II. Friends of Freedom: Context
13
Hotspots Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life
in Auburn and Cayuga County
Base Map from 1867-68 Auburn City Directory, Cayuga County GenWebsite
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
14
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
The Friends of Freedom in Auburn and Cayuga County
Context: The Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life in
Auburn and Cayuga County
Slavery ended in New York State in 1827. From that point forward, free people of color and a
few European American allies—in Auburn, Cayuga County, and throughout New York State and
the North--worked both for the abolition of slavery and equal rights for African Americans. They
sent antislavery petitions to Congress, organized antislavery societies, supported antislavery
newspapers (such as the Friend of Man, the Liberator, the Anti-Slavery Standard, and the
Northern Independent, edited by Auburn’s own William Hosmer), voted for antislavery
politicians, and collected money for antislavery lecturers. A small number of them actively
supported the Underground Railroad.
By the time Harriet Tubman arrived in Auburn, Cayuga County was already a hotbed of
Underground Railroad activity. This work was not distributed evenly throughout the county, like
salt sprinkled on the table, but was concentrated in particular hotspots.
Chief among them was the City of Auburn, which has almost two-thirds of Cayuga County’s one
hundred sites relating to the Underground Railroad, abolitionism, and African American life.
Measured in terms of numbers of identifiable sites, the Ledyard-Scipio area (including the
villages of Sherwood, Aurora, and Levanna) was second in importance. Port Byron and Moravia
were third. Several other areas—including Sennett, Cato, Northville, Weedsport, Sterling,
Conquest, Cayuga Village, New Hope Mills, and Ira—also had activity relating to these themes.
In Auburn itself, African Americans lived throughout the city, on the North, South, and East
sides, with the earliest settlement located along the Owasco outlet at a spot identified on an 1837
map as “New Guinea,” or “Negro Settlement.”
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
15
Note “New Guinea” or “Negro Settlement” on the lower right hand corner of this Hagaman and
Markham, Map of the Village of Auburn (1837), between Mechanic Street and the Owasco
Outlet.
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
16
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
Note houses in the former “Negro Settlement” area on this P.A. Cunningham, Map of Auburn
(Philadelphia: W.W. Richie, 1871).
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
17
By the 1840s, African Americans began to move to the north and west side of the Auburn,
working in businesses along Genesee Street. This is also where most European American
abolitionists settled in the 1840s and 1850s.
Auburn, north and west of Genesee Street, from P.A. Cunnngham, Map of Auburn (Philadelphia:
W.W. Richie, 1871).
In the 1850s, many working class people, both black and white, also began to settle on the east
side of Owasco Outlet, buying land from William Henry Seward. Lizette Miller Worden,
Seward’s sister-in-law, also built a house in this area in 1856.
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
18
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
In 1857, William Henry Seward sold a seven-acre farm to Harriet Tubman on the south edge of
Auburn, and, beginning in the 1860s, Tubman brought her family and many of her Maryland
neighbors to Auburn, where they purchased property in newly-opened suburbs along Union (now
Richardson) Avenue, Chapman Avenue, Garrow Street, Fitch Avenue, and Parker Street. Other
freedom seekers, along with many Irish and American-born families, also bought homes in this
area, and many of their descendants live here today. These have been remarkably stable
neighborhoods for 150 years.
Clark, John S., “Plot of the Lands as Conveyed by Abijah Fitch on Garrow and Richardson
Farms, Auburn, N.Y.” A.C. Taber, Surveyor, September 1868. Cayuga County Clerk’s Office,
Auburn, New York.
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
19
Cornell and Thornton (Chapman and Garrow), P.A. Cunnngham, Map of Auburn (Philadelphia:
W.W. Richie, 1871).
Union (Richardson), from
P.A. Cunningham, Map of the City of Auburn, New York (Philadelphia: W.W. Richie, 1871)
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
20
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and
African American Life in Auburn
Base Map: City Atlas of Auburn, New York (Philadelphia: G.M. Hopkins, 1882)
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
21
These buildings, and the people who built them and lived in them, carry their own stories. But to
understand their context, let us look at some basic background about the Underground Railroad,
abolitionism, and African American life in Auburn, and Cayuga County.
What was the Underground Railroad?
The term “Underground Railroad” became common in the 1830s, referring to a secret and
effective system of moving people from slavery to freedom. Although many people associated the
Underground Railroad with tunnels, no documented use of a tunnel has yet been found.
“Underground” refers the hidden character of much of this work, not to any physical underground
space. In the past, many people emphasized the importance of safe houses as links on the
Underground Railroad. Today, the focus is often on freedom seekers themselves, and the
Underground Railroad is most often defined as the National Park Service’s National Underground
Railroad Network to Freedom program defines it, as “the effort of enslaved African Americans to
gain their freedom by escaping bondage.”1 This allows us to focus on individuals and their life
stories, including where they escaped from, the routes they took, the people who helped them, the
places they stayed on their journeys, and the homes, churches, and workplaces they formed in
their ultimate destinations.
In this project, we have surveyed sites related to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and
African American Life, because we think that all three of these themes are intimately intertwined.
In upstate New York, it is often impossible to sort out one from the others, and it would certainly
be impossible to understand how the Underground Railroad operated, without the context of the
abolitionist movement and African American community life.
Auburn and Cayuga County as crossroads of the Underground Railroad.
Cayuga County played such an important role in the Underground Railroad primarily because of
the county’s geography. Like a wedge driven into the heart of New York State, Cayuga County
funneled freedom seekers from Ithaca and points south (including Owego, NewYork, Montrose,
Pennsylvania, and Friendsville, Pennsylvania) up through Cayuga Lake or overland (usually
along what is now 34B through Sherwood) to Auburn. At Auburn, freedom seekers had three
choices. They could go:
1. west along the Seneca Turnpike, Auburn-Rochester railroad, or other roads, often
to Farmington and then to Rochester;
2. north to meet the Erie Canal at Weedsport or Port Byron or to connect with the
spider’s web of roads leading into Wayne County (especially Pultneyville) or
northern Cayuga County through Cato, Ira, and Sterling to Fairhaven and the
shores of Lake Ontario and then east to Oswego or west to Charlotte;
3. east to Skaneateles, Elbridge, Jordan and Baldwinsville to Fulton and Oswego.
The crossing of these main routes at Auburn, combined with the complexity of trails leading out
of the city, made Auburn an ideal Underground Railroad node.2
1
Network to Freedom, “What Was the Underground Railroad?
http://209.10.16.21/TEMPLATE/FrontEnd/learn.CFM.
2
See interview with James R.Cox, Document No. 5, Elbert Wixom, “The Under Ground Railway of the
Lake Country of Western New York,” B.A. Thesis, Cornell, 1903, 30; Pass from John Mann to Slocum
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
22
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
Howland, April 9, 1840, Howland Stone Store Museum; S.C. Cuyler to Emily Howland, October 31, 1851,
Howland Papers, Cornell University.
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
23
From Cayuga County GenWebsite
Before the Revolution, Cayugas had many settlements in the rich lands east of Cayuga Lake.
Ironically, given later Quaker support for Indian land rights, all Cayuga villages were destroyed
during the Revolutionary War in 1779 by a contingent of five hundred men led Colonel William
Butler as part of the Sullivan-Clinton campaign.
European Americans and African Americans came to Cayuga County after 1789, when New
York State purchased this land from the Cayugas. In what is now Auburn, John Hardenburgh and
his family, which included people in slavery, built a house and mill along the Owasco outlet. In
central Cayuga County, Aurora attracted some of the earliest settlers, who intended to make this
village the county seat and the center of learning and government. Some of these central Cayuga
County families—the Cuylers and the Woods, for example--brought people in slavery with them
when they settled here.
Many families in Cayuga County were Quakers from eastern New York or from seacoast villages
of New England. Some of them made their money from whaling voyages, sent out from New
Bedford, Massachusetts. In central Cayuga County, they settled on former Cayuga lands, and they
built their first meetinghouse for Scipio Monthly Meeting in 1810, which eventually had several
preparative meetings. Two of these—North Street Friends Meeting (Orthodox), which met in the
brick meetinghouse on the Sherwood-Aurora Road, and Skaneateles Preparative Meeting
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
24
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
(Orthodox)--became particularly important supporters of abolitionism and the Underground
Railroad.
After 1800, European American and a few African American settlers filtered into the northern
part of the county, creating farms and mill villages in the rolling hills among the drumlins and
along the Ontario lakeshore.
Except for the Cayuga Reservation lands, all other lands in Cayuga County were part of the
Military Tract, set aside after the Revolution by the new federal government to give to those who
had served in the Revolutionary War. Most town names still reflect the classical names given to
these military tract towns.
Cayuga County had 53 people living in slavery in 1800, 75 in 1810, 54 in 1814, and 48 in 1820.
Many of these were manumitted in the 1820s or earlier. When freedom came for all of them in
1827, they formed the core of free black communities in Auburn, Aurora, Port Byron, and
elsewhere. After 1830, these communities would be a key component of the network that
provided a haven for people on their way from southern slavery to independence in the northern
U.S. or Canada.3
The county’s population grew rapidly in the early nineteenth century, expanding more than fivefold, from 10,817 people in 1800 to 38,897 people in 1820 to 47,948 in 1830 to 55,458 in 1850.
By 1855, Cayuga County had 53,571 people, of whom 400 were African American.
3
The 1855 census summarized the number of people living in slavery in each of these years.
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
25
Cayuga County Towns, showing Military Townships and Cayuga Reservation
Map from Cayuga County GenWeb Site
When did the Underground Railroad start in Auburn and Cayuga County?
It was certainly in operation by the mid-1830s. In Auburn, Morgan “Luke” Freeman, a barber,
was born in slavery in 1803 to Harry and Kate Freeman. His obituary in 1863 noted that he had
kept an Underground Railroad station for twenty-nine years, presumably since 1834. In Cayuga
County, Jerome Griger was the earliest known freedom seeker to purchase land. He bought land
in Levanna, Town of Ledyard, in 1837. This was consistent with its beginnings elsewhere in
central New York. African Americans from Esopus, near Kingston, were living among the
Onondaga in the late 1770s, and several well-known African Americans escaped slavery in New
York State in the early nineteenth century (including Austin Steward and Thomas James), but
freedom seekers began to move northward in large numbers in the early 1830s. James R. Cox,
one of Seward’s law associates, dated beginnings of the Underground Railroad in Auburn to
1832.
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
26
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
What kinds of people supported the Underground Railroad in Auburn and Cayuga County?
Four distinctly different types of people supported the Underground Railroad in Auburn and
Cayuga. To some extent, they lived in different parts of the county, but they were interlinked:
1. African Americans. Both the City of Auburn, the Town of Ledyard (including the
Village of Aurora), and the Town of Mentz (including the village of Port Byron)
had relatively large African American communities, made up of people who had
been born in slavery in New York State and also those who chose to settle in
Cayuga County from the South. In 1855, 183 African Americans lived in
Auburn, almost half the total of 400 in the county. Fifty-one lived in Ledyard, 48
lived in Mentz/Port Byron, and 28 lived in Brutus/Weedsport. Small numbers of
African Americans also lived in Owasco (24), Springport (18), Aurelius (15),
Sennett (9), Venice (8), Ira (6), Genoa (4), Moravia (3), Scipio (2), and Conquest
(1).
In case, these African American communities received support from local
European Americans, included a group of lawyers and professionals in Auburn,
Quakers and the Cuyler family in Ledyard/Aurora, and Nathan Marble,
Ardchibald Green, Cassandra Hamlin, and William O. Duvall in Port Byron. This
became particularly important when freedom seekers bought land, beginning in
1837, when Jerome Griger bought a homesite in Levanna, and continuing when
freedom seekers bought more than twenty pieces of land on the south side of
Auburn, near Harriet Tubman’s home, from Abijah Fitch and others in the 1860s.
Several descendants of these families still live in Auburn. This relationship
extended into the second generation, when the children of Martha and David
Wright, particularly David Osborne (who owned a large agricultural implement
factory in Auburn) and Eliza Wright Osborne continued to look out for the
welfare of Harriet Tubman and others.
2. Quakers. In central Cayuga County, abolitionist sentiment centered in the North
Street Friends Meetinghouse (Brick Meetinghouse), and Underground Railroad
work was anchored in the home of Slcoum and Hannah Howland in Sherwood,
New York. This group had ties to Underground Railroad network of Friends and
free African Americans in Philadelphia and Delaware, including William Still,
Dr. Bartholomew Fusell and his niece Graceanna Lewis, and Thomas Garrett in
Wilmington, Delaware). The Howland Stone Store Museum owns an extremely
rare pass, written by Quaker John Mann in Friendsville, Pennsylvania, to Quaker
Slocum Howland in Sherwood, New York, carried by two freedom seekers from
Maryland, brothers Thomas and James Hart, dated April 9, 1840, documenting
their travel from Owego through Ithaca to Sherwood.
3. Auburn-based lawyers and professionals. These Quakers were linked to a small
group of influential Whig-Republican lawyers, politicians, and professionals in
Auburn associated with William Henry Seward, Frances Seward, and Frances
Seward’s sister Lizette Miller Worden. They included Abijah Fitch, real estate
developer; Theodore Pomeroy, David Wright, and George Underwood, Auburn
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
27
lawyers who worked with Seward in his law practice; John Austin, Unitarian
minister; and William Hosmer, Methodist newspaper editor. All of the lawyers
owned large homes along South Street or Genesee Street. Both Frances Seward
and Lizette Worden had ties to Martha Wright, sister of noted Quaker minister,
Lucretia Mott. Both Frances Seward and Lizette Worden had been educated at a
Quaker school in Aurora, where Martha Wright later taught. All three women
maintained a strong friendship during their years in Auburn, a friendship that
extended to Harriet Tubman and her family after Tubman arrived in Auburn. In
the county, Seward’s associates included two men from Port Byron, William O.
Duvall, a radical abolitionist, and Archibald Green, a merchant and local
politician, sister of Cassandra Hamlin, who organized the most important public
women’s antislavery work in Cayuga County. As Seward rose first to statewide
and then national prominence, first as Governor of New York State and then as
Senator and Secretary of State under both Lincoln and Johnson, the influence of
this group helped Seward maintain his abolitionist commitment.
4. Religiously-motivated abolitionists. Several churches throughout Cayuga County
became hotspots of abolitionism. Congregationalists and Presbyterians, who
often joined in one group in this period (in Sennett, Northville, Sterling, and
Moravia), Baptists (in Sennett and Sterling), Unitarians (in Auburn), and
Methodists and African Methodist Episcopal Zion (in Auburn), as well as
students at Auburn Theological Seminary in Auburn, were most active in this
organized religious commitment to the Underground Railroad. Other church
congregations, as yet unidentified, may also have participated.
How many freedom seekers came through Auburn and Cayuga County?
Without better data, we have no accurate estimates of the number of freedom seekers who actually
came through Auburn and Cayuga County. In 1903, James R. Cox, a law associate of William Henry
Seward, and himself an Underground Railroad activist in Auburn, in an interview to Elbert Wixom, a
Cornell student, estimated that five hundred freedom seekers came through Auburn between 1832 and
1861. This is probably a conservative estimate.
This survey allows us several other ways of counting the number of freedom seekers who actually
came through Auburn and Cayuga County. One way is to count the number of African Americans
listed in census records who recorded their birthplaces as a southern state, unknown, or Canada. Some
of these, of course, may have been legally manumitted, either in the South or after they were brought
to New York State in slavery. We know from other sources that this was the case with Whittington
Armwood. Thanks to the work of Donna Green of Texas, who saw the Armwood name on the
database of African Americans in Cayuga County on the Cayuga County GenWeb site, we know that
Whittington Armwood, born in Somerset Maryland in 1795, came to Cayuga County in slavery.
Whittington Armwood almost certainly came to Scipio, with the Fleming family, from Maryland
between 1805 and 1807. Armwood remained in the area of Scipio that later become the town of
Ledyard for the rest of his life. His children, including his son, Timothy Armwood, continued to live
and own property in the area.
Limiting our count to African Americans listed in the census between 1850 and 1870 (including state
census years for 1855 and 1865), 487 African Americans in Cayuga County listed their
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
28
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
birthplaces as a southern state, Canada, or unknown. Of these, twenty-three are known from other
sources (either Kate Larson’s work with Harriet Tubman, Emily Howland’s letters, Martha
Wright letters, or William Still, Underground Railroad, 1872) to have been freedom seekers.
These included:
1. Listed in three or four census records:
Herman and Hannah Phillips and their four children—Scipio, 1850-1870
(Howland)
Thomas Hart-Ledyard, 1850-1860 (Howland)
2. Listed in two census records:
John and Milla Stewart, 1865-1870
Thornton Newton—1865-1870
Benjamin and Ritta Stewart (Harriet Tubman’s parents)—1865-1870
Henry Lemmons (Lemon)—1860-1865?
Thomas Elliott and Anna Stewart Elliott, 1865-1870
3. Listed in one census record:
Harriet Tubman Davis, 1870
Plymouth, Alice, John, William Cannon—1870 (identified in Still)
Thomas Stoop, 1865 (Larson)
Richard Eastup, 1860 (identified in Martha Wright letter)
Catharine Stewart, 1865 (Larson)
We also know of several others not found in the census records, including Nat Ambie and family—
Auburn (Still); Harriet Eglin, Charlotte Gildes—Sennet (Still); James Harris and wife, Auburn (Still);
Unnamed man in 1843, Auburn (Wright), and Jane Clark (biography in Cayuga Museum).
We also know that at least two African Americans born in NYS—Morgan “Luke” Freeman and
P.R. Freeman—were active as helpers on the Underground Railroad. Luke Freeman was born in
1803 of parents who were enslaved by Hardenburgh. According to his 1863 obituary, Luke
Freeman kept a station on the UGRR at his home at 3 Court Street in Auburn for 29 years. Nat
Ambie noted, in a letter printed in Wm. Still that he was staying with P.R. Freeman in Auburn.
Of the 464 African Americans listed in the census who were born in a southern state, Canada, or
an unknown place and who have not been definitely identified from other sources as freedom
seekers, only 63 (14 percent) were listed in more than one census (compared to fifteen of the
twenty-three known freedom seekers listed in the census, or 65 percent). This suggests that the
other 401 were here for only a short time. The most logical assumption would be that they were
traveling through on their way to Canada. This number is not inconsistent with James Cox’s
estimate of 500 people who came through Auburn.
Recognizing, however, that these census records take snapshots at five-year intervals, we also
must assume that many freedom seekers stayed here only a few days, weeks, or months. So that it
would reasonable to suggest that this figure of 401 people who were in the county only during
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
29
census years must be multiplied many times over. If someone were here in 1851, 1852, 1853, or
1854 (or in any year that was not a census year), they would not have been counted at all. By this
reasoning, a figure of several thousand would not be an unrealistic estimate for the number of
freedom seekers who came through Auburn and Cayuga County. Ultimately, however, we will
probably never know the true number.
This project is part of a dialogue among all of us, past, present, and future. If you do not see here
a person or site that you think may be associated with the Underground Railroad, abolitionism, or
African American life, check the larger project database on the Cayuga County GenWeb site,
which contains more than 600 names of people who had some relationship to these movements,
or the materials on the Cayuga County Historian’s Website, which will contains updates. We
invite everyone to join this research network and to share the results of your work.
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05
30
II. Friends of Freedom: Context
Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life
Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board
Cayuga County Historian’s Office
Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts)
Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates
2004-05