Tourism.
Chidumayo, E., & Frost, P. 1996. Population biology of miombo trees. In B. Campbell (Ed.),
The Miombo in Transition: Woodlands and Welfare in Africa (pp. 59-71). Bogor,
Indonesia: Centre for International Forestry Research.
Chipika, J. T., & Kowero, G. 2000. Deforestation of woodlands in communal areas of
Zimbabwe: is it due to agricultural policies? Agriculture, Ecosystems and
Environment 79:175-185.
Chirwa, P. W., Syampungani, S., & Geldenhuys, C. J. 2008. The ecology and management of
the Miombo woodlands for sustainable livelihoods in southern Africa: the case for
non-timber forest products. Southern Forests 70(3): 237-245.
Chitsike, C. (2000). Culture as a Barrier to Rural Women's Entrepreneurship: Experience
from Zimbabwe. Gender and Development 8 (1): 71-77
Christensen, J. H., Hewitson, B., Busuioc, A., Chen, A., Gao, X., Held, R., Kolli, R.K.,
Kwon, W., Laprise, R. (2007). Regional climate projections: climate change (2007):
the physical science basis. contribution of working group I to the fourth assessment
report of the IPCC. Cambridge: University Press.
Clarke, J., Cavendish, W., & Coote, C. 1996. Rural households and miombo woodlands: use,
value and management. In B. Campbell (Ed.), The Miombo in Transition: Woodlands
and Welfare in Africa (pp. 101-136). Bogor, Indonesia: Centre for International
Forestry Research.
Cohen, J. 1968. Weighted kappa: Nominal scale agreement with provision for scaled
disagreement or partial credit. Psychological Bulletin 70: 426-443.
Compton, R.H. 1976. The flora of Swaziland. Journal of South African Botany: Supplement
II pages
Corti, L. 1993. Social Research Update 2: Using diaries in social research. University of
Surrey. http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/SRU2.html. Accessed 14 September 2014
Crosbie, T. (2006). Using Activity Diaries: Some Methodological Lessons. Journal of
Research Practice 2(1): 1-6.
96
CSO (Central Statistical Office). 1994. Census 1992: Zimbabwe National Report. Harare:
Central Statistical Office.
CSO (Central Statistical Office). 2004. Census 2002: Provincial Profile Mashonaland East.
Harare: Central Statistics Office.
Dale, V. H. 1997. The Relationship between Land-Use Change and Climate Change.
Ecological Applications 7 (3): 753-769.
Dennison, M. S., & Barry, V.F. 1993. Wetlands: Guide to Science, Law, and Technology.
New Jersey, Park Ridge: Noyes Publications.
Desanker, P., & Magadza, C. 2001. Africa. In Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptations,
and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report
of the International Panel on Climate Change (pp. 489-531). Cambridge UK:
Cambridge University Press.
DEWFORA. 2011. Assessing existing drought monitoring and forecasting capacities,
mitigation and adaptation practices in Africa. South Africa: Improved drought early
warning and forecasting to strengthen preparedness and adaptation to droughts in
Africa (DEWFORA).
Dore, D. 2001. Transforming Traditional Institutions for Sustainable Natural Resource
Management: History, Narratives and Evidence from Zimbabwe's Communal Areas.
African Studies Quarterly 5(3):1-18.
Easterling, W.E., Aggarwal, P.K., Batima, P., Brander, K.M., Erda, L., Howden, S.M.,
Kirilenko, A., Morton, J., Soussana, J-F., Schmidhuber, J., & Tubiello, F.N. 2007.
Food, fibre and forest products. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P.
Palutikof, P.J . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Ebanyat, P. (2009). A road to food? Efficacy of nutrient management options targeted to
heterogeneous soilscapes in the Teso farming system, Uganda. PhD Thesis:
Wageningen University, the Netherlands
Eldridge, C. 2002. Why was the No Famine Following the 1992 Southern African Drought?
The Contribution and Consequences of Household Responses. IDS Bulletin 33 (4): 7987. DOI: 10.1111/j.1759-5436.2002.tb00047.x.
97
Feresu, S B.(Ed.). 2010. Zimbabwe Environment Outlook: Our Environment, Everybody's
Responsibility. Harare, Zimbabwe: Government of Zimbabwe. The Ministry of
Environment and Natural Resources.
Feresu, S. B., Madamombe, E. K., Mtetwa, S. D., Musariri, M., Sunguro, S., & Tererai, F.
2010. Chapter 5: Water. In S. B. Feresu (Ed.), Zimbabwe Environment Outlook: Our
Environment, Everybody's Responsibility (pp. 132-165). Harare, Zimbabwe:
Government of the Republic of Zimbabwe. The Ministry of Environment & Natural
Resources Management.
Fischlin, A., Midgley, G.F., Price, J.T., Leemans, R., Gopal, B., Turley, C., Rounsevell,
M.D.A., Dube, O.P., Tarazona, J., & Velichko, A.A. 2007. Ecosystems, their
properties, goods, and services. In M. L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van
der Linden and C.E. Hanson (Eds.) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (pp 211- 272). Cambridge UK:
Cambridge University Press.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2011. The state of the
world’s land and water resources for food and agriculture (SOLAW) – Managing
systems at risk. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome and
London: Earthscan.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation). 2009. Country Profile: Food Security Indicators,
Zimbabwe.http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/ess/documents/food_security_stati
stics/country_profiles/eng/Zimbabwe_E.pdf . Accessed 15 November 2014.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2004a. Building on gender, agrobiodiversity and
local knowledge. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2004b. Drought impact mitigation and prevention
in the Limpopo River Basin. A situation analysis. FAO Corporate Document
Repository: http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y5744e/y5744e00.htm. Accessed 27 June
2015.
98
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 1994. Rural households and sustainability:
Integrating environmental and gender concerns into home economics curricula. FAO
Corporate Document Repository: www.fao.org/docrep/v5406e00.htm. Accessed 15
September 2015.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation). 1987. Restoring the balance: Women and forest
resources, Italy, Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation). 1968. Food composition table for use in Africa.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6877e/x6877e00.htm . Accessed 16 November 2014.
Fonjong, N. 2008. Gender Roles and practices in natural resource management in the North
West Province of Cameroon, Local Environment. The International Journal of Justice
and Sustainability 13 (5): 461-475.
Frost, P. 1996. The ecology of miombo woodlands. In B. Campbell (Ed.), The Miombo in
Transition: Woodlands and Welfare in Africa (pp. 11-55). Bogor, Indonesia: Centre
for International Forestry Research.
Frost, P., Campbell, B., Luckert, M., Mutamba, M., Mandondo, A., & Kozanayi, W. 2007. In
search of improved livelihoods in semi-arid regions through local management of
natural resources: Lessons from case studies in Zimbabwe. World Development
35(11): 1961-1974.
Gadzirayi, C. T., Mutandwa, E., Chihiya, J., & Chikosha, M. 2006. Indigenous knowledge
systems for sustainable utilization of wetlands in communal areas of Zimbabwe:
Hwedza district. African Journal of Agricultural Research 1 (4): 131-137.
Gonzalez, A., Belemvire, A., & Sauliere, S. 2011. Climate Change and Women Farmers in
Burkina
Faso
Impact
and
Adaptation
Policies
and
Practices.
https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/rr-climate-change-women-farmersburkina-130711-en.pdf. Accessed 13 August 2014.
Gill, P., Stewart, K., Treasure, E., & Chadwick, B. 2008. Methods of data collection in
qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. British Dental Journal 204: 291-295
Giller, K. E., Leeuwis, C., Andersson, J. A., Andriesse, W., Brouwer, A., Frost, P., Hebinck,
P., Heitkönig, I., van Ittersum, M. K., Koning, N., Ruben, R., Slingerland, M., Udo,
H., Veldkamp, T., van de Vijver, C., van Wijk, M. T., & Windmeijer, P., 2008.
99
Competing Claims on natural resources: what role for science? Ecology and Society
13(2).
Grundy, I., Turpie, J., Jagger, P., Witkowski, E., Guambe, I., Semwayo, D., & Solomon, A.
2000. Implications of co-management for benefits from natural resources for rural
households in north-western Zimbabwe. Ecological Economics 33: 369–381.
Gwandu, T., Mtambanengwe, F., Mapfumo, P., Mashavave, T, C., Chikowo, R., & Nezomba,
H. 2014. Factors influencing access to integrated soil fertility management
information and knowledge and its uptake among smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe.
The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 20(1): 79-93.
Habtamu, T., & Bekele, A. 2012. Species composition, relative abundance and habitat
association of small mammals along the altitudinal gradient of Jiren Mountain, Jimma,
Ethiopia. African Journal of Ecology 51: 37–46.
Hagmann, J. R., Chuma, E., Murwira, K., Connolly, M., & Ficarelli, P. 2002. Success factors
in integrated natural resource management R&D: lessons from practice. Conservation
Ecology 5(2). Available: http://www.consecol.org/vol5/iss2/art29/. Accessed 14
September 2014
Ham, C., Chirwa, P. W., & Theron, F. 2008. The forester as a change agent: from trees
between the people to people between the trees. In F. Theron (Ed) , The development
change agent: a micro-level approach to development (pp. 173–201). Pretoria: JL van
Schaik Publishers.
Hamandawana, H., Nkambwe, M., Chanda, R., & Eckardt, F. 2005. Population driven
changes in land use in Zimbabwe's Gutu district of Masvingo province: Some lessons
from recent history. Applied Geography 25: 248-270.
Hardin, G. 1968. The tragedy of the common. Science 162:1243-1248.
Heubes, J. M., Schmidt, B., Stuch, J. R., García Márquez, R., Wittig, G., Zizka, A.,
Thiombiano, B., Sinsin, B., Schaldach, R., and Hahn, K. 2013. The projected impact
of climate and land use change on plant diversity:An example from West Africa.
Journal of Arid Environments 96: 48-54.
Hein, L., Metzger, M., & Leemans, R. 2008. The local impacts of climate change in the Ferlo
Western Sahel. Climate Change 93: 465-483.
100
Hély, C., Bremond, L., Alleaume, S., Smith, B., Sykes, M., & Guiot, J. 2006. Sensitivity of
African biomes to changes in the precipitation regime. Global Ecology and
Biogeography 15: 258–270.
Hussein, J.1987. Agroclimatological analysis of growing season in natural regions lll, lV and
V of Zimbabwe. In: Cropping in the semi-arid areas of Zimbabwe. Proceedings of a
workshop held in Harare 24th to 28th August 1987 (pp. 25-189). Harare, Zimbabwe:
Agritex/DR&SS/GTZ.
Hyde, M.A., Wursten, B.T., Ballings, P. & Coates Palgrave, M. 2014. Flora of Zimbabwe.
http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/index.php. Accessed 30 June 2014
Iida, M., Shrout, P., Laurenceau, J., & Bolger, N. 2012. Using Diary Methods in
Pyschological Research. In: H. Cooper (Ed) Handbook of Research Methods in
Psychology: Vol 1. Foundations, Planning, Measures, and Psychometrics (pp. 277305) :American Psychological Association.
IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development). 2012. Environmental and natural
resource management policy: Resilient livelihoods through sustainable use of natural
assets. Italy: IFAD. http://www.ifad.org/climate/policy/enrm_e.pdf . Accessed 17
January 2014.
IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute ). 2013. IFPRI Strategy 2013–2018:
Food Policy Research in a Times. Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy
Research Institute. doi:10.2499/9780896298149.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2014. Climate Change 2014: Impacts,
Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of
Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New
York, NY, USA, 1132 pp.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2013. Summary for Policymakers. In:
Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I
to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Cambridge, UK and Newyork, USA: Cambridge University Press.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change).2007a. Climate Change 2007: Impacts,
Adaptation
and
Vulnerability.
Working
Group
II
Contribution
to
the
101
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report. A Summary
for Policy Makers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2007b. Climate Change 2007: The
Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment
Report to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. A Summary for Policy
Makers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2007c. Climate Change 2007: Impacts,
Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Summary for
Policymakers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2001. Climate Change 2001: Synthesis
Report. Summary for Policy Makers. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 1997. The Regional Impacts of Climate
Change: An Assessment of Vulnerability. A Summary for Policy Makers. A special
Report of IPCC Working Group II. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press.
Ishaya, S., & Abaje, I.B. 2008. Indigenous People’s Perception on Climate Change and
Adaptation Strategies in Jema’a Local Government area of Kaduna State, Nigeria.
Journal of Geography and Regional Planning 1(8): 138-143.
Jumbe, C., Bwalya, S., & Husselman, M. 2008. Annex 1: Contribution of dry forests to rural
livelihoods and the national economy in Zambia. In World Bank (Ed.), Managing the
Miombo Woodlands of Southern Africa Policies, incentives and options for the rural
poor Technical Annexes (pp. 1-22). Washington, DC: Sustainable Development
Department Environment and Natural Resources Management Unit Africa Region.
Jyothi, N., Radhika, K., & Murali Krishna, I. 2013. Image Analysis based on Spectral and
Spatial. International Journal of Application or Innovation in Engineering &
Management 2(3): 486-490.
Kalaba, F., Chirwa, P., & Prozesky, H. 2009. The contribution of indigenous fruit trees in
sustaining rural livelihoods and conservation of natural resources. Journal of
Horticulture and Forestry 1 (1): 001-006.
102
Kamusoko, C., & Aniya, M. 2007. Land use/cover change and landscape fragmentation
analysis in the Bindura District, Zimbabwe. Land Degradation and Development 18:
221-233.
Kandji, S.T., Verchot, L., & Mackensen, J. 2006. Climate Change and Variability in Southern
Africa: Impact and Adaptation in the Agriculture Sector. Nairobi: UNEP & ICRAF.
Kigomo, B. N. 2003. Forests and woodlands degradation in dryland Africa: A case for urgent
global attention. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization.
Krishnamurty, P. 2008. Diary. In: P. Lavrakas (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Survey Research
Methods (pp. 198-200).Thousand Oaks, California, USA: Sage Publications.
Krueger, R., & Cassey, M. 2000. Focus Groups. A Practical Guide for Applied Research (3rd
Edition). Thousand Oaks, California, USA: Sage Publications.
Kundhlande, G., Govereh, J., & Muchena, O.N. 1995. Socioeconomic constraints to increase
utilisation of dambos in selected areas. In Owen, R., Verbeek., Jackson, J.E., and
Steenhuis, T. (Eds.) Dambo Farming in Zimbabwe: Water Management, Cropping
and Soil Potentials for Smallholder Farming in the Wetlands (pp. 87-96). Harare:
University of Zimbabwe Publications.
Langill, S., & Landon, S. 1998. Indigenous Knowledge Readings and Resources for
Community-Based Natural Resource Management Researchers. Ottawa: IDRC.
Lobell, D., & Burke, M. 2008. Why are agricultural impacts of climate change so uncertain?
The importance of temperature relative to precipitation. Environmental Research
Letters 3. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/3/3/034007.
Lobell, D., Bänziger, M., Magorokosho, C., & Vivek, B. 2011. Nonlinear heat effects on
African maize as evidenced by historical yield trials. Nature Climate Change 1:42-45.
Lowore, J. 2006. Miombo woodlands and rural livelihoods in Malawi. Bogor, Indonesia:
Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR).
Luckert, M., Wilson, J., Adamowicz, V., & Cunningham, A. 2000. Household resource
allocations in response to risks and returns in a communal area of western Zimbabwe.
Ecological Economics 33 (2000): 383-394.
103
Mohamed-Katerere, J. 2001. Participatory Natural Resource Management in the Communal
Lands of Zimbabwe: What Role for Customary Law? African Studies Quarterly 5(3):
87-114.
Makadho, M. J. 1996. Potential Effects of Climate Change on Corn Production in Zimbabwe.
Climate Research 6: 147-151.
Makanganise, A., & Mabasa. S. 2000. Weed identification guide for common weeds in arable
areas of Zimbabwe. Harare, Zimbabwe: Government of Zimbabwe Publication.
Mangosho, E., & Mupambwa, H. A. 2011. Integrated Weed Management and Control in
Selected Field Crops: A Field Manual for Extension Agents, Trainers, Farm Managers
and Researchers. A Department of Research &Specialist Services (DR&SS) Publication.
Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation Development. Harare. Zimbabwe.
Mano, R., & Nhemachena. C. 2006. Assessment of the economic impacts of climate change on
agriculture in Zimbabwe: A Racardian approach. CEEPA Discussion paper No. 11
CEEPA, University of Pretoria.
Manzungu. E., & Mtali, L. (2012). An Investigation into the Spatial and Temporal Distribution
of Fallow Land and the Underlying Causes in South central Zimbabwe. Journal of
Geography and Geology 4(4): 62-75.
Mapedza, E., Wright, J., and Fawcett, R. 2003. An investigation of land cover change in
Mafungautsi Forest, Zimbabwe, using GIS and participatory mapping. Applied
Geography 23: 1–21.
Mapfumo, P., Mtambanengwe, F., & Chikowo, R. 2015. Building on indigenous knowledge
to strengthen the capacity of smallholder farming communities to adapt to climate
change and variability in southern Africa. Climate and Development. DOI:
10.1080/17565529.2014.998604
Mapfumo, P., Adjei-Nsiah, S., Mtambanengwe, F., Chikowo, R., & Giller, K. E. 2013.
Participatory action research (PAR) as an entry point for supporting climate change
adaptation by smallholder farmers in Africa. Environmental Development 5: 6-22.
Mapfumo, P. 2009. Integrating sustainable soil fertility management innovations in staple
cereal systems and other value chains to enhance livelihoods and environmental
systems in Southern Africa. A SOFECSA technical annual report for the sub-Saharan
Challenges Program. Harare, Zimbabwe: (SSA-CP) prepared for the Forum for
Agricultural Research (FARA). Soil Fertility Consortium for Southern Africa
(SOFECSA), CIMMYT-Zimbabwe.
104
Mapfumo, P., Mtambanengwe, F., Chikowo, R., Adjei-Nsiah, S.,Baijukya, R., Maria, R.,
Mvula, A., & Giller, K, E. 2008. Farmer's perceptions leads to experimentation and
learning. LEISA 24 (4): 30-31.
Mapfumo, P., & Giller, K.E. 2001. Soil fertility management strategies and practices by
smallholder farmers in semi-arid areas of Zimbabwe. Bulawayo, Zimbabwe:
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT).
Maroyi, A. 2011. The Gathering and Consumption of Wild Edible Plants in Nhema
Communal Area, Midlands Province, Zimbabwe. Ecology of Food and Nutrition
50(6): 506-525.
Masadeh, M. 2012. Focus Group: Reviews and Practices. International Journal of Applied
Science and Technology 2(10), 63-68.
Mashavave, T.C., Gwandu, T., Nezomba, H., Chikowo, R., Siziba, S., Mtambanengwe, F., &
Mapfumo, P. 2011. Factors influencing participation of smallholder farmers in
knowledge sharing alliances around SOFECSA field-based learning centres.
Proceedings of the 10th African Crop Science Society Conference, 9–13 October,
Maputo, Mozambique. Maputo: African Crop Science Society
Matarira, C.H., Makadho, J., & Mukanahanana-Sangarwe, M. 2004. Vulnerability and
Adaptation of Maize Production to Climate Change in Zimbabwe. (W. Zhakata, Ed.)
Harare: Government of Zimbabwe, Ministry of Environment and Tourism.
Matarira, C.H., and Mwamuka, F.C. 1996. Vulnerability of Zimbabwe Forests to Climate
Change. Climate Research 6: 135-136
Matsa, M., & Muringaniza, K. 2011. An Assessment of the land use and landcover changes in
Shurugwi
District,
Midlands
Province,
Zimbabwe.
Ethiopian
Journal
of
Environmental Studies and Management 4(2): 88-100.
McClean, C.J., Lovett, J.C., Küper, W., Hannah, L., Sommer, J. H., Barthlott, W., Termansen,
M., Smith, G.F., Tokumine, S., & Taplin, R.D. 2005. African Plant Diversity and
Climate Change. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 92 (2): 139-152.
McKinney, M. 2008. Effects of urbanization on species richness: A review of plants and
animals. Urban Ecosystem 11:161–176.
Melillo, J.M., Callaghan, T.V., Woodward, E., Salati, S.K., and Sinha, S. 1990. Climate
change—effects on ecosystems. In J. T. Houghton, G. J. Jenkins & J. J. Ephraums
105
(Ed.) Climate Change—the IPCC Scientific Assessment, (pp 282–310). Cambridge
(UK): Cambridge University Press.
Mertz, O., Mbow, C., Reenberg, A., & Diouf, A. 2009. Farmers’ Perceptions of Climate
Change and Agricultural Adaptation Strategies in Rural Sahel. Environmental
Management 43: 804–816.
Mharapara, I. M., Munema, M. D., & Mkwanda, R. 1999. Zimbabwe Country Paper:
Experiences on Wetland Characterisation, Classification, Management, and
Utilisation for Agricultural Development in Zimbabwe. A Case Study for Wetland
Research: In Wetland Characterisation and Classification for Sustainable
Agriculture. Harare: FAO Corporate Document and Repository.
MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment). 2005a. Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC.
MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment). 2005b. Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Wetlands and Water. Island Press, Washington, DC.
Ministry of Environment and Natural Resource Management. 2013. Zimbabwe National
Climate Change Response Strategy (First Draft) — For Discussion and Consultative
Purpose Only (May 2013). Harare: Government of Zimbabwe.
Ministry of Public Service, Labor and Social Welfare. 2006. Zimbabwe 2003 Poverty
Assessment Study Survey Main Report. Harare: Government of Zimbabwe.
Minja, R. 1997. The role of non-timber forest products in parts of Iringa Region, Tanzania.
Non-timber forest products: value, use and management issues in Africa, including
examples from Latin America. Proceedings of a workshop held in Naro Moru, Kenya,
8-13 May 1994 (pp. 29-36). Nairobi Kenya: IUCN.
Mithöfer, D., & Waibel, H. 2003. Income and labour productivity of collection and use of
indigenous fruit tree products in Zimbabwe. Agroforestry Systems 59: 295-305
Molua, E. 2002. Climate Variability, Vulnerability and Effectiveness of Farm-level
adaptations Options: the Challenges and Implications for Food. Environment and
Development Economics 7: 529-545
Moore, S. S., Seavy, N. E., & Gerhart, C. 2013. Scenario planning for climate change
adaptation: A guidance for resource managers. Carlifonia: PRBO Conservation
Science and the California Coastal Conservancy.
106
Moss, R.H., Edmonds, J.A., & Hibbard, K.A. 2010.The next generation of scenarios for
climate change research and assessment. Nature 463: 747-756.
Msalilwa, U. 2013. Role of non-timber forest products in climate change adaptation by forest
dependent communities in Kilolo District, Iringa, Tanzania. MSc Thesis: Sokoine
University of Agriculture, Tanzania.
Mtambanengwe, F., & Mapfumo, P. 2008. Smallholder farmer management impacts on
particulate and labile carbon fractions of granitic sandy soils in Zimbabwe. Nutrient
Cycling in Agroecosystems 81: 1-15
Mtambanengwe, F., & Mapfumo, P. 2005. Organic matter management as an underlying
cause for soil fertility gradients on smallholder farms in Zimbabwe. Nutrient Cycling
in Agroecosystems 73: 227–243.
Mtambanengwe, F., Mapfumo, P., Chikowo, R., & Chamboko, T. 2012. Climate change and
variability: Smallholder farming communities in Zimbabwe portray a varied
understanding. African Crop Science Journal 20 (s2): 227-241.
Mubaya, C, P., Njuki, J., Mutsvangwa, E, P., Mugabe, F, T., & Nanja, D. 2012. Climate
variability and change or multiple stressors? Farmer perceptions regarding threats to
livelihoods in Zimbabwe and Zambia. Journal of Environmental Management 104: 917.
Musvoto, C., Mapaure, I., Gondo, T., Ndeinoma, A., & Mujawo, T. 2006. Reality and
preferences
in
community
Mopane
(Colophospermum
mopane)
woodland
management in Zimbabwe and Namibia. International Journal of Human and Social
Sciences 1(3): 173-177.
Mutambikwa, A., Barton, A., Ellis-Jones, J., Mashingaidze, A., Riches, C., & Chivinge, O.
2001. Soil and Water Management Options for Seasonal Wetlands (Vleis) in SemiArid areas of Masvingo Province, Zimbabwe. Seventh Eastern and Southern Africa
Regional Maize Conference 11th -15th February 2001, (pp. 274-280): Nairobi, Kenya.
Mutepfa, F., Marongwe, N., & Matondi, P. 2010. Chapter 4: Land. In S. B. Feresu, (Ed.),
Zimbabwe Environment Outlook: Our Environment, Everybody’s Responsibility (pp.
89-129). Harare, Zimbabwe: Government of the Republic of Zimbabwe. The Ministry
of Environment and Natural Resources.
107
Nabahungu, N., & Visser, S. 2011. Contribution of wetland agriculture to farmer livelihoods
in Rwanda. Ecological Economics 71: 4-13.
Nanduddu, S. 2010. Lived Experiences: Adaptation to Climate Change in Gonyono SubCounty, Palisa District Uganda. Nairobi: Community Based Adaptation to Climate
Change in Africa (CBAA).
Nangombe, S. S. (2015). Drought conditions and management strategies in Zimbabwe. In D.
Tsegai (Ed.), Proceedings of the Regional Workshops on Capacity Development to
Support National Drought Management Policies for Eastern and Southern Africa and
the Near East and North Africa Regions (pp. 84-89). Bonn, Germany: UN-Water
Decade Programme on Capacity Development (UNW-DPC).
Ndungo, C., Masiga, C., Bekalo, I., Ochola, W.O., & Mwonya, R.A. 2010. Gender and
Natural Resource Management. In W. O. Ochola, P. C. Sanginga, & I. Bekalo,
Managing Natural Resources for Development in Africa: A Resource Book (pp. 211261). Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press.
Nduwamungu, J., Bloesch, U., Munishi, P., Hagedorn, F., & Lulu, K. 2008. Recent Land
Cover
and
Use
Changes
in
Miombo
Woodlands
of
Eastern Tanzania.,
http://www.adansoniaconsulting.ch/document/Article.Jean.Land_cover_use_changes_
in_miombo-NEW11.pdf. Accessed 19 April 2013
Nelson, E.J., Kareiva, P., Ruckelshaus, M., Arkema, K., Geller, G., Girvetz, E., Goodrich, D.,
Matzek, V., Pinsky, M., Reid, W., Saunders, M., Semmens, D., & Tallis, H. 2013.
Climate change’s impact on key ecosystem services and the human well-being they
support in the US. Frontier in Ecology and the Environment 11 (9): 483–493.
doi:10.1890/120312.
Neufeldt, H., Jahn, M., Campbell, B.M., Beddington, J.R., DeClerck, F., De Pinto, A.,
Gulledge, J., Hellin, J., Herrero, M., Jarvis, A., LeZaks, D., Meinke, H., Rosenstock,
T., Scholes, M., Scholes, R., Vermeulen, S., Wollenberg, E. & Zougmoré, R. 2013.
Beyond climate-smart agriculture: toward safe operating spaces for global food
systems. Agriculture and Food Security 2: 1 – 6.
108
NEWCOURSE. 2010. Women, Natural Resource Management, and Poverty. Bainbridge
Island,
WA.
http://anewcourse.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/women-natural-
resource-management-and-poverty-PEW.pdf. Accessed 14 October 2014.
Nezomba, H., Mtambanengwe, F., Titonell, P., & Mapfumo, P. (2015). Point of no return?
Rehabilitating degraded soils for increased crop productivity on smallholder farms in
eastern Zimbabwe. Geordema 239:143-155.
Nkem, J., Kalame, F., Idinoba, M., Somorin, O., Ndoye, O., & Awono, A. 2010. Shaping
forest safety nets with markets: Adaptation to climate change under changing roles of
tropical forests in Congo Basin. Environmental Science and Policy 13: 498-508.
Nyamapfene, K. 1991. Soils of Zimbabwe. Harare: Nehanda Publishers.
Nyamadzawo, G., Wuta, M., Nyamangara, J., Nyamugafata, P., & Chirinda, N. 2015.
Optimizing dambo (seasonal wetland) cultivation for climate change adaptation and
sustainable crop production in the smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe,
International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 13 (1): 23-39
Nyathi, P., & Campbell, B. 1993. The acquisition and use of miombo litter by small-scale
farmers in Masvingo, Zimbabwe. Agroforestry Systems 22: 43-48.
Nyikahadzoi, K., Siziba, S., Mango, N., Mapfumo, P., Adekenhle, A., & Fantubi, O. 2012.
Creating food self-reliance among the smallholder farmers of eastern Zimbabwe:
exploring the role of integrated agricultural research for development. Food Security 4
(4): 647 – 656.
Nyong, A., Adesina, F., & Elasha, O.B. 2007. The Value of Indigenous Knowledge in
Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies in the African Sahel. Mitigation
Adaptation Strategies Global Change 12:787-797.
Nyoka, B. I., Gotosa, T., Mabuku, O., Mushongahande, M., & Rodriguez, J. 2010. Chapter 7:
Biodiversity. In S. B. Feresu (Ed.), Zimbabwe environment outlook: Our envrioment,
everybody's responsibility (pp. 201-242). Harare, Zimbabwe: Government of
Zimbabwe.
O’Brien, K., Sygna, L., Leichenko, R., Adger, W.N., Barnett, J., Mitchell, T., Schipper, L.,
Tanner, T., Vogel, C., & Mortreux, C. 2008. Disaster Risk Reduction, Climate Change
Adaptation and Human Security. Report prepared for the Royal Norwegian Ministry
109
of Foreign Affairs by the Global Environmental Change and Human Security
(GECHS) Project, GECHS Report 2008:3.
Olson, J., Misana, S., Campbell, D., Mbonile, M., & Mugisha, S. 2004. A research framework
to identify root causes of land use change leading to land degradation and changing
biodiversity. Land Use Change Impacts and Dynamics (LUCID) Project Working
Paper 48. Nairobi, Kenya: International Livestock Research Institute.
Ogunbameru, O. 2003. Focus Groups: Issues and Approaches. Anthropologist 5(1):1-8.
Orwa, C., Mutua, A., Kindt , R., Jamnadass, R., & Anthony, S. 2009. Agrofrestree Datbase: a
tree
refrence
and
selction
guide
version
4.0.
World
Agroforestry
http://www.worldagroforestry.org/resources/databases/agroforestree.. Accessed: 21
November 2014.
Ostrom, E. 2003. How types of goods and property rights jointly affect collective action.
Journal of Theoretical Politics, 15(3), 239-270.
Ostrom, E. 2000. Collective Action and the Evolution of Social Norms. The Journal of
Economic Perspective 14(13): 137-158.
Ostrom, E. 1999. Coping with tragedies of the commons. Annual Reviews Political Science,
2, 493-535.
Ostrom, E., Burger, J., Field, C.B., Norgaard, R.B., & Policansky, D. 1999. Revisiting the
Commons: Local Lessons, Global Challenges. Science 284: 278-282
Ostrom, E., Walker, J., & Gardner, R. 1992. Covenants With and Without a Sword: SelfGovernance is Possible. The American Political Science Review, 86(2), 404-417.
Oudwater, N., & Martin, A. 2003. Methods and issues in exploring local knowledge of soils.
Geoderma 111:387-401.
Owen, R., Duinker, P., & Beckley, T. 2009. Capturing Old-Growth Values for Use in Forest
Decision-Making. Environmental Management 43: 237-248.
Peres, C., & Lake, I. 2003. Extent of Non-timber Resource Extraction in Tropical Forests:
Accessibility to Game Vertebrates by Hunters in the Amazon Basin. Conservation
Biology 17(2): 521–535.
110
Phellas, C, N., Bloch, A, & Seale, C. 2011. Structured Methods: Interviews, Questionnaires,
and Observation. In: C. Seale (Ed) Doing Research (pp 181-205). London: Sage
Publisher.
Riahi, K., Grübler, A., & Nakicenovic, N. 2007. Scenarios of long-term socio-economic and
environmental development under climate stabilization. Technological Forecasting
and Social Change 74: 887-935.
Ramsar. 1971. The text of the Ramsar Convention and other key original documents. The
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-documentstexts/main/ramsar/1-31-38_4000_0. Accessed 21 August 2013.
Ramsar COP 8. 2002. Climate Change and Wetlands: Impacts, Adaptation and Mitigation.
"Wetlands: water, life, and culture” 8th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting
Parties to the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971) Valencia, Spain, 18-26
November 2002. Valencia.
Rossiter, D. 2004. Technical Note: Statistical methods for accuracy assessment of classified
thematic maps. Enscheda (NL): Department of Earth Systems Analysis International
Institute for Geo-information Science & Earth Observation (ITC).
Rurinda, J. 2014. Vulnerability and adaptation to climate variability and change in
smallholder farming systems in Zimbabwe. PHD Thesis: Wageningen University, the
Netherlands.
Rurinda, J., Mapfumo, P., van Wijk, M, T., Mtambanengwe, F., Rufino, M, C., Chikowo, R.,
& Giller, K, E. 2014a. Comparative assessment of productivity of maize, finger millet
and sorghum for household food security in the face of increasing climatic risk.
European Journal of Agronomy 55: 29-41.
Rurinda, J., Mapfumo, P., van Wijk, M, T., Mtambanengwe, F., Rufino, M, C., Chikowo, R.,
& Giller, K, E. 2014b. Sources of vulnerability to a variable and changing climate
among smallholder households in Zimbabwe: A participatory analysis. Climate Risk
Management, doi:10.1016/j.crm.2014.05.004.
Rurinda, J., Mapfumo, P., van Wijk, M.T., Mtambanengwe, F., Rufino, M.C., Chikowo, R., &
Giller, K.E. 2013. Managing soil fertility to adapt to rainfall variability in smallholder
cropping systems in Zimbabwe, Field Crops Research 154: 211-225
111
Sanginga, P. C., & Chitsike, C. A. 2005. The power of visioning. A handbook for facilitating
the development of community action plans. Enabling Rural Innovation Guide 1.
Kampala, Uganda: International Centre for Tropical Agriculture.
Shackleton, C., & Clarke, J. 2007. PAPER 1: Research and Management of Miombo
Woodlands for Products in Support of Local Livelihoods. Johannesburg, South Africa:
Genesis Analytics.
Shackleton, C., & Shackleton, S. 2004. The importance of non-timber forest products in rural
livelihood security and as safety nets: a review of evidence from South Africa. South
African Journal of Science 100: 658-664.
Shackleton, C., Shackleton, S., Gambiza, J., Nel, E., Rowntree, K., & Urquhart, P. 2008.
Links between Ecosystem Services and Poverty Alleviation: Situation analysis for arid
and semi-arid lands in southern Africa. Submitted to: Ecosystem Services and Poverty
Reduction Research Programme. DFID, NERC, ESRC. Consortium on Ecosystem and
Poverty in sub-Saharan Africa (CESPA).
Shackleton, C.M., Grundy, I.M. and Williams, A. 2004. Use of wood from woodlands for
energy and construction. In Lawes, M.J., Eeley, H.A.C., Shackleton, C.M. and Geach,
B.G.S. (Eds.), Indigenous Forests and Woodlands in South Africa: Policy, People and
Practice (pp 337-363). Pietermaritzburg, South Africa: University of KwaZulu-Natal
Press.
Shackleton, S, E., Shackleton, C, M., Netshiluvhi, T, R., Geach, B, S., Ballance, A., &
Fairbanks, D, H, K. 2002. Use patterns and value of Savanna resources in three rural
villages in South Africa. Economic Botany 56 (2): 130-146.
Shongwe, M.E., Van Oldenborgh, G.J., Van Den Hurk, B.J.J.M., De Boer, B., Coelho,
C.A.S., Van Aalst, M.K. 2009. Projected changes in mean and extreme precipitation in
Africa under global warming. Part I: Southern Africa. Journal of Climate 22: 38193837.
Schuyt, K.D. 2004. Economic Consequences of Wetland Degradation for Local Populations
in Africa. Ecological Economics 53:177-190.
Smith, J.B., & Lenhart, S.S. 1996. Climate Change Adaptation Policy Options. Climate
Research 6: 193-201.
SPSS Inc. 2007. SPSS for Windows, Version 16.0. Chicago: SPSS Inc.
112
Svotwa, E., Manyanhaire, I.O., & Makombe, P. 2008. Sustainable Gardening on Wetlands in
the communal lands of Zimbabwe. Electronic Journal of Environmental, Agricultural
and Food Chemistry. 7(3):2754-2760
Tauro, T,P., Nezomba, H., Mtambanengwe, F., & Mapfumo, P. 2009. Germination, field
establishment patterns and nitrogen fixation of indegnous legumes on nutrientdepleted soils. Symbiosis 48: 92-101
The Global Landcover Facility. 1997-2013. the Global Landcover Facility. GLCF: Earth
Science Data Interface: http://glcfapp.glcf.umd.edu:8080/esdi/index.jsp. Accessed 27
August 2012.
Thornton, P.K., Jones, P.G., Ericksen, P.J., Challinor, A.J. 2011. Agriculture and food
systems in sub-Saharan Africa in a 4°C+ world. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 369: 117-136.
Thuiller, W., Albert, C., Araújo, M.B., Berry, P.M., Cabeza, M., Guisan, A., Hickler, T.,
Midgely, G.F., Paterson, J., Schurr, F.M., Sykes, M.T., & Zimmermann, N.E. 2008.
Predicting global change impacts on plant species' distributions: future challenges.
Perspectives in Plant Ecology Evolution and Systematics 9:137-152
Tittonell, P. 2007. Msimu Wakupanda: Targeting resources within diverse, heterogeneous
and dynamic farming systems of East Africa. PhD Thesis: Wageningen University, the
Netherlands
Unganai, L. S., & Bandason, T. 2005. Monitoring agricultural drought in southern Africa. In
Boken, V., Cracknell, A. and Heathcote, R. (Eds.), Monitoring and predicting
agricultural drought: A global study (pp 266-275). Oxford: Oxford University Press
Unganai, L. S., & Mason, S. J. 2002. Long-range predictability of Zimbabwe summer rainfall.
International Journal of Climatology 22: 1091–1103.
Unganai, L.S. 1996. Historic and future climate change in Zimbabwe. Climate Research
6:137-145.
United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). 2013. Women and Natural Resources
Unlocking the Peace building Potential. Nairobi and New York: United Nations
Environment
Programme,
United
Nations
Entity.
http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/crisis%20prevention/WomenNaturalR
esourcesPBreport2013.pdf . Accessed 12 January 2014.
113
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). 1992. United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Geneva: World Meteorological
Organization and United Nations Environment Program.
United States Geological Survey (USGS). 2012. EarthExplorer. USGS - science for a
changing world: http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/. Accessed 27 August 2012,
United States Geological Survey (USGS). 2012. USGS Global Visualisation Viewer. USGS
Global Visualization Viewer: http://glovis.usgs.gov/ . Accessed 27 August 2012
van der Valk, A. G. 2006. The Biology of Freshwater Wetlands. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press.
van Wyk, B., & van Wyk, P. 1997. Field Guide to Trees of Southern Africa. Cape Town:
Struik Publishers.
Vermeulen, S. 1996. Cutting of trees by local residents in a communal area and an adjacent
state forest in Zimbabwe. Forest Ecology and Management 81: 101-111.
Vermeulen, S.J., Aggarwal, P.K., Ainslie, A., Angelone, C., Campbell, B.M., Challinor, A.J.,
Hansen, J.W., Ingram, J.S.I., Jarvis, A., Kristjanson, P., Lau, C., Nelson, G.C.,
Thornton, P.K., Wollenberg, E. 2012. Options for support to agriculture and food
security under climate change. Environmental Science and Policy 15: 136-144.
Vincent, V., & Thomas, R. 1960. An Agroecological Survey of Southern Rhodesia: Part 1
Agroecological Survey. Salisbury, Rhodesia: Government Printers.
VSN International. 2011. GenStat for Windows 14th Edition. Hemel Hempstead: VSN
International.
Wamukonya, N., & Rukato, H. 2001. Climate change implications for Southern Africa: a
gendered perspective. Johannesburg: Southern African Gender and Energy Network
(SAGEN).
Wayne, G P. 2013. The Beginner’s Guide to Representative concentration pathways. Version
1.0. Skeptical Science. http://www.skepticalscience.com/rcp.php. Accessed 07 August
2014.
Weaver, W., & Shannon, C.E.1963. The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Univ. of
Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-72548-4.
114
Wild, H., Biegel, H. M., & Mavi, S. 1972. A Rhodesian Botanical Dictionary of African and
English plant names. Salisbury, Rhodesia: Government Printer.
Wilhite, D. A., & Glantz, M.H. 1985. Understanding the Drought Phenomenon: The Role of
Definitions. Water International 10 (3):111–120.
Woittiez, L.S. 2010. Non-timber forest and rangeland products to reduce food insecurity at
times of extreme climatic events. A case study of Wedza communal areas, Zimbabwe.
MSc Thesis: Wageningen University, the Netherlands.
Woittiez, L.S., Rufino, M.C., Giller, K.E., & Mapfumo, P. 2013. The use of woodland
products to cope with climate variability in communal areas in Zimbabwe. Ecology
and Society 18(4): 24. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-05705-180424
World Bank. 2009. Module 10 Gender and Natural Resource Management. In World Bank,
Gender in agriculture sourcebook (pp. 423-463). Washington DC: World Bank/ FAO.
World Bank. 2005. Community resource mapping. World Bank Poverty and Social Impact
Analysis Sourcebook. http://go.worldbank.org/ZGZHJEDBZ0. Accessed 24 July
2014.
Yegbemey, R, N., Kabir, H., Awoye, O, H, R., Yabi, Y, A., & Paraïso, A. 2014. Managing
the agricultural calendar as coping mechanism to climate variability: A case study of
maize farming in northern Benin, West Africa. Climate Risk Management 3: 13-23.
Yeshaneh, E., Wagner, W., Exner-Kittridge, M., Legesse, D., & Blöschl, G. 2013. Identifying
Land Use/Cover Dynamics in the Koga Catchment, Ethiopia, from Multi-Scale Data,
and Implications for Environmental Change. ISPRS International Journal of GeoInformation 2: 302-323.
ZimStat. 2012. Census 2012: Preliminary Report. Harare: Zimbabwe National Statistics
Agency.
ZimStat. (Unpublished data). Crop Production Time Series 1993-2011. Harare: Zimbabwe
National Statistics Agency.
Zingore, S., González-Estrada, E., Delve, R. J., Herrero, M., Dimes, J. P., & Giller, K. E.
2009. An integrated evaluation of strategies for enhancing productivity and
profitability of resource-constrained smallholder farms in Zimbabwe. Agricultural
Systems, 101:57–68.
115
Zwane, P., Masarirambi, M., Seyoum, T., & Nkosi, B. 2011. Natural fibre plant resources of
economic value found in wetlands of Swaziland: A review. African Journal of
Agricultural Research 6 (4):774-779.
116
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Checklist for focus group discussions during community meetings
Characterisation of common natural resource pools in Dendenyore and Ushe ward
Objectives:

To characterise the contribution of natural resource pools to livelihoods of smallholder
households in Dendenyore and Ushe wards

To identify options for managing common natural resource pools (CNRPs) to increase
resilience of smallholder communities to pressures of climate change and variability,
and other social and biophysical problems
Field Activity:
Participatory identification and mapping of natural resources:
Farmers will be grouped into groups according to gender and social resource mapping will be
done to identify the natural resource pools.
Participants:
Village heads, lead farmers, councillor, extension workers, representatives of all villages in
Goto
i.
What challenges do communities face when accessing the CNRPs in this area (Rank
in order of importance)
ii.
Who has problems in accessing the natural resources in your areas? What challenges
would they be facing (Rank in order of importance)
Groups 1& 2 (Men and women)
 Natural Resource Map
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Construct a map that shows CNRPs in your ward
Which is the most important CNRP and why?
What natural resources do you extract from each CNRP?
Who has access to the each of the natural resources
What products do you sell and those for household consumption

i.
ii.
iii.
Perceived changes in natural resources
How have the CNRPs changed over time
How has the availability of natural resources changed over time
Perceived cause for the changes
 Alternative natural resource options (Rank in order of importance)
117
a) What alternative resources can be used instead of :
i.
Firewood
ii. Indigenous fruits
iii. Water
b) In the next 20-30 years the temperature for Hwedza is expected to increase during
the dry season and rainfall variability is expected to increase, therefore;
i.
ii.
iii.
What happens to CNRPs if farmers continue harvesting at current rate?
What happens to CNRPs if farmers increase their rate of extraction of
natural resources?
What happens to CNRPs if there are alternative resources and reduction in
rate of extraction?
c) How can the scarce natural resources be allocated to different users given the
predicted changes in climate?
d) How can we best manage CNRPs to be resilient to impacts of climate change and
variability? (Rank options in order of importance)
Expected outputs
List of CNRP
List of natural resources extracted
List Prioritised CNRPs
Natural resource maps
Alternative resource options
Natural resource management options
Projected spatial changes in CNRPs
Materials required
1. Markers (different colours)
2. Topographic maps
3. Flip charts
118
Appendix 2: Transect walks, selection of households for natural use resource
monitoring, species diversity
Study Objectives:
To characterise and quantify contributions of common natural resource pools supporting
livelihoods in smallholder farming communities
Sub-objectives to be addressed by field trip
1. To characterise the nature of common natural resource pools in Ushe and Dendenyore
wards
2. To quantify the contributions of common natural resource pools to livelihoods of
smallholder farmers in Ushe and Dendenyore wards
Identified common natural resource pools:
Dendenyore
CNRP
Name
Wetland
Musoti, Mhare, Nyamhemba, Nyamidzi
Woodlands
Chirinda, Choto, Masawi, Makwarimba
Rivers
Mhare, Nyamhemba, Jekwa, Nyamidzi
Springs
Baradzanwa, Charamukwa
Dams
Nhekairo, Nyamimba, Manyimo
Ushe
CNRP
Wetland
Woodlands
Rivers
Springs
Dams
Name
Vhuu, Maisiri
Chiyanike, Chipenzi, Chimimba, Munodawafa, Dombwe Mt,
Chimhango, Chimwaya, Ngurumbiri Mt
Hwandikora, Handiudzire, Mhumburu, Ruzawe, Mhare
Ruzawe, Maisiri
Vhuu
Field Activities:
1. Farmer assisted transect walks to ground truth common natural resource pools
identified during social resource mapping in Ushe and Dendenyore wards
2. Determining species diversity and relative abundance of plant species in wetlands
(Musoti in Dendenyore and Vhuu in Ushe)
3. Selection of 18 households in Ushe (utilising Vhuu wetland and Dombwe), and 18
households in Dendenyore (utilising Musoti wetland and Manyanga) for monitoring
use and access patterns and management of firewood, water, non-timber forest
products and grazing
119
Detailed characterisation of identified common natural resource pools:
CNRP
Name
Wetland
e.g.
Musoti
Coordinates
Lat.
Long.
Elevation Attributes
e.g. goods and services, size, villages access
patterns, land use over time
Wetland
River
Spring
Woodland
Activity 1: Farmer assisted transect walks
Key informants:
Community leaders
Livestock herders
Agricultural Extension Workers (AEW)
Social group leaders/lead farmers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Materials:
Preliminary natural resource (women and men’s maps)
1:50 000 topographic maps
GPS receiver
Flip charts
Magic markers
Methods
1. Natural resource maps will be used to define the line of the transect walk which will
criss-cross the identified and major resource features identified from social resource
mapping
2. Transects will be dictated by access routes and landscape
3. During the transect walk, the informants (facilitated by researchers) will undertake
resource analysis of common natural resource pools in terms of:
a. Area/size of common natural resource pool (use of GPS to calculating area)
b. History/background of use of resource pool (up to 20 years)
c. Extraction patterns for the named resources
d. Who is extracting named natural resources
e. How are natural resources are shared within
f. How has natural resource use and access changed over time?
g. How is excessive use/extraction controlled?
4. Participants will map villages accessing a particular resource pool and the coordinates
of each village will be obtained through the use of a GPS receiver
120
Activity 2: Identifying plant species and determining species diversity
CNRPs:
Musoti wetland (Dendenyore)
Vhuu wetland (Ushe)
Participants:
Elderly
Youthful
Herd boys
Social group leaders/lead farmers
Materials:
1. Preliminary natural resource (women and men’s maps)
2. 1:50 000 topographic maps
3. GPS receiver
4. Flip charts
5. Magic markers
6. 1m tape measure
7. 1m2 quadrat
Methods
1. Vegetation in the wetland will be stratified into homogenous units based on attributes
defined through participatory transect of the resource pool
2. 1m2 quadrats will be randomly thrown at different catena positions in the different
homogenous units of the wetland. An additional 1m2 area will be added until no new
species are identified
3. Plant species will be identified using the Plant Identification Guide Books, for the
species which cannot be identified by researcher and participants, samples will be
collected for identification at the National Herbarium and Botanical Gardens in Harare
4. The species diversity and abundance will be calculated by the Shannon-Weaver
diversity index as follows
S
H′ = ∑ −(Pi ∗ lnPi )
i=1
Where:
H’ = the Shannon diversity index
Pi = fraction of the entire population made up of species i
S = numbers of species encountered
∑ = sum from species 1 to species S
121
Species abundance and diversity data collection sheets
Ward:
Catena Position
Quadrat Number:
Local Name
Latin name
Date:
CNRP:
Total Area:
Species counted (S)
Use
Activity 3: Selection of households for monitoring resource use and access patterns
Common natural resource Name & Area
pool
Wetland
Musoti (Dendenyore)
Vhuu (Ushe)
Woodland
Manyanga (Dendenyore)
Dombwe (Ushe)
Number
households
9
9
9
9
of
Criteria for selecting households
Household will be selected together with the extension worker based on:
1. Male headed household
2. De-facto female headed household
3. Female headed (widowed) household
4. Male headed (widowed)
5. Child headed
Resource Use and Access Monitoring tools
1. Diaries
Expected Outputs:
a. Detailed list of natural resources extracted from a particular identified common natural
resource pool
b. A detailed map of distribution of natural resources at ward level
c. List of households selected for monitoring natural resource use
122
Appendix 3: Natural resource use monitoring diaries
Name: ………………………………………………………………………………
Village ………………………………………………………………………………
Month: ………………………………
Map of extraction points:
(a) Natural resource extracted from wetland or woodland
Name
Type of product (Food or non-food)
Rank (1=most important)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
(b) Collection of natural resources
Who collects
Distance (km)
Time taken to site
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
(c) Use of natural resources extracted
Use of product
Who uses product
Period of usage
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
123
(d) Quantity used in household
Quantity used per day
Quantity per individual per day
How consumed*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
*
(1= fresh/harvested; 2= cooked; 3= preserved)
(e) Storage
How are the products stored
Quantity stored
Period of storage (Months)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
(f) Markets
Market
Quantity sold
Unit of measurement
Price
unit
per Product sold
what form
in
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
*(1= fresh/harvested; 2= cooked; 3= preserved; 4 = processed)
124
Appendix 4: Household data collection questionnaire
Section A: General
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
Ward
Village
CNRP
Name
Household Size
RG
Farm size (acres)
A8
A9
A10
A11
A12
A13
Father age
Mother age
No. of Children
No. of infants
Males (16 -58)
Females (16-58)
Section B: Farm details
B. LIVESTOCK OWNED
Poultry
Draft cattle
Year
2010
2011
2012
Cattle
Goats
Year
2010
2011
2012
Plough
FARM IMPLEMENTS
Cultivator
Hoes
Wheelbarrow
Maize
FARM YIELDS *
Groundnuts Rice
Cowpea
Year
2010
2011
2012
Year
Maize
sold
USD$
INCOME
G/nuts
sold
USD$
2010
2011
2012
125
Section C: Food Consumed (2011-2012)
Type
Nov
Maize
Rice
Vegetables
Beef
Chicken
Water
Mazhanje
Hacha
Howa
Mbira
Tsuro
Tsvanzwa
Matufu
Tsubvu
Matamba
Samwenda
Chirevereve
Chijonga
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Food consumed (bad year)
Type
Nov
Maize
Rice
Vegetables
Beef
Chicken
Water
Mazhanje
Hacha
Howa
Mbira
Tsuro
Tsvanzwa
Matufu
Tsubvu
Matamba
Samwenda
Chirevereve
Chijonga
Dec
126
Section D: Climate Change Perception and Gender Roles
1. What caused CNRPs to decline?
Indicator
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
2. Household responsibilities and roles in extraction of natural resources (during a good year)
1
2
3
4
Natural resource
Mazhanje
Hacha
Mvura
Role
3. Household responsibilities and roles in extraction of natural resources (during bad year)
1
2
3
4
Individual
Father
Mother
Boys
Girls
Role
4. Collection of Natural resources during a good and bad years
Natural Resource
1 Water
2 Mazhanje
3 Hacha
4 Tsvanzwa
5 Matufu
6 Matohwe
7 Tsubvu
8 Chirevereve
9 Chijonga
10 Howa
11 Tsanga
12 Mutsvairo
Good year
Bad year
127
13 Hove
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
*1= Father; 2=Mother; 3= Boys; 4= Girls; 5 Other
128
Appendix 5: Publications from thesis
Chagumaira, C., Rurinda, J., Nezomba, H., Mtambanengwe, F., Mapfumo, P. (Accepted).
Changing use patterns of natural resources supporting livelihoods of smallholder
communities and implications on climate change adaptation in Zimbabwe.
Environment, Development and Sustainability.
129