Canadian Language Benchmarks
2000
A Guide to Implementation
.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000
A Guide to
Implementation
Written by:
Tara Holmes
Gail Kingwell
Joanne Pettis
Margaret Pidlaski
Development of the Guide was funded by Alberta Learning
and Manitoba Department of Labour and Immigration
Publication and distribution was funded by Alberta Learning
and Citizenship and Immigration Canada
Copyright 2001: Alberta Learning and Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks
The copyright holders give permission for users of the document to make copies of selected pages for educational
use within their organizations. For any other copying or distribution, permission must
be received in writing from:
Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks
294 Albert Street
Suite 400
Ottawa, ON Canada
K1P 6E6
Tel: (613) 230-7729
www.language.ca
Additional copies of this publication may be ordered through the Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks.
Cover photo supplied courtesy of Manitoba Labour and Immigration
Layout and cover design by Metrographics, Calgary, Alberta
www.metrodesigngroup.com
Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders for permission to reprint borrowed material.
We regret any oversights that may have occurred and will rectify them in future printings of this work.
National Library of Canada
Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Canadian language benchmarks 2001:a guide to implementation
Co-published by the Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-7711-1522-6
1. English language -- Study and teaching as a second language -- Canada. 2. English language -- Ability
Testing -- Canada. I. Alberta. Alberta Learning. II. Manitoba. Manitoba Labour and Immigration. III. Centre
for Canadian Language Benchmarks.
LC3734.C32 2001
428. '071 '071
C2001 - 962002-0
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments
The writing team of the CLB Guide project would like to express appreciation to:
• Carolyn Dieleman, Manager, Language Training Programs for Alberta Learning, Government of Alberta and
Marilyn Kenny, Director, Adult Language Training Branch, Department of Labour and Immigration, Government
of Manitoba for initiating the collaborative partnership that led to the creation of this Guide.
• Alberta Learning and Manitoba Labour and Immigration for supporting the development of the Guide.
• Alberta Learning and Citizenship and Immigration Canada for supporting the publication and distribution of
the document.
• Dr. David Mendelsohn, Professor, York University, Department of Languages, Literature and Linguistics for
reviewing the draft manuscripts and providing helpful insights and suggestions.
• Audrey Habke for expert editing support during the development of the document.
• Grazyna Pawlikowska-Smith for insight into the CLB 2000 and helpful suggestions for the Guide.
• The program coordinators and teachers at the following validation sites who provided feedback and suggestions
on draft material and contributed classroom examples:
• Camosun College, Victoria
• Columbia College, Calgary
• Halifax Immigrant Learning Centre, Halifax
• CLB/LINC Projects Office, Edmonton
• Providence College and Seminary, Otterburne, Manitoba
• Regina Open Door Society, Regina
• SUCCESS, Vancouver
• Thames Valley District School Board, London
• Toronto Catholic District School Board, Toronto
• Toronto District School Board, Toronto
• Vancouver Community College, Vancouver
• Yukon College, Whitehorse
• CCLB Liaison: Shelley Bates and Gerry Mills for providing assistance and ensuring that CCLB staff and board
members were kept informed about the project.
• Teachers who contributed classroom examples and provided helpful suggestions at various stages in the
project: Linda Daum, Ann Gray Elton, Linda Johansson, Diane Koreen, Alison Norman, Martha Phillips, Sarah
Schmuck, Gail Shervey and Gail Tiessen.
• The many ESL colleagues who have shared their ideas and experience with us over the years and have inspired
us with their professionalism and commitment to learners.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction
Who is this Guide for?
How is the Guide Organized?
How will Implementing the CLB Affect Teaching and Learning?
What are the Beliefs and Principles about Language and Learning that are Reflected in the CLB?
What are the Benefits to Stakeholders?
What is the Impact of the CLB beyond the ESL Classroom?
2 Implementing the CLB in a Program: Creating a Path for Change
What are Some Key Principles of Staff and Program Development?
How Can We Plan for CLB Implementation?
Working Together to Bring about Change
Classroom Examples
Helpful Readings
3 Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
What is a Learner-Centred Approach?
Planning - Who Needs It? Resolving the Tension between a Learner-Centred and a
Planned Approach to Teaching and Learning
What is Needs Assessment?
What are the Principles of Needs Assessment?
What Needs Should We Assess?
What is a Needs Assessment Process?
Types of Assessment Tools and Activities
What are Some Considerations in Choosing a Needs Assessment Tool?
Classroom Examples
Helpful Readings
4 From Benchmarks Outcomes to Learning Objectives
How Can the CLB Performance Outcomes Help Specify Learning Goals and Objectives?
How does Communicative Competence Relate to Learning Objectives?
Classroom Examples
Helpful Readings
5 Methodology
What Methodological Practices are Consistent with the CLB?
What Assumptions are Inherent in the CLB 2000?
Why do We Need a Methodological Framework?
Helpful Readings
1
1
1
2
4
7
9
10
10
12
15
15
24
25
26
28
28
29
29
30
32
33
35
44
47
47
51
53
59
60
60
61
74
75
Table of Contents
6 Planning for Teaching and Learning: Linking the CLB to the Learner
Interpreting the CLB in Local Contexts
77
77
PLANNING A CURRICULUM
What are the Elements of a Curriculum?
What are Steps in Curriculum Development?
What are the Advantages of Developing a Curriculum Framework Linked to the CLB?
From Curriculum to Learning
Classroom Examples
80
81
82
PLANNING A COURSE
What Factors Need to be Considered in Order to Design a Course?
How Should the Content of Courses be Organized?
What are the Course Components and Steps Involved in Planning a
Course Related to the CLB?
Classroom Examples
94
95
96
98
102
PLANNING A MODULE/UNIT
What are the Benefits of Using Modules?
What Modules Should be Developed?
What are Some Steps in Planning a Module?
Classroom Examples
113
113
114
115
117
PLANNING A LESSON
How Do We Use Tasks in the Lesson Planning Process?
Classroom Examples
Helpful Readings
122
122
124
133
83
84
85
7 Selecting Resources
How Do I Choose Commercially-Prepared Materials that are CLB Compatible?
Why Use Authentic Materials?
Adapting Authentic Text for the ESL Classroom
Classroom Examples
Helpful Readings
135
8 Classroom-Based Assessment
Principles of Assessment
What is the Assessment Process?
Planning Assessment
Collecting and Recording Information
Analyzing and Interpreting Assessment Information
Using Information for Feedback, Reporting and Future Planning
Principles of Assessment: Implications for the Classroom
Program Considerations in Classroom-Based Assessment
Classroom Examples
Helpful Readings
144
144
145
146
148
152
158
159
160
161
178
GLOSSARY
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
136
138
139
141
142
180
187
194
.
C H A P T E R
1
Introduction
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000, the companion document to this Guide, is a set of descriptors of
what people can do with English at various levels of competency. It is not a test, a curriculum, or a syllabus.
It does not define ideology, policy, content, or the process of instruction. However, Canadian Language
Benchmarks 2000 reflects clear underlying principles of language teaching and learning and provides a useful
and informative basis for curriculum and syllabus development, lesson planning, materials development, resource
selection, student assessment and reporting. The goal of this Guide is the effective implementation of the CLB
in Canadian Adult ESL classrooms.
This Guide to Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 discusses practical ways of linking language learning
in Canadian classrooms to the CLB. Careful interpretation and supports are needed to apply the CLB in the
many contexts where Adult ESL learners and teachers are working. It is not enough to simply hand the document
to teachers and expect them to apply it. Carefully planned implementation processes and professional development
activities will ensure successful use of the information in the CLB 2000 document.
Who is this Guide for?
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000: A Guide to Implementation is primarily intended for practising
teachers of Adult ESL learners and program administrators who want to use the Canadian Language
Benchmarks as a basis for curriculum and program development and lesson planning. The Guide is not intended
as a manual for teaching ESL in general. For readers interested in exploring some of the topics in greater detail,
suggested readings and references are included at the end of each chapter. These reading lists are not exhaustive,
as readers of the Guide are assumed to have professional expertise as teachers of Adult ESL as well as familiarity
with the common professional terminology that is used in the Guide. A glossary is provided for terms that may
be new for some readers.
How is the Guide Organized?
The Guide focuses on using the Canadian Language Benchmarks when planning for teaching and learning
and builds on current directions and practices in ESL instruction. It includes numerous classroom and program
examples from across the country. Each section in the Guide builds on information introduced in the previous
sections and is, therefore, intended to be read in the order in which the sections are presented. However, because
readers may want to focus on a topic of particular interest, each section has been written to be as self-contained
as possible. Cross-references are provided to other sections on some key issues.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
1
1
Intoduction
How will Implementing the CLB Affect Teaching and Learning?
Implementing the Canadian Language Benchmarks does not mean that we need to throw out everything we
have been doing. Activities and resources that have been used successfully in the past will continue to be relevant
for use with a CLB focus. However, these may be used in a different way and with a changed emphasis.
When applying the Benchmarks in our classrooms, the greatest change for many of us may be a shift from a focus
on students learning about language to a focus on their ability to use English to do tasks. Others may find the greatest
change will be the shift to using a competency-based approach. This may mean shifting the focus in classroom
planning from what the teacher will do to what the learner will be able to do.
Bringing about effective change takes time and requires opportunities for teachers to become familiar with the
content, issues, and best practices of the new direction. The Canadian Language Benchmarks can be an exciting
catalyst for change in the classroom, program, or institution and in the community at large. This Guide provides tools
and strategies both for planning effective professional development activities and for successfully implementing the
Canadian Language Benchmarks in ESL programs throughout Canada.
What Key Features of the Canadian Language Benchmarks Shape
Implementation?
A close look at Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 reveals a perspective on language learning which has
vast implications for ESL programs. Specifically, the CLB:
• provides a framework of reference for assessing, programming, teaching and learning English as a
Second Language in adult programs in Canada. The Benchmarks state what Adult ESL learners should
be able to do in order to be considered proficient in specific aspects of communication.
• describes communicative competencies and performance tasks through which the learner can demonstrate
application of language knowledge (competence) and skills (performance).
• enables learners, teachers and others to form a picture of the general language abilities of individuals.
By undertaking a language task, learners demonstrate underlying language ability.
• describes the range of a person's language ability at a particular Benchmark level, but does not represent
all areas of ability in the language.
... the basic description of proficiency in this book leaves out much of
the richness and complexity of human communication. Furthermore, it cannot
even embark on discussing the complex and diverse ways in which adults learn
to communicate in a second language. The competencies and the examples of
tasks are only samples indicative of a range of a person's language ability at a
particular Benchmark level. Metaphorically speaking, the four competency areas
shown for each Benchmark are only the four visible tips of a much larger "iceberg"
of communicative ability.
- Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000, xiv
2
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
1
Introduction
The Canadian Language Benchmarks and Communicative Competence
The development of Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 was influenced by the definition of communicative
competence1 as the ability to use language to create or interpret intended meanings in discourse. Specifically,
the CLB assumes that communicative competence includes the following:
Linguistic (also called grammatical) competence - enables the building and recognition of
well-formed (grammatically accurate) utterances or sentences, according to the rules of syntax, semantics,
morphology, phonology or graphology. It is the knowledge of grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation
or graphology at a sentence level.
Textual (also called discourse) competence - enables the connecting of utterances (oral language)
or sentences (written language) into cohesive, logical and functionally coherent conversational structures
or written texts. In particular, it is the knowledge and application of discourse rules and devices in
building larger units of language.
Functional (also called actional) competence - helps to convey and interpret communicative
intent (or function) behind a sentence, utterance or text. It is knowledge of the macro functions of
language use, (such as transmission of information, social interaction and suasion, learning and thinking,
creation, and enjoyment) and micro functions, or speech acts, (such as request, threat, warning, plea,
etc.) and of conventions of their use.
Sociocultural (also called sociolinguistic) competence - focuses on considerations of appropriateness
in producing and understanding utterances. These include rules of discourse politeness; sensitivity to
register, dialect or variety; norms of stylistic appropriateness; sensitivity to "naturalness"; knowledge
of idioms and figurative language; knowledge of culture, customs, and institutions; knowledge of cultural
references; and uses of a language through interactional skills to establish and maintain social
relationships.
Strategic competence - manages the integration and application of all the other language competence
components to the specific context and situation of a language use. It involves planning and assessing
communication, avoiding potential (or repairing actual) difficulties in communication, coping with
communication breakdown and using affective devices. Most of all, its function is to ensure effectiveness
of communication transactions.
1
G. Pawlikowska-Smith drew on Bachman & Palmer (1996), Celce-Murcia, Dörnyei & Thurrell (1997) as well as Canale & Swain (1980) for models
of communicative competence that informed Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
3
1
Introduction
What are the Beliefs and Principles about Language and Learning that
are Reflected in the CLB?
We can examine and articulate
beliefs about language learning
by considering the following four
aspects of language programs:
1. language
2. social context
3. learning and learners
As teachers, we all hold beliefs about learning and teaching English. We have
beliefs about the best way of organizing and presenting information for learners
and about what aspects of language are important for teaching. These beliefs are
reflected in how we plan our programs, select resources, and assess students. Implicit
in Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 are beliefs or principles related to
learning and teaching. Articulating these beliefs helps us to make key decisions
about the content and organization of curricula, courses, modules and lessons.
1. Beliefs about Language
4. teaching
The CLB reflects the view that language is for communication and that communication
is both purposeful and meaningful. The importance of purpose and meaning in
communication suggests a focus on language function. Meaning is created from
the relationships between language functions, forms, and context, including the intentions of the speaker and the
expectations of the hearer.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 describes communicative proficiency as the ability of the learners to
communicate, that is, to interact with other speakers and writers of English, to express themselves in and interpret
written and spoken English, and to negotiate meaning with others in specific situations and in a variety of social
contexts.
The CLB describes proficiency in a second language in terms of both communicative competence (language
knowledge) and communicative performance (language use).
Implications of these beliefs about language for the Adult ESL classroom are:
• Language instruction should provide linguistic, textual, sociocultural, strategic and functional information
in situations which allow learners to develop communicative competence.
• Learners' performances should be evaluated on their ability to use the English language to accomplish
a set of tasks, under specifically defined performance and situational conditions.
The CLB is situated in a functional view of English, which focuses on the purposes (functions) a learner may achieve
through language in particular activities or events. It, therefore, gives priority to the different purposes (functions)
which language can serve and to how these functions are coded (or textualized) through the language.2 A range
of language purposes is identified, based on the needs of the learner in specific contexts. Planning for learning within
this view of language entails developing the use of receptive and productive language skills that are appropriate to
specific social and interpersonal situations and contexts.
2
Breen, 1989, p.88
4
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
1
Introduction
2. Beliefs about Social Context
The social context encompasses sociolinguistic, sociocultural, and sociopolitical issues in language teaching.3
Sociolinguistic issues are concerned with the way in which language is adapted to fit a particular social context
- with the use of language that is appropriate to a particular situation. Sociocultural issues are concerned with
the interaction between language and culture - social values, norms and conventions in use in a particular context.
Sociopolitical issues are concerned with how a given language or social group is viewed by other social groups,
access to language and services, and a critical awareness of how language is used. "The beliefs that learners
need to know how to participate in the community and that language teaching involves helping learners gain
access to social systems are both related to sociopolitical issues."4
Implications of these beliefs about social context for the Adult ESL classroom are:
• Language instruction should focus on the needs of learners for settlement and integration, including
social, work-related, educational, vocational and community access.
• Classroom techniques and practices should utilize content related to learners' needs and interests.
• Language instruction should encourage the development of strategies for self-directed and
life-long learning.
• Ongoing planning and accountability processes should involve and inform learners.
3. Beliefs about Learning and Learners
The CLB document is intended to benefit learners. The standards facilitate meaningful, concrete discussions
with learners about their progress and goals. The competencies that were chosen to be included in the CLB
can be used in a wide variety of contexts as learners participate in Canadian society. As such, the implications
for the Adult ESL classroom are:
• Adult ESL programs should be learner-centred. Learner-centred means that learners are included in
the discussion about how learning will take place. Their input is valued and considered in determining
the direction for the course and making choices on content, activities and materials.
• Teaching and learning activities should accommodate a wide variety of learner characteristics, such
as background and prior learning, proficiency levels, rates of learning, learning styles and strategies.
3
4
Graves, 2000, p.29
Ibid.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
5
1
Introduction
4. Beliefs about Teaching
In addition to describing proficiency in functional terms, Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 assumes a
task-based approach to teaching and learning.
Language learning through authentic communicative tasks promotes the
integration of all aspects of communicative competence, and multi-level
language processing.5
A communicative task may be described as a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending,
manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning
rather than form.6 The CLB is task-based to promote the integration of language skills, all levels of communicative
competence, and multi-level language processing. Chapter 5, Methodology, and Chapter 6, the section on Planning
a Lesson, contain in-depth discussions about tasks.
Describing communicative proficiency means describing a person's ability to
accomplish communication tasks. Assessing communicative proficiency means
assessing a person's ability to accomplish communication tasks. Accomplishing
communicative tasks provides the learner and teacher / assessor with
demonstrable and measurable outcomes of performance.7
Implications of these beliefs about teaching for the Adult ESL classroom are:
•
Learners should be in the role of communicator, learning to communicate by communicating.
•
Language instruction should engage learners in the development of communicative competence through
thematic, task-based, and interactive situations.
•
Language instruction should include both skill-building and skill-using activities. There is a distinction
between accuracy and fluency in the teaching and learning.
•
Communicative techniques and activities should engage production and comprehension skills, oral and
written modes, verbal and nonverbal symbols.
•
An authentic/realistic language task should reflect the complex, integrative, and multi-level relationship
between language functions, forms and contexts.
•
Language instruction should provide learners with extensive exposure to authentic and realistic input.
•
A spiralling process of language instruction should be used; that is, the teaching process must involve
the recycling of previously taught language items in new topics or contexts.
5
CLB 2000, p.viii
Nunan, 1989, p.10
7
CLB 2000, p.viii
6
6
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
1
Introduction
What are the Benefits to Stakeholders?
The preface and introduction in the CLB document describe the need for and purpose of the CLB. The following
summarized points illustrate the benefits of implementing the CLB for the various stakeholders.
Learners
The CLB:
• allows learners to see where they fit within the continuum of language competency
• enables the identification of individual language gaps and needs
• facilitates movement between ESL programs within and across regions
• facilitates meaningful and relevant language instruction
• provides a common language to discuss language learning and progress
Teachers
The CLB:
• allows teachers to see the continuum of language competency and where their learners fit
• facilitates an identification and awareness of learners' language needs
• encourages meaningful and relevant language curriculum development and language instruction
• gives teachers a common language to discuss language proficiency
• facilitates ongoing dialogue between teachers and learners about their language learning
Programs
The CLB:
• allows for the appropriate placement of learners
• facilitates learner movement from level to level and program to program
• provides a common language for discussing language proficiency
• provides a basis for relevant curriculum development and program review
• allows for versatile program planning (workplace, community, specific purposes)
• facilitates the effective reporting of learner progress
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
7
1
Introduction
Funders
The CLB:
• allows for consistent assessment of learners within and across ESL programs
• facilitates relevant curriculum review and development in ESL programs
• provides a common language for the discussion and reporting of learner progress
• enables funders to identify gaps in ESL training
• provides the basis for a seamless system for ESL learners (language training, employment, postsecondary education)
Employers
The CLB:
• provides standards for language use that can be linked to the workplace
• facilitates employers' understanding of what a learner can do (outcome based)
• enables the identification of appropriate levels of language proficiency required in the workplace
• provides a common language for discussing language proficiency
Post-Secondary Education
The CLB:
• enables the identification of appropriate language levels required for post-secondary study
• allows for the development of appropriate language assessment tools for post secondary study
• provides a common language to discuss language proficiency
8
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
Introduction
1
What is the Impact of the CLB beyond the ESL Classroom?
The impact of the Canadian Language Benchmarks in the world of Adult ESL instruction has been profound.
The potential of the entire CLB initiative in assisting newcomers to Canada in reaching their personal and
professional goals is also tremendous.
Some fear that the use of the CLB will result in 'gate keeping', that is, that opportunities will be denied to some
individuals who don't 'measure up'. However, if the users are knowledgeable about what CLB levels mean and
if their programs standards or have been carefully scrutinized to determine what level is needed, this fear is
unfounded. Certainly artificial barriers that are in place now are more detrimental and unfair than a system based
on a clear description of language levels needed and attained.
By articulating standards for language proficiency, all stakeholders can now speak a common language and make
informed decisions regarding training and employment opportunities. Newcomers can navigate through the
complexities of prerequisites and screening processes armed with a clear understanding of the requirements and
documentation of their own English proficiency. Employers and post-secondary institutions can use the CLB
to determine exactly what levels are required for success.
There have been numerous CLB related projects that have been designed to assist newcomers, training institutions
and employers to utilize the CLB in efforts to breaks down barriers. Many courses and jobs are being 'benchmarked'.
The Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks (CCLB) is working with professions and trades organizations to
assist newcomers' integration into the job market with the development of specialized language assessment tools.
In addition, the CLB has been used to measure and assess the competency levels for ESL speakers to be successful
in a number of occupationally specific programs and courses in some post-secondary institutions. There have
been research projects designed to provide universities and colleges across Canada with a better understanding
of the potential use of Canadian Language Benchmarks Assessment (CLBA) for admission purposes. Other
studies have included the correlation of the CLB with the Essential Skills profiles. Information sessions for
employers and employees are being planned to help them understand how national CLB standards relate to
particular jobs.
For further discussion and to obtain information about CLB projects, see the CCLB website: www. language.ca
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
9
.
C H A P T E R
2
Implementing the CLB in a Program:
Creating a Path for Change
Assume that effective change takes time. It is a process of 'development in use'. . . Significant
change in the form of implementing specific innovations can be expected to take a minimum
of two or three years . . . Persistence is a critical attribute of successful change.
- Michael Fullan & Suzanne Stiegelbauer, 1991
This chapter includes the following:
• principles of staff and program development
• planning for change
• examples of program and staff development
• helpful readings
Implementing the CLB in a program can provide a broad range of opportunities for program and staff
development. Initiatives that invite teachers to reflect on their classroom practice, to collaborate in developing
CLB-related materials or to work in teams to build consistent assessment processes can do much to raise
the level of professional expertise in a program.
At the same time, it is important to recognize that implementing the CLB in a program will:
• be a long-term process
• require making changes in the way we do things, both at the classroom and program level
What are Some Key Principles of Staff and Program Development?
Major change such as integrating the CLB into a program necessitates careful planning, with particular
consideration of staff development. Current thinking about staff and program development provides several
useful principles:
1 Effective program change requires strong leadership.
Incorporating the CLB into an ESL program depends on a core of knowledgeable teachers, as well as
strong commitment and support from the program administration. Ideally, a leadership group comprised
of administrators and classroom teachers will work together to develop a vision of the changes required
for successful implementation.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
10
2
Implementing the CLB in a Program: Creating a Path for Change
1
2 Effective staff development is coherent, long range and sustained.
A long-term plan is essential to the successful implementation of the CLB at the classroom level. The
plan (which may cover a two to three year time span) should be reviewed and revised on a regular basis.
In-service sessions can then be systematically planned and evaluated. Participants should be able to see how
individual sessions and initiatives relate to larger goals. 'One-shot awareness workshops' may be used to
introduce new ideas or materials but they cannot in themselves constitute a coherent professional development
program.
3 Collaborative processes will facilitate the change process.
Teachers will be more likely to embrace new processes and approaches that they have helped to design and
develop. It is important to involve staff members in decision-making and to give them opportunities to plan
and discuss with colleagues.
4 Teacher and program expertise should be recognized.
The principles that underlie the CLB already guide practice in many Adult ESL classrooms. The change process
should identify the strengths of current practice and build on what teachers already know and are doing well.
5 Staff development should include both individual development and organizational
development.
Research points to the effectiveness of on-site professional development that connects teacher
development to program development. Activities should address the questions and perceived needs of the
teachers involved. At the same time, staff development initiatives should address issues and needs of the
larger program.
6 Participants need time to integrate what they have learned.
Teachers must be able to discuss, question and think about the implications of using the CLB in order to
make changes in their classroom practice. Staff development activities should provide opportunities for teachers
to reflect on their assumptions and experiences while exploring applications for their new understanding.
7 Change is a complex and very individual process.
Teachers will have varying degrees of comfort related to implementation of theCLB. There may be initial
resistance to implementation, but this can be alleviated if concerns are acknowledged and support and time
for the change process is allowed. At the same time, change often requires a certain amount of pressure
through the setting of expectations. These expectations must be reasonable, respecting the gradual and
incremental nature of change and should be clearly understood by all participants.
1
Clair & Adger, 2000, p.36
11
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
Implementing the CLB in a Program: Creating a Path for Change
2
8 Staff and program development activities should be based on a vision for learners.2
The most effective way to get teachers to embrace innovation is to demonstrate how it will benefit learners.
The implications for learners should be a key consideration in all CLB-related program and staff development
initiatives. As changes are implemented in a program, input from learners should be used to evaluate and
revise the innovation.
9 There should be appropriate incentives and rewards for teachers.
Teachers must perceive that their efforts to implement the CLB will be recognized. Incentives may be
extrinsic in the form of release time, extended planning time, opportunity for leadership roles and honoraria.
Rewards may also be intrinsic through personal and professional satisfaction and a recognition that the
initiative will help them to be more effective in the classroom.
How Can We Plan for CLB Implementation?
There is no 'best way' to undertake the implementation process; what is effective in one context may not be
appropriate in another situation. However, a framework such as the following can help to identify broad
implementation goals as well as specify initiatives that will address program needs and build on the strengths,
skills and resources currently available.3
Step One: Establishing a Purpose for Change
At some point in the implementation process it is important to clarify how the CLB fits into the program goals
and context, and why the program benefits from making the link. Examining the fit between
the CLB and the existing program will help to clarify the rationale and purpose for CLB
Steps for CLB
Implementaion
implementation.
1. Establish a purpose
for change
2. Establish possible
initiatives
3. Prioritize initiatives
2
3
One program administrator described this process:
“One of the most useful things we did as a staff when we were grappling with
how to implement the CLB, was to define the vision of how the CLB
meshed with our program. It really helped when we could say, ‘We're trying
to fit the CLB into our program, not fit our program into the CLB.’ The CLB
was still a very important part of our program, but the Benchmarks no longer
had to be everything for everyone.”
Clair & Adger, 2000, p. 36
For a more detailed program planning profile see Rodgers & Richards, 1987, pp. 34-40
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Implementing the CLB in a Program: Creating a Path for Change
When integrating the CLB into existing programs, we can begin with the following questions.
Our Program
Incorporating the CLB
• What is the vision of our program? What makes
• How does the CLB fit into that vision?
us unique?
• Who are our learners? Why do they come to
our program?
• What are the goals of our program?
(or programs?)
• What are our program objectives? Course
• How will the use of the CLB competencies
serve their needs and purposes?
• How will use of the CLB further these
goals?
• How does the CLB fit with these objectives?
objectives? These questions will need to be
asked for each part of the program.
• How does our curriculum framework meet learner
needs and program goals?
• How will the use of the CLB impact our
course structure, content and processes
such as student intake and evaluation?
• Who are the other program stakeholders
(funders, employers, etc.)?
• How will use of the CLB serve the needs
and purposes of these groups?
These questions will shape a vision of the CLB implementation process for a particular program. The next step
is to establish desired outcomes and identify specific initiatives.
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Step Two: Establishing Possible Initiatives
Once participants in the change process see a clear purpose for integrating the CLB into a program, specific
initiatives can be discussed. Once again, several questions can guide this discussion:
Defining Potential Initiatives:
• Based on the vision of what CLB implementation will look like, what are some desired outcomes?
• What specific initiatives could achieve these outcomes?
• How will these initiatives meet the needs of various stakeholder groups (e.g. learners, teachers,
program administrators, funders, employers)?
• Which are long-term initiatives? Short-term?
Evaluating Initiatives:
• What common basis of understanding is required to undertake the above initiatives?
• What resources are available? These include personnel, expertise, funds (to cover project development
time, hiring of staff, honoraria) and material resources (e.g. texts, computers).
• What are the challenges or barriers to CLB implementation?
Step Three: Prioritizing Initiatives
Unfortunately, not all initiatives can be pursued at a given time. Lack of resources and the need to pace change
will limit what a program can undertake. As such, initiatives need to be examined and prioritized, with the purpose
of selecting those most feasible and most valuable at the time. Questions such as the following may be helpful:
• Is it feasible to undertake this initiative? Are the necessary resources available?
• How important is this initiative to various stakeholder groups?
• Will completion of the initiative have a significant impact on the program?
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A Classroom Example
Implementing the CLB in a Program: Creating a Path for Change
Working Together to Bring about Change
Implementing the CLB in our programs is both an opportunity and a challenge. It is a long-term undertaking
that can best be achieved if all stakeholders are working together to support the changes needed. It will mean:
Teachers:
• becoming familiar with the CLB outcomes
• incorporating the CLB into all aspects of classroom planning
• finding ways to make the CLB accessible to learners
Administrators:
• making program decisions (from course design to learner intake and
assessment processes) that support CLB implementation
• providing support for professional development and program planning
related to the CLB
• making colleagues and stakeholders outside ESL (employers, post-secondary
providers, community) aware of the CLB
Program funders:
• recognizing that CLB implementation requires time and ongoing support
Through working in partnership to establish priorities and share resources across programs, jurisdictions and
provinces, stakeholders can ensure that CLB implementation benefits learners as they move from ESL programs
into the wider community.
Classroom Examples
Staff and program development may be planned at the institution or agency level. This planning can also be done
at a broader level to achieve desired goals across a number of programs. The first example illustrates the process
that one program undertook to implement the CLB. The following two examples illustrate provincial CLB
implementation initiatives: a professional development initiative in Alberta and an integrated professional and
program development process undertaken in Manitoba.
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Example 1:
Implementing the CLB in an ESL Academic Bridging Program
Incorporating the CLB was part of a larger restructuring that was undertaken in a program over a period of
several years. The first step was to develop a vision of the program as an ESL academic bridging program. To
do this staff:
• clarified the purposes for which learners came to the program
• identified clusters of skills, content and functions that would serve their needs
• outlined how various "programs within the program" fit together
• identified learner pathways within the program and beyond (into other educational institutions)
• looked at how the CLB would be of benefit to learners and the program
Over a three-year period, several initiatives were undertaken:
Program Outcomes
The process of developing program outcomes had been started when the CLB was first published in 1996.
At first, program teachers tried to modify the CLB outcomes to better meet the academic goals of the program.
They then decided to adopt the CLB as is, recognizing that their value as a set of national standards was
diminished if they were modified. They chose, instead, to add program specific academic outcomes at various
levels (e.g. at CLB Levels 5-9 specific outcomes in the use of research skills were added). Attempting to write
outcomes helped highlight the difficulty of reaching consensus about what was important and also the difficulty
of developing consistency and progression across levels. The teachers involved were able to appreciate the
strengths of the CLB and became less critical of shortcomings than they might have been if they hadn't tried
to do the work themselves!
Feedback and Reporting Processes
Mid-term feedback forms and processes related to CLB outcomes were developed. The biggest challenge was
to try to describe the Benchmarks in terms that learners could understand so that learners had a clear idea of
their progress related to course expectations.
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A Classroom Example
Implementing the CLB in a Program: Creating a Path for Change
Sample Tasks
Teachers developed a bank of sample classroom tasks that were appropriate for the program. These tasks were
in all skills from CLB Levels 1 - 9. The tasks were compiled so they could be shared with new teachers coming
into the program or teachers who were moving to different levels or parts of the program. In this case, it was
the process, rather than the product that had the greatest value. As teachers worked together in level groups to
negotiate which tasks to include, there was rich discussion about competencies that were most important, how
different competencies could be taught and how learners could be asked to demonstrate proficiency. This helped
teachers to clarify underlying expectations and assumptions and compare them with those of their colleagues.
This eventually developed shared understanding and consistency in using the CLB.
Modules
Teachers then developed content-based modules with tasks correlated to the CLB. A number of teachers had
been developing informal units and sharing them with their colleagues for some time. They wanted to formalize
the process and develop products that could be published and shared outside the program. A module framework
and collaborative development process were developed. Over a two-year period a series of task-based modules
was developed. Classroom tasks were correlated to CLB outcomes. As the modules were published, they became
models within the program and recognized the work of excellent teachers.
Reflections of the program administrator
There were times in the process that we all wanted to throw in the towel! One of the
difficulties was not having other models to follow - we were in the early stages of CLB
implementation and couldn't find other examples of how to do the work. We therefore
had a number of false starts. For example, we did a whole staff workshop on the CLB
and assessment and suddenly realized that teachers weren't clear about the CLB competencies
and the task-based approach. We then had to backtrack and do a series of workshops
on developing a bank of tasks. False starts like these were costly in terms of teacher morale
and enthusiasm for the implementation process. But we persevered, and eventually teachers
began to see the benefits and importance of the work, and were proud of what we had
achieved. I think that there were several critical factors in the success of the project:
• Development and maintenance of a common vision of the unique nature of our program,
how the CLB fit with that vision, and why it was important to use them. The vision was
articulated clearly, and came to be shared by the majority of staff.
• Involvement of teachers in leadership roles: A small curriculum development team was
formed to guide the implementation process. The team consisted of classroom teachers from
across the program who were respected by their colleagues and who were committed to
program development and the use of the CLB.
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• Inclusion of all staff: We tried to include as many staff members as possible in specific
program initiatives in order to increase the level of staff participation and commitment to
change.
• Long-term planning: We tried to plan our staff development and program initiatives in
two-year blocks. A specific workshop might be a response to an emergent need, but we
always had an idea of where we'd like to be a year or two down the road.
• Building a common foundation: We tried to build on and connect to past initiatives, so we
were gradually building a common base of shared professional expertise.
Example 2:
Teacher In-service in Alberta
In Alberta, teacher in-service relating to CLB implementation has been supported through an initiative collaboratively
envisioned and funded by the federal and provincial governments (Citizenship and Immigration Canada and
Alberta Learning). Through this project a team of consultants was contracted to offer workshops for ESL providers
in the province. ESL providers were unanimous in requesting that the workshops be tailored for their specific
organization and be offered on-site. This was a significant factor in the planning and design process.
The following assumptions guided the planning:
• Workshops must be immediately relevant. Teachers must leave a session feeling that they have gained
something they can immediately apply. (Principle: Teachers should perceive there are appropriate incentives
and rewards.)
• Workshops must relate to the specific context of the program. They must be relevant to the type of program,
needs of learners and particular challenges that the program and teachers face. (Principle: Staff development
should include both individual development and organizational development.)
• Knowledge is 'constructed' not 'received' from experts. In a workshop, participants need opportunities to
discuss and explore new ideas, to make connections with what they already know and do. (Principle:
Participants need time to integrate what they have learned.)
• At the end of each workshop participants should have a clear idea of possible next steps. (Principle: Effective
staff development is coherent, long range and sustained.)
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Implementing the CLB in a Program: Creating a Path for Change
Workshop Planning
The following processes were established for the development of workshops:
Needs questionnaire: For new providers (providers who had not previously done a workshop) a short questionnaire
was completed to get information about the program context, learners served, and current use and questions
related to the CLB. After discussion with the program coordinator, a proposed workshop outline confirmed the
workshop goals and processes.
Consultation process: To assist in the planning, a consultation was set up with each provider who requested a
follow-up workshop. The consultation included the program coordinator and several teachers from the program.
Including several program staff in the planning process resulted in a greater sense of staff input into and ownership
for the workshops. Consultations included discussion of how the organization was currently using the CLB, how
they would like to be using them and exploration of key questions and issues related to the CLB that staff had.
From the conversation, a number of options for workshop focus were explored in order to develop a workshop
that would best meet the organization's current context and needs. After the consultation, a proposed workshop
outline was developed for approval and/or further discussion.
Workshop Delivery
Each workshop was developed for the specific provider and was, to some extent, unique. The workshops were
generally half-day sessions and varied in terms of focus and approach.
Workshop A:
Introductory: This workshop introduced the framework for communicative competence
and the organization and key components of the CLB document. It provided an
opportunity for teachers to develop a sample task in one of the three skill areas and
relate it to CLB performance indicators.
Workshop B:
Development of Theme-Based Units: In this full-day session teachers chose a
common theme and worked in groups to develop an outline for a module. Final tasks
were created and the tasks were related to CLB outcomes. Skill-building activities
and materials to support the task were identified.
Workshop C:
Classroom-Based Assessment (Two Part): In Session One teachers developed
writing or speaking tasks and identified the performance indicators and criteria for
success. In the following weeks teachers piloted the tasks with learners and gathered
writing (or, in the case of speaking, video-taped) samples. One month later in Session
Two, teachers worked in groups to develop monitoring strategies and review the samples
to determine if learners were working at Benchmark level. By reviewing the samples
together with colleagues, teachers began to develop common expectations for what
constituted "at Benchmark level”.
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The feedback to the workshops was extremely positive particularly in cases where organizations scheduled two
or more sessions.
There was a consistent increase in teachers' confidence in using the CLB in classroom planning. Respondents
also commented on the value of the small group activities and the importance of having a facilitator present
for each of the small groups to guide the group discussion and answer questions as they arose. Participants,
particularly those who had been involved in the consultation sessions, appreciated the fact that the workshops
were tailored to their specific needs. Participants wrote:
• "Appreciated practical ideas and being able to implement them using our own material!"
• "This helped us see how we could connect the CLB to other program goals."
• "The workshop has been instrumental in using the document rather than letting it collect dust."
Reflections on the Workshops
The most effective workshops were the two-part workshops in which teachers piloted
a CLB-related task between the two sessions. As teachers reflected on their experience
in Session Two, they identified insights, questions and issues that emerged for them
in the process of implementing the CLB. These questions were grounded in experience,
were personally meaningful and provided an excellent basis for further professional
development and inquiry.
Example 3:
Staff and Program Development in Manitoba A Long-term Implementation Strategy
The Adult Language Training (ALT) Branch of the Manitoba provincial government had a long history with the
CLB initiative even before the document was launched at the TESL Canada Conference in Manitoba in 1996.
That history and a continued belief in the benefits of adopting the CLB, the close relationship with the other
Adult ESL funders, Citizenship and Immigration Canada (CIC), and the relatively small size of the Adult ESL
community, enabled the Province to co-ordinate and lead all CLB implementation activity. It was quickly
recognized that if Adult ESL teachers were to use the CLB to its full advantage, a long-term implementation
strategy would have to be developed.
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A Classroom Example
Implementing the CLB in a Program: Creating a Path for Change
Initially, the CLB document (descriptors) was only a starting point, and it alone was of limited value to teachers.
Working within a CLB framework required a shift in focus away from grammar-based instruction to a more
communicative approach as defined in the CLB . A Committee on the Assessment of Language in Manitoba
(CALM) was formed as an advisory group to the Province on matters related to Adult ESL. It was chaired by two
staff members of the ALT Branch, Citizenship Division, Manitoba Labour. They developed a plan to allow 3-4 years
to implement the CLB. The plan included:
• pre-service and in-service workshops
• classroom support
• information sessions
• resource development
• development of a curriculum framework
• other related projects to inform the community
An essential component of this plan was to draw on the experience and expertise of the Adult ESL teachers
in Manitoba.
Adult ESL teachers working in government-funded programs were supported in their participation in professional
development workshops. CIC and Citizenship Division also funded a number of CLB related projects that had
been identified by the ALT Branch.
Summary of the Workshops
Initial workshops were offered in Winnipeg over the three year implementation period. They were attended by
teachers from all types of programs, including community and workplace programs. Some sessions were repeated
in rural areas and during a summer intensive 'make-up' series. At each session teachers were asked to evaluate
the effectiveness of the workshop, indicate their needs for further professional development, and rate their comfort
level in working within a CLB framework.
Introduction of the CLB Document: The first professional development event developed by the Committee on
Assessment of Language in Manitoba accomplished several things. The process for implementing the CLB in
Manitoba was discussed, the CLB document was introduced using a search activity, guiding principles were
discussed, and a small group session on activities and techniques was held.
Introduction to the Canadian Language Benchmarks Assessment: An orientation to the Canadian Language
Benchmarks Assessment (CLBA) used the workshop materials supplied by the Centre for Language Training
and Assessment (CLTA).
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Writing Learning Objectives: The next session included a discussion on the format of writing objectives from
the CLB. During the session, the definition of communicative competence (functional,linguistic, sociocultural,
textual and strategic) was outlined.
Methodology: The importance of using both skill-building and skill-using activities in a language class was
highlighted. There were small group sessions where participants had a chance to explore CLB considerations
in teaching (the skill areas were addressed separately). Participants were asked to review the introductory pages
of the CLB to glean information related to methodology. The work that was done at this workshop was the
basis for the CLB principles that were later validated by the Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks (CCLB).
Materials Evaluation: Participants had an opportunity to look at resources within a CLB framework. A chart
was developed to assist in documenting observations. In addition, there was a large group session on preparing
audiotapes, using computers to develop worksheets and a selection of small workshops featuring local practitioners.
The Manitoba Core Language Objectives, Working Document: The document was distributed and discussed.
Teachers had a chance to work with the objectives and a 12-step teaching plan process.
CLB Needs Assessment: The principles of needs assessments were discussed and teachers analyzed different
types of needs assessment tools and processes.
CLB Evaluation and Reporting: The draft Manitoba CLB Progress Reports were introduced. A video of student
oral samples was used to assist teachers in developing their skills in identifying CLB levels of their students.
A writing task workshop was also delivered and the results of teachers' collaborative work will be published in
a document entitled Writing Tasks for Assessment Purposes.
Programs continued to support the implementation of the CLB at the classroom level. Professional development
events were offered through the professional organizations with some input from CALM.
Projects
In addition to the professional development workshops, the following projects supported CLB implementation:
CLB Listening/Speaking Resource: The CLB Listening/Speaking Resource was developed. It included taped
dialogues and transcripts. A teacher's guide was later developed and is now included in the kit, which is available
for purchase. (See Reference section for distributor.)
CLB Equivalency Projects in the Workplace: The purpose of the projects was to establish target
Benchmarks for hiring as well as to predict what language supports might be required for immigrant
workers in various sectors.
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A Classroom Example
Implementing the CLB in a Program: Creating a Path for Change
University Course: The University of Manitoba, Faculty of Education offered a CLB course entitled Canadian
Language Benchmarks: Aspects & Implications.
Manitoba Core CLB Objectives: The development of CLB language learning objectives was undertaken by
three major Adult ESL institutions.
Reflections on the Experience
Canadian Language Benchmarks implementation in Manitoba has been a collaborative
process utilizing the strengths of many individuals, programs and organizations. In the
beginning, there was some confusion and resistance, so we provided teachers with the
time to work with new concepts and reassurance for those feeling insecure about the
new direction. We constantly emphasized that working within a CLB framework did
not imply that they had to 'throw out' good teaching practices and effective materials.
As with any long-term plan involving so many individuals, people 'get on board' at
different times and the 'teachable moment' varies with the individual. Feedback from
teachers on the workshops was overwhelmingly positive. The most successful session
was probably the one dealing with resources.
At the end of the four-year process, most teachers indicated a 'somewhat comfortable'
level of working within a CLB framework. We consider that a success. In general, most
professionals feel that the introduction of the CLB in the field has created an exciting
environment for professional growth.
The implementation process is not complete. We have new teachers in the system and
some teachers who have been slower to accept the challenge of change. We are
exploring the idea of supporting professional development in forms other than workshops.
We also have plans to revise the progress reports and objectives.
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Helpful Readings
Burton, J. (1987). Implementing the Learner-Centred Curriculum. Adelaide, South Australia: National
Curriculum Resource Centre.
This volume is a collection of papers that were presented at the National Curriculum Seminar for the
Australian Migrant Education Project in 1986. The practical issues and considerations they address related
to curriculum development and change are as relevant today as when the papers were originally written.
Clair, N. & Adger,C. (2000). Sustainable strategies for professional development in education reform.
In Johnson, K., Teacher Education. Alexandria, Virginia: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languages, Inc.
This article describes the professional development component of a three year research project on implementing
ESL standards in high school classrooms.
Ferguson, G. (1989). A Handbook for Inservice Presenters. The Saskatchewan Professional Development Unit.
This practical and clearly written handbook provides a brief overview of staff development principles and
the implications for developing effective teacher in-service. The second half of the handbook introduces basic
presentation and facilitation techniques.
Fullan, M. & Stiegelbauer, S. (1991). The New Meaning of Educational Change. New York: Teachers
College Press.
This book provides an excellent reference for understanding the change process and suggesting strategies
that promote innovation and improvement in our classrooms and educational institutions.
Johnson, K. (2000). Teacher Education. Alexandria, Virginia: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languages, Inc.
This volume presents a series of case studies written by teacher educators as they reflect on some aspect
of their teaching practice.
Rodgers, T. & Richards, J. (1987). Teacher-based curriculum development: illusion or reality.
In Burton, J., Implementing the Learner-Centred Curriculum. Adelaide, South Australia: National
Curriculum Resource Centre.
This paper describes the role of teachers in curriculum development. It includes a program planning profile
to assist in decision making.
Sparks, D. & Hirsh, S. (1997). A New Vision for Staff Development. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
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C H A P T E R
3
Needs Assessment in a
Learner-Centred Approach
Since teachers and learners are likely to have differing expectations about what should be
learnt and how, we have seen how misunderstanding may arise unless information is shared
by both parties about their expectations. This information can form the basis on which
compromises can be arrived at between what learners want and what teachers think they need.
- Geoffrey Brindley, 1989
This chapter includes the following:
• the learner-centered approach
• needs assessment principles
• a needs assessment process
• types of assessment tools and activities
• considerations in choosing a needs assessment tool
• classroom examples
• helpful readings
Learners come to ESL classes with a wide range of backgrounds, language skills, goals, and dreams.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 proposes that this range of needs and backgrounds must be
considered if teaching is to be effective. As a result, Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 presents
learner-centredness as a central principle in language teaching.
A learner-centred approach to teaching ESL depends on knowing who our learners are. Why have they come
to our class? What background experiences and education do they bring with them? What are their immediate
and long-term goals, dreams and aspirations? What are their current life circumstances?
For these reasons, needs assessment is a fundamental starting point in the teaching and learning process.
It is essential for student goal setting, ongoing program monitoring, and evaluation of and accountability to
learners.
Funders, community members, school boards and program planners are often involved in assessing needs of
their client groups. Needs identification and analysis are crucial steps at different levels to provide responsive
Adult ESL programming. The focus of this chapter, however, is on needs assessment at the classroom level.
Implementing the CLB in a program means adopting a learner-centred approach to teaching, and that in turn
means that learners' needs are identified by the learners themselves and addressed in the classroom.
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Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
What is a Learner-Centred Approach?
The fundamental feature of a learner-centred approach is the analysis of learner needs. In a learner-centred
classroom there is ongoing negotiation between teachers and learners about course content and methods of
teaching and assessing. The primary purpose of negotiation in a teaching situation is managing teaching and
learning as a group experience.
Optimally a course is constructed with input from learners and negotiation between all the people concerned with
the program. These stakeholders may include the funders, the program coordinators and evaluators as well as
the teacher and learners.
Learners come into classrooms with diverse personal agendas shaped by their prior knowledge and experiences.
They have learning priorities, changing learning needs, different preferred strategies and styles of learning. Teachers
have to "navigate all the students through a set syllabus [course] towards specific objectives."1 Decisions are
made about who will work with whom, in what ways, with what resources and for how long, upon what subject
matter or problem, and for what purposes. The teacher responds to emerging learner needs and difficulties.
The course progresses as the teacher melds the preplanned syllabus with the real needs of the learners. The actual
syllabus is:
... an unfolding compromise between the original pre-designed syllabus and the individual
teacher's alertness to those aspects of learner agendas that may be revealed during
classroom work... A major purpose of procedural negotiation in the classroom is, therefore,
to reach a shared understanding at appropriate moments in classroom work of both the
requirements that may be implicit in, for example, an external syllabus or the teacher's
experientially informed view of efficient ways of working and the different learning agendas
in the class. Through this ongoing process of explicit accommodation, a collective language
curriculum of the classroom group can be gradually evolved. Procedural negotiation in
the language classroom comprises overt and shared decision-making through which
alternative assumptions and interpretations are made clear, the range of achievements
and difficulties in the work are identified, and preferences and alternatives in ways of
working can be revealed and chosen so that the teaching-learning process within a class
can be as effective as possible.2
The challenge for teachers, program planners and curriculum developers is to identify and respect individual
learner’s needs while at the same time developing plans and frameworks that can meet the ongoing and developing
needs of groups of learners. Developing a truly learner-centred approach requires "skilled, trained, confident
practitioners working in a context of solid professional and administrative support."3
Breen & Littlejohn, 2000, p.9
Ibid.
3 Coleman in Burton, 1987, p.6
1
2
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Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
It takes time to work with learners to determine common interests and goals. Learners at lower levels of English
proficiency may require bilingual support (interpreters) to adequately participate in the discussion and negotiation
process. Short courses allow little time for negotiation, consultation and rapport building and often inhibit the
development of truly learner-centred programs.
Despite these challenges, a learner-centred approach includes the following:
• respecting learners' specific goals
• providing opportunities for learners to acquire the English that they need for their own specific
purposes
• allowing teachers to negotiate each individual's journey along the path toward his or her goals,
gradually modifying learning experiences to match learners' perceptions of their own needs
One approach to the development of a learner-centred curriculum is when decisions regarding content and tasks
are made in advance by teachers on the basis of data 'about' typical learners.4
...in a learner-centred-curriculum, key decisions about what will be taught, how it will
be taught, and how it will be assessed will be made with reference to the learner.
Information about learners, and where feasible, from learners, will be used to answer
the key questions of what, how, when, and how well.5
As learners and teachers gain more experience in negotiation, they may move through increasingly sophisticated
levels of learner-centred processes. Nunan describes five levels of sophistication.
Learner-Centredness: Levels of Implementation6
Level
Learner Action
1
Awareness
Learners are made aware of the pedagogical goals and content of the program
2
Involvement
Learners are involved in selecting their own goals and objectives from a range of alternatives
on offer
3
Intervention
Learners are involved in modifying and adapting the goals and content of the learning program
4
Creation
Learners create their own goals and objectives
5
Transcendence
Learners go beyond the classroom and make links between the content of the classroom with
the world beyond the classroom
Wolfe-Quintero, in Breen & Littlejohn, 2000, p.249
Nunan, 1995, p.134
6 Ibid., p.138
4
5
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Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
Planning - Who Needs It? Resolving the Tension between a LearnerCentred and a Planned Approach to Teaching and Learning
Dr. Virginia Sauvé is a proponent of learner-centred approaches. She describes an approach to teaching that she
labels 'The Mail Carrier Metaphor.'7
In it, we see education or training as a carefully designed system in which knowledge can
be packaged and delivered to learners. Such teaching and learning does not see the
learners as participants in learning or creators of knowledge but sees them rather as
recipients... These powerful phrases - program delivery and learning packages - contain
deadly assumptions, values, and beliefs. They assume that we educators know better than
the learner about what the learner needs to know and that our knowledge is of greater
value than the learner's. They assume that we can know before we have even met a
learner what that person needs. They assume that all learners are more or less alike and
that learning is about information that can be delivered.8
Sauvé makes a powerful argument for learning about the actual lives and learning goals of the learners, and for
creating a sense of community in the classroom: "In my experience, a learner learns best when he or she has
articulated what he/she needs and wants to learn at a particular time."9 Sauvé favours a curriculum that is
"necessarily incomplete because we cannot know everything which is significant to know about a person when
we have not met. Our curriculum must be based on generalities and allow for flexible choices within a range of
possibilities."10 Each curriculum she describes changes to meet the learning preferences of specific groups of
learners.
A negotiated course, however, doesn't mean that there is no plan in place. We must plan to facilitate the process
of gathering learner input and to encourage learner autonomy. Most of all we need to be prepared to address
the options chosen by the learners. Although flexibility and adaptability are key characteristics of both learners
and teachers in a learner-centred program, they do not provide an excuse for being unprepared.
What is Needs Assessment?
Needs assessment is the ongoing process we undertake to identify and examine:
• the contexts in which learners live and work
• the knowledge and skills learners bring to functioning in those contexts (traditionally referred to as
diagnostic testing)
• the knowledge and skills they need to develop for those contexts
• the background affective characteristics and language learning styles of learners
Sauvé, 2000 b, p.4
8 Ibid.
9 Ibid., p.5
10 Ibid., p.17
7
28
• their personal goals and wants
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
3
What are the Principles of Needs Assessment?
Needs assessment is a fundamental aspect of the Adult ESL instructional planning process and is a vital prerequisite to the specification of language learning objectives. Needs assessment is also essential to learner goal
setting, ongoing program monitoring, as well as evaluation of and accountability to learners.
To accomplish this, an effective needs assessment:
• recognizes that needs are diverse and may include both objective needs (related to use of language
in real-life communication situations, language proficiency and language difficulties) and
subjective needs (related to cognitive and affective factors such as personality, confidence, attitudes,
learners' wants and expectations with regard to the learning of English, cognitive and learning style.)11
• must involve all stakeholders: administrators, teachers, learners, and depending on the language
training environment, others such as employers, supervisors or credentialing bodies.
• examines needs from the perspective of the learners, using open-ended tools and strategies to invite
learner input.
• is an iterative process, not a once-only event, and results in ongoing negotiation of curriculum.
• focuses and builds on learners' accomplishments and abilities rather than on deficits.
• includes pre-and post-assessment information sharing, to ensure stakeholders understand both the
purpose(s) of the assessment and the results.
• is carried out in a way that is timely, efficient and appropriate for the circumstances of the class.
What Needs Should We Assess?
Our challenge is to gather and take into account the various needs of the learners and our teaching situations
and use them to plan and monitor instruction.
In some programs, a clearly defined mandate limits the scope for needs assessment. The focus or content may
be predetermined and learners register for the course because the identified content matches their own needs.
11
Brindley in Johnson, 1989, pp. 63-78
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
29
3
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
In most programs, however, we need to gather information about:
• program goals
• learners' CLB levels and diagnostic information (e.g. pronunciation concerns)
• topics of interest
• purpose / communicative need (e.g. register a child in day care, read a manual for a machine, talk
to colleagues in the lunchroom)
• individual considerations such as learning styles, level of confidence, attitudes towards English, etc.
• characteristics of learners, such as their educational background, age, life circumstances, and first
language
• other stakeholder requirements (employer, funder, program, community)
What is a Needs Assessment Process?
In general terms, needs assessment includes the following stages:
1
Identify language level of learners
Many learners are placed in a class immediately after receiving an assessment of their level. The Canadian
Language Benchmarks Assessment (CLBA) is used throughout the country to place learners in government
funded programs. In other situations, the teacher must determine the language level of the learners. Through
observation and/or evaluation of completed tasks, a teacher can match learner abilities to the Global Performance
Descriptors in the CLB to determine their levels. A number of commercially prepared materials, such as On
Target 12, can be used to identify learner levels.
2
Identify stakeholders
Many language classes, such as those in a workplace, involve multiple stakeholders. In some cases, not only
learners, but also supervisors, union representatives, or funders may have information to contribute in a needs
assessment process, i.e., specific needs that have to be addressed in the class. For example, health and safety
issues in the workplace may be a priority for the supervisor but the learners themselves do not indicate this
as a need.
3
Decide which needs are to be assessed
It is important to limit the scope of a needs assessment. While many factors could be considered in one
assessment, it is impossible to attend to each. A teacher will need to decide whether to assess the needs of
the learners, their levels, their interests, or their preferred learning styles. Part of the decision making may
be guided by what we can realistically modify.
12
Mitra, 1998, 1999
30
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
4
3
Determine the purpose of the needs assessment
(planning? monitoring? evaluating?)
Needs assessments are done throughout the term. Many teachers start the term with a needs assessment
to plan the course, but needs assessments are also used throughout the term to see if the teaching is on
track and specifically meeting the needs of the learners.
5
Select process(es) and tool(s)
There are a number of tools available and various administration processes. See next section.
6
Explain the needs assessment process to stakeholders (why, when and how results will
be used)
Most educational settings will understand the use of needs assessments, but teachers working in workplaces
may have to inform funders or employers of the value of the surveys, interviews, observations, etc.
7
Administer needs assessment
The teacher can administer the needs assessment to the whole class or meet one-on-one with learners or
other stakeholders.
8
Tabulate results
Depending on the process used, results may be tabulated by simply counting the number of items
chosen, averaging scores or asking each individual to state needs or preferences and clustering them on a
large chart for all to see.
9
Report results to stakeholders
The results of the needs assessment must be shared with the learners and other stakeholders, so they can
see how the course will be planned and monitored.
10
(Re) Negotiate curriculum
The results will provide future directions for the course. Learners and teachers need to work together to
reflect the results of the needs assessment in the course.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
31
3
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
Types of Assessment Tools and Activities
13
The following list of tools and activities outline the many varied ways of conducting needs assessment in an Adult
ESL class:
1 Surveys and Questionnaires
Surveys, questionnaires, charts and grids are the most common type of needs assessments. They usually consist
of lists of topics, skills or functions represented either by text or pictures. They can be commercially prepared,
or generated by teacher or learners. Some, as in the first two classroom examples in this chapter, provide items
for learners to prioritize. Others can be developed to include learners' self-assessment, i.e., what they already
know about the topic or how they rate their own abilities. Surveys and questionnaires can be done individually
or used as a basis for a group discussion or a brainstorming or mapping activity. With some learners it is
necessary to have an interpreter to complete the activity.
2 Interviews with Learners and Other Stakeholders
Talking with the learners individually or in small groups can provide the teacher with critical information about
their needs. Typically, before a class is set up in a workplace, the instructor interviews all the stakeholders or
qualified informants (learners, employer, immediate supervisor, union representatives, etc.). One such
process is described in the third classroom example in this chapter.
3 Learners Choose Text Types
Another way to identify learners' needs is to provide them with types of reading texts, (such as notices, memos,
catalogues, greeting cards, newspapers, magazines, etc.) and ask them to pick out what they want to study
in class. This can also be done with writing items and listening/speaking scenarios. The CLB encourages the
use of authentic materials, where possible.
4 Personal or Dialogue Journals
As the course progresses, teachers can identify the needs of learners from the writing they do in journals about
their daily lives, experiences, and future plans. A "difficulty diary" can also be established. In it, learners
document the problems they have had in communicating in English. The diary can be prepared as a chart with
columns headed 'when', 'where', 'with whom', 'about what' and 'the problem'.
13
Weddel & Van Duzer, 1997
32
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
5
3
Learner Personal History Charts
In this method, each learner develops a personal history chart in which major life events and future goals
are represented pictorially or with text in a linear timeline. The individual goals are then used as the basis
for further discussion on how the class can help the individual to meet his/her personal goals.
6 Observation and Case Studies
Teachers can glean information about individual needs, interests, learning styles and strategies by observing
a learner interact with another student. In workplace language teaching situations, it may be necessary to
shadow a worker to understand the communication demands of the job.
What are some Considerations in Choosing a Needs Assessment Tool?
As indicated above, there are many different types of needs assessment tools and processes, which can be applied
according to a class or program's particular context. The following questions can guide the choice of a needs
assessment tool:
• What does the needs assessment tool identify?
-personal language goal?
-language proficiency?
-content topics?
-learning styles and strategies?
-other?
• Would this tool be useful to stakeholders other than teachers and learners (i.e., administrators,
credentialing bodies, employers, etc.)?
• Does the tool provide a realistic range of options for learners to choose from? Is it open-ended to
invite learner input?
• At what level or what range of Benchmark levels could this tool be used?
• Is this tool clear and simple enough to require a minimum of teacher direction and explanation at
the target level?
• Is the length of the tool practical?
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
33
3
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
• Would this tool assist teachers and learners to:
-set goals?
-monitor progress?
-select program materials, content, teaching methods?
-evaluate? (whether individual goals have been met, learner's language level, course
content, etc.)
• At what point in the needs assessment process could this tool be used?
-initially?
-ongoing?
• Could this tool be used as a basis for an assessment of the program's success in meeting the
identified needs?
-on an ongoing basis?
-at the end of the program?
• Would this tool need to be supplemented with other tools to get a complete assessment of a
learner's needs?
In this chapter, the importance of conducting ongoing needs assessments in a learner-centred language class has
been outlined. Suggestions regarding choosing appropriate tools for conducting needs assessments, following a
needs assessment process and adhering to the principles of needs assessment have also been offered. The analyses
of the needs assessment and the development of specific learning objectives is the focus of the next chapter.
34
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
A Classroom Example
3
Classroom Examples
Most of the following examples refer to needs assessments that are done at the beginning of a course. As stated
in the principles, needs assessments should be ongoing. As we get to know learners better, we can meet their
needs more efficiently. Periodic 'check-ins' with learners can inform us on the effectiveness of the teaching and
can assist in planning for future lessons. By continually negotiating with learners about content, methods and
resources, our classes can become truly learner-centred.
Example 1:
Settlement Focused ESL
This example was used in an intensive English program at an Adult ESL school. The class was at Canadian
Language Benchmark Level 4. The teacher gave this survey to the learners at the beginning of the term.
She shared the results with the class, and planned the course around the most popular topics. To accommodate
new learners in the continuous intake program, she reviewed the survey with all the learners every second week.
What do you want to study?
Directions: Add additional topics to this list. Then prioritize the topics.
Medical issues (going to the doctor and hospital, phoning an ambulance, and
staying healthy by eating well and exercising)
Information about Canada (what's in the news, aboriginal people, government,
history, geography, customs and everyday life)
Employment (how to write a resume and covering letter, where and how to look
for a job)
Canadian law and the police (individual rights and responsibilities, zero tolerance,
traffic laws)
Housing (changing apartments, tenants rights, buying a house)
Education (the education system, contact with your child's school)
Consumer information (buying things, servicing and repairing cars and other
items)
Insurance (public car insurance, private life and house insurance)
Banking and money (using bank machines, how to save on taxes)
other - please specify
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
35
3
A Classroom Example
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
Example 2:
Community-Based Language Training (CBLT)
This example of a needs assessment process was used in a CBLT class for women. CBLT classes are usually multilevel classes. Before each class starts, teachers and learners meet to discuss transportation and childminding
issues as well as the preferred days and times of classes. At this meeting, learners are asked to think about what
they want to learn to do in English. On the first day of class, most learners indicate that they want to "learn
more English" or "study everything". Teachers remind them that they only meet for a limited period of time and
they really can't "learn everything”. They can, however, concentrate on some areas that will be helpful in their
daily interactions and make their settlement easier. Through enlarged pictures several 'community access'
situations are discussed, e.g. seeing a doctor, shopping and using the phone.
Ideally, the discussion is conducted in the learners' first language, but the program does not always have that
capability, so discussions take place using simplified English, strategies of rewording, and the pictures.
Then each learner is given her own paper that has all nine of the community access pictures on it (see next page).
Each learner is asked to rank the most important things that she wants to study, with one being the most
important. Then as a group, the first five priorities for each learner are identified and posted for the entire group
to 'see' the themes that most people are interested in studying. In discussion, other themes frequently come
up. In the end, the majority rules and five main topics are chosen.
At this point, the chosen themes are explored in a little more detail with probing questions, such as:
• Who do you need to talk to in English on the phone?
• Where do you usually go shopping?
• What kinds of things do you need to say?
The answers to these questions help the teacher identify the functions that are needed in the different situations.
Teachers develop lessons around the functions that are identified in the different scenarios, while remaining
flexible enough to respond to unforeseen needs. The same picture page is revisited from time to time to see if
priorities have changed. More than once (with learners at a low level of proficiency whose first language was
not available to us during the needs assessment), this second exposure to the pictorial needs assessment has
convinced learners that their input has been valued and that they have set the course content.
36
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
A Classroom Example
3
Needs Assessment Used in Community-Based Language Training Community
ESL for Women
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
37
3
A Classroom Example
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
Example 3:
Workplace Language Training
Chris's recent teaching contract was with an aerospace company. He was hired to teach ESL to machinists. Part
of the needs assessment included interviewing the cell leader or supervisor of the machinists. He was aware
that the cell leader may not be able to take the time to discuss each individual worker/student.
Chris wanted to fully understand the job before he met with the learners. He was also mandated to use CLB
references and guiding principles in his work. He prepared the following questions based on functions found
in the CLB and used them as a guide (not a script). During one of his planning meetings he asked the cell
leader to identify concerns about the ESL learners' performance of the tasks.
Questions for First Meeting with Cell Leader
Re: communicative demands of a machinist
Speaking & Listening
• Who does he talk to? What is their relationship, i.e., is it a co-worker or an authority figure?
• What does he talk about?
• When he is talking is there a level of stress involved?
• Does he give instructions or directions? What kind? Does he have to give or respond to a sequence of instructions
or directions?
• Does he need to ask for detailed information?
• Does he need to analyse or express his own opinions about the work?
• Does he need to present information? If yes, how long are the presentations? Does he need to describe
processes and sequences? Does he have to provide conclusions or summaries?
• Does he have to speak or listen on the phone or face to face?
• Who does he listen to?
• What kind of oral instructions/ information does he have to follow?
• What is the level of formality used in the workplace? Does it vary with interlocutor i.e., co-worker, supervisor,
clientele?
• Does he need to clarify? Elaborate? Explain?
• Does he need to attract attention? Request assistance? Request permission?
• Does he need to indicate solutions to a problem?
• Does he need to give advice or suggestions? Does he have to predict consequences?
38
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
A Classroom Example
3
Reading
• What does he read? Does he need to scan? Does he have to recall what he has read? How long are the texts?
• What kind of texts are they, for example, lists, charts, diagrams, memos, informational texts, instructional texts?
• Does the text have pictures or diagrams?
• Does he need to read graphs? process charts? Does he need to read handwriting?
• Is it important to read it quickly? What reading speed is necessary?
• Does he have to find and interpret information in tables and understand the use of keys and symbol scales?
• What does he do with what he reads?
• Does he have to paraphrase or summarize what he reads?
• Does he need to read and explain WHMIS safety precautions and regulations in the workplace?
Writing
• What does he have to write? How long of a piece of writing is it, for example, how many words or paragraphs?
• What kind of writing is it (Descriptive, Technical)?
• Does he have to fill out forms? Does he write in a record or logbook?
• Does he have to write reports or summarise texts?
• What format is acceptable?
• Does he have to write down messages or notes?
• Does he need to take down notes in point form from an oral presentation?
• Does he need to write by hand or use a keyboard?
• Who receives the writing and what is done with it?
Other Items to Discuss at First Meeting with Cell Leader
• Ask, "What are the most important changes he would like to see as a result of the class?"
• Review the job description and DACUM chart (an analysis of the many facets of the job) and clarify terms.
• Collect copies of reading materials and samples of writing needed on the job.
• Schedule observations of workers
After the interview, Chris developed a list of the tasks the workers have to do and then prepared to interview each
learner. During the interview he asked about their priorities in relation to the workplace tasks. At the same time,
he informally assessed their oral communication and determined approximate CLB levels. He then correlated
workplace tasks to CLB competencies so that he could design learning and assessment tasks at an appropriate
level.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
39
3
3
3
A Classroom Example
A Classroom Example
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
After all of the learner interviews were completed, Chris developed a tentative course outline for the 100-hour
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
A Classroom Example
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Example 4:
useful in understanding communication levels and helpful in planning and monitoring workplace ESL programs.
Example
English 4:
for Academic Purposes Needs Assessment Form
English for Academic Purposes Needs Assessment Form
In an academic preparation program, teachers use this form to identify specific learner needs and goals.
Example 4:
In an academic preparation program, teachers use this form to identify specific learner needs and goals.
English for Academic Purposes Needs Assessment Form
NAME:
In NAME:
an academic preparation program, teachers use this form to identify specific learner needs and goals.
ADDRESS:
ADDRESS:
PHONE NUMBER:
PHONE NUMBER:
NAME:
COUNTRY OF ORIGIN:
COUNTRY
OF ORIGIN:
ADDRESS:
LANGUAGES SPOKEN:
LANGUAGES
SPOKEN:
PHONE
TIME INNUMBER:
CANADA:
TIME IN CANADA:
COUNTRY
OF ORIGIN:
LANGUAGES SPOKEN:
IN CANADA:
1 TIME
What
was your field of study/work in your native country?
1
What was your field of study/work in your native country?
Do you have any documents?
Do
you
have
documents?
Have
you
hadany
your
documents translated?
Have you had your documents translated?
1
What was your field of study/work in your native country?
2 Do you know what academic credentials/qualifications you
2 Do
what
academic
credentials/qualifications
you
need
toknow
have any
to
pursue
your goals
in Canada?
Do you
you
have
documents?
need
pursue
your goals
in Canada?
Have to
youhave
hadtoyour
documents
translated?
2
40
40
Yes
YesYes
Yes
No
No No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Do you know what academic credentials/qualifications you
need to have to pursue your goals in Canada?
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Canadian Language
A Guide
Canadian Language
A Guide
Benchmarks 2000:
to Implementation
Benchmarks 2000:
to Implementation
3
Do you need to pass the TOEFL test?
If yes, what score do you need?
Are you familiar with the CANTEST?
What are your Canadian Language Benchmarks levels?
S❏
L❏
R❏
W❏
4
3
A Classroom Example
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
Yes
No
Yes
No
Date:
What are your goals for the next 6-12 months?
What are your long-term goals (in 1-5 years)?
5
What educational institution do you wish to study at?
In what area?
6
Rate each of the following topics of language study according to how important it is for you. Add other
topics that you think are important in the last rows and rate them too.
topic
very
important
quite
important
somewhat
important
not very
important
not at all
important
Grammar
Speaking
Listening
Writing
Pronunciation
Vocabulary
Spelling
Idioms
TOEFL prep.
Research skills
Note-taking
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
41
3
A Classroom Example
7
Put a check mark beside the field trips that interest you. Add other ideas in the blanks. You can check
as many as you want.
❏
❏
❏
❏
8
Community College
Hospital or
Medical Facility
Science Centre
History Museum
Government Building
Library (research)
music
pop culture
Canadian government
research
social issues
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
environmental issues
history
other cultures
medicine
❏
❏
❏
❏
science
❏
❏
social worker
❏
❏
comedies
Canada (general)
literature
Canadian history
international news
lawyer
politician
financial advisor
❏
❏
❏
doctor
psychologist
consumer representative
university/college
representative
Which of the following films/videos would you like to see in class?
❏
❏
❏
42
Cultural Centre
❏
❏
❏
❏
Which of the following speakers would you like to hear?
❏
❏
❏
10
University
Put a check mark beside the topics that you are interested in. Add other ideas in the blanks. You can check
as many as you want.
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
9
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
news
educational
adventure/action movies
❏
❏
❏
talk shows
mystery shows
romantic movies
documentaries
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
A Classroom Example
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
11
3
Please add any additional comments or suggestions:
Example 5:
English at Work Unit Needs Assessment Form
The following teacher-developed form was used in a CLB 5 class. The learners had identified the general theme
of employment during an initial needs assessment. To be more specific the teacher asked them to complete the
following form for the subtopic 'English at Work'.
WHAT DO YOU NEED?
What kind of language do you need at work? Put number one beside the topic that is most important to you.
Put number two beside your second choice. Put number three beside your third choice.
Following instructions
Giving instructions
Asking for help
Reporting a problem
Telling the boss why I'm late
Phoning in sick
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
43
3
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
Helpful Readings
Some of the following resources refer to CLB but many do not.
Breen, M. P. & Littlejohn, A. (Eds.). (2000). Classroom Decision-Making: Negotiation and process syllabuses
in practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Although somewhat academic, this helpful book provides an excellent introduction to the uses of negotiation
in the process of second language learning. See Chapter 17 by Kate Wolfe-Quintero, "Negotiation as a
participatory dialogue."
Brown, J. D. (1995). The Elements of Language Curriculum: A Systematic Approach to Program Development.
Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
See Chapter 2, for a good discussion of needs analysis. Brown offers some suggestions to narrow the areas
of investigation and provides examples of the concepts by reference to language programs that he has been
involved in. He lists and describes procedures available to analyze needs.
Burton, J. (Ed.). (1987). Implementing the Learner-Centred Curriculum. Adelaide, South Australia: National
Curriculum Resource Centre.
See the chapter "The Problem of Continuity: Possible Solutions." by Judy Coleman.
Citizenship and Immigration Canada. (1997). The Revised LINC Curriculum Guidelines 1997 based on
the Canadian Language Benchmarks.
This project was sponsored by CIC and the final revision was by LCRT Consulting. For a good discussion on
needs assessment see pages 12 and 13. There are some excellent techniques and samples starting on
page 332.
Hutt, N. & Young, L. (1997). Revised LINC Literacy Component. A Project Sponsored by Citizenship and
Immigration Canada.
This is an invaluable resource for ESL literacy teachers. See Appendix A - Needs Assessment Cards,
Appendix B - Needs Assessment Cards - Learning Styles, Appendix C - Pre reading and Pre writing checklists.
Johnson, R. K. (Ed.). (1989). The Second Language Curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
See section ll, “Ends/Means Specification”, Richard Berwick and Geoffrey Brindley and "The role of needs
analysis in Adult ESL programme design." by Brindley.
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Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
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Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
3
Lockhart, J. C. (1998). Language at Work: A Job Analysis Guide. Calgary, AB: Bow Valley College.
This excellent guide is CLB referenced and provides invaluable insights and support to workplace educators
and consultants.
Mitra, C. W. (Ed.). (1998). On Target! A Resource Book of Stage One Assessment Tasks Referenced to the
Canadian Language Benchmarks. Calgary, AB: Bow Valley College.
This resource has been very helpful to teachers. It includes varied tasks with directions for administering as
well as clear marking instructions.
Mitra, C. W. (Ed.). (1999). On Target! A Resource Book of Stage Two Assessment Tasks Referenced to the
Canadian Language Benchmarks. Calgary, AB: Bow Valley College.
These resources provide teachers with reproducible tasks that can be used to assess the CLB levels of learners.
Nunan, D. (1995). Closing the gap between learning and instruction. TESOL Quarterly 29 (1) 133-158.
This interesting article offers a succinct description of learner-centered classrooms. Nunan talks about the
gap between teaching and learning and offers suggestions to narrow that gap.
Nunan, D. (1988). The Learner-Centred Curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
This book presents a thorough look at the processes involved in planning and implementing a learner-centred
curriculum. There are chapters on curriculum processes, learner-centred curriculum development and
pre-course planning. Issues related to learner-centred curriculum development and communicative classrooms
are discussed and illustrated with examples.
Ormiston, M., DeCoursey, R. & Fredeen, S. (1995). The ESL Toolbox, Ready-to Use Enrichment Activities for
LINC Classes. Centre for Second Language Instruction, University of Saskatchewan.
For excellent resources on interviews and survey questions related to learning styles and strategies,
see Unit 9.
Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle
Publishers.
Oxford's book is a useful addition to Adult ESL teachers’ libraries. This is a comprehensive text that addresses
several aspects of language learning strategies. It also includes an index of tools, inventories and activities.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
45
3
Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach
Robinson, J. & Selman, M. (1996). Partnerships in Learning: Teaching ESL to Adults. Toronto, ON: Pippin
Publishing Corporation.
This is a welcomed text. This fabulous little book offers teachers practical suggestions and clear explanations
of aspects of teaching.
Sauvé, V. (2000). issues, challenges and alternatives in teaching adult esl. Oxford University Press.
This is the second book in a series entitled Voices and Vision. It is divided into three sections, Teaching and
Learning, The Classroom and the Community and Being and Becoming Professional. Throughout the book
Sauvé interweaves anecdotes and stories with theory. There are several sections where she discusses her views
on learner-centred approaches to teaching adults.
Tudor, I. (1996). Learner-centredness as Language Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Weddel, K.S. & Van Duzer, C. (1997). Needs Assessment for Adult ESL Learners. ERIC Digest, May 1997.
This short article clearly summarizes needs assessment, lists various tools and cites one example from an
American Adult ESL program.
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Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
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C H A P T E R
4
From Benchmarks Outcomes
to Learning Objectives
...in the more interactive approaches to curriculum and syllabus design...objectives can be
useful, not only to guide the selection of structures, functions, notions, tasks and so on, but also
to provide a sharper focus for teachers, to give learners a clear idea of what they can expect
from a language programme, to help in developing means of assessment and evaluation, and
so on.
- David Nunan, 1988
This chapter includes the following:
• CLB performance outcomes and learning objectives
• general goals and learning objectives
• communicative competence and learning objectives
• task and text analysis and learning objectives
• classroom examples
• helpful readings
The Initial Needs Assessment is Completed. Now What?
An initial needs assessment reveals a wealth of information about learners that is an essential starting point
for our teaching plan, but we are not yet ready to begin teaching. The next step is to establish the learning
goals and objectives we intend to focus on during instruction. They should reflect the identified needs of the
learners and will put into words the intended outcomes of the course. The Canadian Language Benchmarks
2000 competency outcomes and standards can help with this process by providing a framework for describing
learning goals and objectives.
How Can the CLB Performance Outcomes Help Specify Learning Goals
and Objectives?
The descriptors at each level of Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 are written as general language
performance outcomes that describe what people can do in English at various levels. The CLB performance
outcomes include performance indicators that provide information about particular aspects of language related
to those outcomes. We need to link the CLB performance outcomes to identified learner communication
goals and articulate them as learning objectives that can then guide the teaching and learning process.
Learning outcomes emerge as a result of the teaching and learning process and are the basis for assessment
and accountability. At intervals during the teaching and learning process, we determine through assessment
whether learners are able to perform tasks appropriate for that level. These tasks are designed to reflect the
learning objectives we have specified and, thus, the communication goals of the learners.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
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4
From Benchmarks Outcomes to Learning Objectives
CLB
Performance
Outcome
e.g.... Can reject
goods in a sales
situation
(Speaking
Benchmark 4)
Learning
Objective
e.g.... Will be able
to return an item
to a clothing store
Teaching and
Learning Process
Learning
Outcomes
e.g. The learner
can return clothing
to a store
What's the Difference between a Goal and a Learning Objective?
In pedagogical discussions, the terms goal and objective are frequently used without distinction. It is useful to
define both carefully.
What is a goal?
Goals are usually written as broad, general statements describing the overall purpose of a course. For example, as
a result of doing a needs assessment at the outset of a course for parents who attend a community-based program,
we might identify several communication goals:
Learners want to increase their ability to communicate effectively
• in medical situations
• with the children's school
• with their neighbours
• on the phone
Each of the above goals might become the focus of a teaching unit with related unit goals. In the unit on medical
situations, some unit goals might be:
Learners will acquire information and language skills to be able to:
• make a doctor's appointment
• go for a check-up
• get a prescription filled
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Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
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From Benchmarks Outcomes to Learning Objectives
4
As we write the goals for instruction, we need to keep some things in mind. One is that learners' goals may
change during the time of the course. In a learner-centred Canadian Language Benchmarks context, therefore,
there should be an ongoing process to monitor, re-prioritize and modify goals as necessary. This was discussed
extensively in regards to needs assessments in Chapter 3, Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach.
A second and equally important consideration is that learners may achieve goals not anticipated by the teacher.
In a community-based class for seniors a few years ago in Winnipeg, the teacher observed that, as the seniors
acquired language skills, they gained confidence and independence in their daily lives. One woman who had never
left the home without her daughter or son-in-law to interpret, began to take the bus alone, do some grocery
shopping and visit the post office. These outcomes had been neither anticipated by the teacher, nor specified at
the program's outset as goals!
What are Learning Objectives?
Learning objectives are much more specific than goals and are generally statements about how - through the
learning of what specific aspects of language - the goals will be achieved.1 Learning objectives, therefore, help
to clarify what we want to accomplish through our instruction. They provide a clear focus for our teaching, help
us develop and maintain coherence in our teaching and provide us with a basis for learner evaluation.2 Just as
we would not set out on a journey without a clear destination and map, we should not set out to teach without
a clear sense of the learners' destination (goal) and the different points we will pass through on the journey
(objectives).
A learning objective is written in such a way that at the end of our teaching we can look back and in some way
find out if the learners successfully reached the objective. It is helpful, therefore, to write a learning objective in
a way that it is possible for learners to demonstrate their proficiency. To do this, we need to differentiate between
performance learning objectives and process learning objectives. Performance objectives "describe what
learners will be able to do as the result of instruction." 3 These objectives have to do with content.
Process objectives, on the other hand "describe activities designed to develop the skills..."4 These objectives
have to do with methodology and lesson planning. It is useful to articulate both so we have a clear plan, not
only of what we expect learners to accomplish, but also how we intend to help them get there.
Example:
Performance Learning Objective
The learners will be able ask for prices in a grocery
store using yes/no and WH questions.
Process Learning Objective
The learners will work with partners to complete
an information gap activity on the prices of various
grocery items.
Graves, 2000, p.76
See Brown, 1994
3 Nunan, 1988 b, p.70
4 Ibid., p.70
1
2
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
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4
From Benchmarks Outcomes to Learning Objectives
In the rest of this chapter we will be examining the identification and specification of performance objectives.
Issues related to process are discussed in Chapter 5, Methodology.
Objectives break a goal down into achievable teaching/learning segments and one goal may be realized through
the achievement of several learning objectives. In other words, as Graves5 states, "...another aspect of the
relationship between goals and objectives is that of cause and effect. If [learners] achieve A, B, C objectives, then
they will reach Y goal."
The accomplishment of each communication goal identified by learners involves a number of communicative tasks,
which can be determined by conducting a task analysis. A process for task analysis is outlined in Chapter 6,
Planning for Teaching and Learning: Lesson Planning. The task analysis leads to the formulation of general learning
objectives that can become the focus of various teaching units. If learners need English to go to the doctor, a
task analysis might reveal the following sequence of communicative tasks, which may be written as general
learning objectives:
Learners will be able to:
• look up the doctor's phone number in the phone book
• phone and make a doctor's appointment
• fill out a medical history form
• describe symptoms to the doctor
• get a prescription filled
• follow instructions on a prescription.
These need to be made more specific to reflect the particular language elements that are integral to each general
learning objective and by which we will measure learner performance. For a general learning objective on describing
symptoms, the following might be some of the specific objectives at a Benchmark 3 level:
Learners will be able to describe symptoms using the following structures and vocabulary:
Structures:
• I have a...
• I feel...
• My ___________ is ___________
Vocabulary:
• body parts, such as head, throat, ear, ankle, etc.
• headache, stomachache, earache, backache, toothache;
• fever, rash;
• dizzy, sick to my stomach;
• swollen, sore, inflamed, aching, etc.
Graves, 2000, p.76
5
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Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
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From Benchmarks Outcomes to Learning Objectives
4
Learners do not use the same complexity of language to carry out tasks at all Benchmark levels. Although the
same competencies have been identified at each CLB level6, the performance indicators - the expectations
about the complexity of the communicative performance - become more complex at higher levels. The specific
learning objectives we write will reflect these differences in expectation. For each language skill and level of the
Canadian Language Benchmarks, examples of tasks and texts that can be used to demonstrate performance
outcomes have been provided. These tasks and texts portray the complexity of language appropriate at the
various CLB levels and are, therefore, helpful in the process of specifying learning objectives.
In addition, the underlying assumptions about communicative competence reflected in the CLB can provide
further guidance by helping us identify specific aspects of communicative competence learners will need for these
tasks. This is discussed in the next section.
How does Communicative Competence Relate to Learning Objectives?
The CLB is based on models of communicative competence that include linguistic, textual, functional, sociocultural,
and strategic elements. To help learners carry out the language tasks related to their communicative goals we
can analyze tasks and texts to identify the elements of communicative competence appropriate to learners'
Canadian Language Benchmarks levels and then specify them as learning objectives.
How can Task and Text Analysis Reveal Aspects of Communicative Competence
for Specification as Learning Objectives?
In addition to revealing the range of language tasks involved in accomplishing a communication goal, a task
analysis will also reveal useful information about the background information learners will need to accomplish
the task. For example, learners might need some information about the Canadian medical system, such as the
different kinds of medical services, to carry out tasks related to going to the doctor.
Situational conditions for each task can also indicate information or skills that should be addressed in the teaching
and learning process. For example: Who are the interlocutors (speakers) or correspondents? What is their
relationship? Does it require formal or informal communication? In a spoken task, is it face-to-face or on the
phone? All of this information is helpful when specifying learning objectives.
Having determined the communicative tasks, we can then begin to identify language elements related to each
one. Each task may involve learners' using specific texts - passages of spoken or written language. Suggestions
of various types of spoken and written texts related to particular competencies are provided in the Canadian
Language Benchmarks 2000. A phone book, a medical history form from a doctor's office, and a prescription
label on a bottle of medicine are samples of written texts related to the communicative tasks for going to the
doctor. An authentic dialogue between a receptionist and a patient making a doctor's appointment would be
an example of a spoken text.
6
Because the descriptors at each CLB level are a representative sample of language competencies, learning objectives should be
determined by learners' communication goals and may include objectives in addition to those suggested by the competencies
in the Canadian Language Benchmarks.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
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4
From Benchmarks Outcomes to Learning Objectives
Texts can be analyzed for functional, linguistic, textual, sociocultural and strategic elements. For example, an
analysis of a written text, such as a newspaper article will reveal:
• functional features related to the purpose of the text
• textual features, such as characteristics of newspaper headlines and organization of information
• linguistic elements, such as the use of the passive voice and particular sentence types
• sociocultural elements related to point of view, types of stories and underlying values
• various reading strategies students can use to understand the gist of a text
A transcript of an authentic spoken text is also a rich source of language information that can be analyzed for
language elements that can be the focus of learning objectives.
How do the Results of a Text Analysis Become Language Learning Objectives?
1
After analyzing the text for linguistic, textual, functional, sociocultural and strategic elements, select those
elements that seem to be most crucial to accomplishing the particular task. In the teaching time available,
a teacher may not be able to address all the items identified in the analysis of the text. If the text is too
difficult for the learners, but is a necessary part of the communication, then the language might be modified
or simplified as necessary. Chapter 5, Methodology, discusses issues related to using authentic text and
Chapter 7, Selecting Resources, describes simplifying or scripting text.
2
Refer to the CLB document at the level of the learners to decide if the items that were noted are likely to
be too easy or difficult for the learners. Correlate the identified language elements with the competencies
described under the "What the person can do" column in the CLB.
3
Specify any additional competencies as learning objectives. The competencies identified in the Canadian
Language Benchmarks are not the only language competencies people need, but have been selected
because they represent some of the most commonly used language competencies. Additional competencies
might be needed to address the learners' communication needs; therefore it is necessary to also specify them
as learning objectives.
There may be elements "left over" that do not correlate with the Canadian Language Benchmarks descriptors
at the learners' level. If learners must be able to use these items to fulfill their communication need, then:
• Check to see if these objectives were addressed at a previous Benchmarks level. If so, specify them
as review objectives; and
• Check to see if the items are addressed at a higher CLB level. If so, specify them as introductory
objectives, i.e. objectives you do not expect learners to ‘master’ at this point.
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Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
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From Benchmarks Outcomes to Learning Objectives
A Classroom Example
4
Once language learning objectives are specified, we can describe the means by which we will know if the objectives
have been met. These are called performance indicators and are addressed in Chapter 8, Classroom-Based
Assessment. We can also begin to plan individual lessons. Given the number of learning objectives we might
specify as a result of our task and text analysis, it may become apparent that more than one lesson will be
necessary to address them and ensure learners are able to meet their communicative goals.
We can also begin to select resources (the focus of Chapter 7, Selecting Resources) and develop the activities
that will be the most effective for meeting the learners' goals. This teaching issue is the focus of Chapter 5,
Methodology.
Classroom Examples
Example 1:
Conducting a Text Analysis
Learners in a community-based class, the majority of whom were at Listening and Speaking Level 3, wanted to
be able to make their own doctor's appointment. The teacher used a task and text analysis to develop the learning
objectives. Following is the transcript of a spoken text, a dialogue for making a doctor's appointment, that the
teacher used and her notations of language elements that could be addressed when teaching skills for this task.
In addition to the items identified in the text analysis, the teacher's task analysis revealed the following:
Communicative Need: Make a Doctor's Appointment
Performance Conditions
• Interlocutors - patient and receptionist
• Relationship of interlocutors - possibly strangers; receptionist possibly very busy or under stress, which
may complicate communication; need for appointment may be urgent depending on reason for visit
• Mode - over the phone or face-to-face
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
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4
A Classroom Example
From Benchmarks Outcomes to Learning Objectives
Background Information Needed
• Medical system information regarding different kinds of health service e.g. walk-in clinic/family doctor's
office/emergency room
Skills
Listening
• Personal information questions
• Questions about reason for appointment
• Details of appointment (time/date/day)
Speaking
• Express need for appointment
• Describe symptoms
• Accept/reject appointment
Reading
• Understand appointment card
• Locate doctor’s phone number in phone book
Writing
• Copy appointment information on to calendar
Language Objectives
The teacher then examined the Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 to match the identified skills and
functional, linguistic, textual, sociocultural and strategic language items to competencies in the CLB. She listed
them as review, target and introductory learning objectives depending on the CLB level at which they occurred.
The performance learning objectives are in the following table. In addition to the learning objectives for CLB 3,
performance objectives for CLB 6 are provided for purposes of comparison. Various items identified in the task
and text analysis are described in relation to the specific descriptors in the Canadian Language Benchmarks.
Some of the examples provided may be different from the sample dialogue; however, they represent alternatives
appropriate for the particular level.
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Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
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From Benchmarks Outcomes to Learning Objectives
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
A Classroom Example
4
55
4
A Classroom Example
From Benchmarks Outcomes to Learning Objectives
Task: Making a Doctor’s Appointment
CANADIAN LANGUAGE BENCHMARKS 3
CANADIAN LANGUAGE BENCHMARKS 6
Performance
Conditions
In the oral exchange, learners will be able to make a
doctor's appointment in a face-to-face situation and
in limited telephone exchanges. (Introductory objective).
In the oral exchange, learners will be able to make a
doctor's appointment over the phone.
Background
Knowledge
Learner will:
• learn about some differences in service provided by
family doctors, walk-in clinics and emergency rooms;
Learners will be able to:
• discuss some differences in service provided by
family doctors, walk-in clinics and emergency rooms.
• learn they can negotiate the appointment or cancel
or re-schedule it;
• learn they should phone if they can't get to the
appointment.
Listening
Learners will be able to:
• recognize style and register of greetings and leavetakings when making a doctor's appointment.
• Hello, doctor's office/Dr.______ 's
offices
• See you (on)
Learners will be able to:
• recognize mood and attitude of the receptionist
• recognize inferred meanings in dialogues
• indirect responses to questions, such as Can
I come in the morning? The office
doesn't open 'til one o'clock.
• recognize information in elliptical form
• after 1:30, see you on the eighth,
• follow a set of instructions in sentence form
• Come to the front desk when you arrive
and bring your medical card with
you. Don't forget to_____
• discriminate numbers based on stress pattern
• thirteenth/thirtieth, etc.
(Review objective)
• recognize common pre-closings
• okay, then, if that's all, etc.
Continued...
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Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
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From Benchmarks Outcomes to Learning Objectives
A Classroom Example
4
Task: Making a Doctor’s Appointment
Speaking
CANADIAN LANGUAGE BENCHMARKS 3
CANADIAN LANGUAGE BENCHMARKS 6
Learners will be able to:
• express an immediate need - request a doctor's
appointment;
• I'd like to/I want to make an
appointment with Doctor_______
Learners will be able to:
• open, maintain and close a conversation with an
unfamiliar individual - medical receptionist
• give personal information related to the context;
(Review objective)
• What's your/his/her/the name?
(Review objective)
• first, last, surname, (Review objective)
• talk about health:
• I, my child/son/daughter/husband/
wife/mother, etc. is sick/has a _______
• describe a situation - basic symptoms:
• adjectives - bad, high, terrible,
• use and position of intensifiers very, really
• nouns -fever, rash, cough, the five
"aches"
• answer questions related to the appointment:
(Introductory objective)
• What seems to be the problem?
/What's the matter?
• Has he visited/ been [in] to the doctor
before?
• How about_________?
• Can/could you come in_________?
• Elliptical questions - name? phone
number?
• talk about basic time reference:
• vocabulary - tomorrow, next, the day
after (Review objective)
• elliptical time phrases -- about/after
one o'clock, etc.
• express preference: (Introductory objective)
• that's fine, no, I'm sorry
• indicate problems with communication;
• Can/could you speak slower, please?
• Can/could you repeat that, please?
(Review objective)
• use intelligible pronunciation, stress and intonation.
• Spell name clearly
• Stress and intonation of Yes/No and
WH questions
• Stress on intensifiers - REALLY bad,
VERY high, etc.
• Use intonation to convey urgency
• introduce self appropriately
• Hello, this is (first name) (family name)
• use appropriate pre-closings and
closings
• make a doctor's appointment using
• indirect language structures; I wonder
if...
• using an infinitive of purpose - I'm
phoning to make an appointment
with Doctor_____
• using an embedded question - ...to
see if I can make an appointment with
the doctor
• express preference;
• use phrases, such as How
about________? Would_________be
possible? anything earlier/later?
• provide information about personal or family describe symptoms
• vocabulary and idioms, such as
congested, painful, feverish, throbbing,
splitting headache, my/his/her back
is killing me/him/her; feeling under
the weather, feeling run down
• indicate partial comprehension;
• Sorry, I didn't get all that. Could you
repeat that? Would you mind repeating
that, please? Did you say________?,
Was that XX or YY?
• use intelligible pronunciation, stress and intonation.
• Spell name clearly (Review objective)
• Stress and intonation of Yes/No and
WH questions (Review objective)
• Stress on intensifiers - REALLY bad, VERY
high, etc. (Review objective)
• Use intonation to convey urgency or
politeness
• use adjective/adverb clauses - when I
cough/swallow/eat/turn my head,
etc., that comes and goes, etc.
• use a variety of tenses and tense shifts
• present perfect/present perfect
continuous/simple past
• explain the concern;
• I'm worried that, I'm concerned that,
• use intensifiers to indicate urgency
• really, terribly, awfully,
• clarify and confirm information
Continued...
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
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4
A Classroom Example
From Benchmarks Outcomes to Learning Objectives
Task: Making a Doctor’s Appointment
Reading
CANADIAN LANGUAGE BENCHMARKS 3
CANADIAN LANGUAGE BENCHMARKS 6
Learners will be able to:
• understand very short, common business notice doctor's appointment card. (Review objective)
• layout features
• vocabulary, name date, time, office
address and phone number
Learners will be able to:
• read a short medical form and recognize necessary
sections to be completed
• recognize vocabulary, such as common diseases
and conditions
• find information in formatted text - locate doctor's
phone number in phone book
Writing
58
Learners will be able to:
• copy basic info from an appointment card onto
calendar. (Review objective)
• time, doctor's name, address,
phone number
Learners will be able to:
• fill out a short medical history form
• fill out appropriate sections with
required information
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
From Benchmarks Outcomes to Learning Objectives
4
Helpful Readings
Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Chapter 4 of this academic text, which is primarily devoted to language testing issues, provides a thorough
discussion of issues related to communicative competence and will be of interest to anyone wishing to learn
more about the views of communicative competence that informed the Canadian Language
Benchmarks 2000.
Brown, H. D. (1994). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
This text is frequently used in undergraduate TESL programs and the reason is apparent. The book is
comprehensive, yet accessible. Chapter 20 in particular provides some very clear, practical information about
setting goals and objectives.
Brown, J. D. (1995). The Elements of Language Curriculum: A Systematic Approach to Program Development.
Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Chapter 3 of this book provides very comprehensive, yet readable information about goals and objectives,
including a number of samples from a variety of programs.
Graves, K. (2000). Designing Language Courses: A Guide for Teachers. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
This is an up-to-date, highly readable resource with very helpful suggestions and information, including a
valuable section on goals and learning objectives.
Nunan, D. (1988). Syllabus Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Although somewhat old, this is still a very informative resource. It has a complete chapter on objectives and
also a section on goals, both of which are particularly helpful in both understanding the differences between
those two concepts and understanding different kinds of objectives.
Stern, H.H. (1992). Issues and Options in Language Teaching. Patrick Allen & Birgit Harley (Eds.).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Part 3 of this seminal reference is entirely focused on defining objectives. It examines the role of objectives
in language teaching and focuses on four areas: language proficiency, knowledge, affect and transfer.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
59
.
C H A P T E R
5
Methodology
...the primary goal of language instruction [is] to go beyond the teaching of discrete elements,
rules, and patterns of the target language and to develop the learner's ability to take part in
spontaneous and meaningful communication in different contexts, with different people, on
different topics, for different purposes; that is to develop the learner's communicative competence.
Achieving this is a real challenge...
- Marianne Celce-Murcia, Zoltán Dörnyei & Sarah Thurrell, 1997
This chapter includes the following:
• methodological practices consistent with the CLB
• why we need a methodological framework
• helpful readings
What Methodological Practices are Consistent with the CLB?
The CLB is concerned with the issues of 'what' (descriptive statements about successive
levels of ability and competencies) and 'why' (research and theoretical foundations) but it
is not concerned with issues of methodology (the how of teaching)....It also does not prescribe
any specific instructional method: the outcomes may be achieved by a number of methods
and techniques.
- Grazyna Pawlikowska-Smith, 2000 a
In other words, methodology is neither addressed directly nor prescribed in the CLB. However, several
assumptions about language learning are inherent in the Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 and
affect all facets of teaching and learning, including methodology. Being guided in our methodological decisions
by the assumptions in the CLB does not mean we have to throw out all of our favourite activities. Many of
the activities that learners have enjoyed and that were effective in developing certain aspects of language can
still be used although we may adapt them to be consistent with assumptions inherent in the CLB.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
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5
Methodology
What Assumptions are Inherent in the CLB ?
Assumption: Language is for communication and communicative competence is meaning and
function-driven.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 reflects the characteristics and purposes of communication in a
settlement context. It describes what people can do (what communicative functions they can perform) in English
in real-world situations, and the ways in which and the degrees to which they can negotiate meaning (use
communication strategies to ensure understanding). It provides not only a representative selection of oral and
written functional competencies and the situational conditions of the communication, but also an indication of
some of the linguistic and cultural expectations related to carrying out these various competencies at different
CLB levels.
In real life, communication between or among individuals has several particular characteristics: it is purposeful
(intended to accomplish a particular function), and meaningful.
People communicate with each other for many reasons. In oral communication for example, participants in a
conversation (interlocutors) may want to:
• establish or maintain relationships
• provide information or instructions
• express feelings and ideas
• convince someone of a particular point of view
In their conversation, they want to understand each other and be understood. Their communication is usually
spontaneous and the language used is idiosyncratic to the interlocutors, reflecting their communicative competence,
their cultures and their personal styles. They use communication strategies to ensure that the exchange is
comprehensible to all parties.
People also read and write for a particular purpose and attempt either to get meaning from written text or to
communicate meaning to others. In the course of day-to-day communication we encounter many different types
or genres of texts:
• In the community we need to be able to read and understand a variety of written messages, such
as street signs, product labels, utility bills, newspaper articles, legal agreements.
• In the workplace, we need to be able to read and understand material, such as instructions, warnings,
product information, memos, employment forms.
• In the academic context, we need to be able to read text books, research articles, academic calendars,
course schedules.
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Writing tasks performed in the real world are equally diverse and include writing cheques, notes to a child's
teacher, personal and work-related letters, e-mail messages, reports, academic essays and filling in forms.
At each skill level, Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 includes a number of samples of tasks and texts
related to different social contexts. All of these tasks require an understanding of the conventions or features
of the various types (genres) of oral and written texts, especially of the Canadian conventions that may differ from
those in other cultures. Learners also require different skills and strategies to understand or communicate the
messages effectively.
Teaching Implication:
If learners are to be able to communicate for various purposes and use the appropriate conventions of particular
oral and written texts, we need to use classroom activities that promote the active involvement of learners with
authentic language at all CLB levels. This requires the use of authentic texts and materials. Activities need to
be designed to encourage learners to try to make sense in some way of the real texts they encounter and to
recognize and use their characteristic conventions or features. After all, it is not the oral or written text that is
at a particular Benchmark level; it is what learners are required to DO with that text that reflects the Benchmark
level. For instance, instead of thinking that the local newspaper is too difficult for CLB Stage 1 learners, we
could help learners identify various newspaper sections or locate specific information of interest - such as sports
scores. They might use newspaper photographs to develop describing skills and then match captions to photos.
This does not mean, however, that teachers use only authentic text. The language encountered outside the
classroom is often difficult for learners to understand. Oral language, for instance, may have sentence fragments
or utterances that are lengthy and complex. There may be overlaps, interruptions, hesitations and rephrasing.
Frequently the language is informal and highly idiomatic. Often there is an assumption of shared knowledge and
implied context. This can be very difficult for beginner learners to understand.
At beginning levels or when the task or text is new, the need for teacher support and intervention is the greatest.
Teachers often provide scaffolding, which involves "providing systematic support for learners in the learning
process,"1 to ensure the language learning task and text are comprehensible and effective. Learners at beginner
levels may also use scripted or semi-scripted text, that is, text prepared by the teacher, as a bridge to authentic
material. Although scripted text may lack many characteristics of authentic language (it tends to be predictable,
complete and grammatically correct; often, certain language items are repeated with unusual frequency; a limited
selection of vocabulary is used; and idioms and slang are often avoided), it can provide a bridge to using authentic
texts. Therefore, as learners develop some initial language skills and the need for scaffolding decreases, they
need to be exposed to increasingly less scripted and more authentic text. Chapter 7, Selecting Resources, discusses
developing scripted or semi-scripted text.
1
Burns & Joyce, 1997, p.89
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Methodology
Assumption: The generic language functions described in the CLB can be contextualized or presented
in a variety of communicative tasks depending on the specific needs of the learners.
A language function is the purpose of the utterance or unit of language used, such as:
• apology
• request
• greeting
• description
• instruction
In the CLB, the descriptions of the functions do not include the specific contexts in which the functions will be
used. For instance, the CLB includes the function 'provide basic personal information related to the context'
(CLB Speaking 1). It does not say to provide personal information while opening a bank account, registering
for a class, applying for a job or giving a health history. Based on the needs of our learners, we will contextualize
functions in themes and tasks of interest and relevance to our learners. The following table presents several
examples of functions identified in the Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000. Several communicative tasks
that we might develop to incorporate the functions are described for different situations or themes.
Benchmark Level
Functions
Themes & Communicative Task Examples
CLB Speaking 2:
Give a basic description.
The Law: Describe a stolen object in 3-5 short sentences.
Shopping: Describe an article of clothing you wish to
purchase in 3-5 short sentences.
CLB Writing 5:
CLB Speaking 5:
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Convey a personal message in a
formal short letter or note, or
through e-mail, expressing or
responding to invitations, quick
updates, feelings.
Shopping: In a 100 - 150 word letter to the Consumer
Bureau, request a speaker to talk with your class about
consumer issues for newcomers to Canada.
Ask for and provide information
related to routine daily activities.
(personal, family, others, work)
Leisure: Interview 5 classmates about their TV watching
habits, ask at least 5 questions. Report to class.
Home & School: In a 100 - 150 word letter to your
child's teacher, express your concern about something
that has happened in your child's classroom.
Work: Interview 5 classmates about their daily work
routine. Report to the class.
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Methodology
Assumption: A focus on language task facilitates language learning and teaching. Language
functions may be contextualized in language tasks.
The CLB is task-based and promotes task-based instruction for its potential in the teaching/learning process.
Language tasks provide the learner and teacher with demonstrable and measurable outcomes of performance.
The CLB provides samples of tasks for each competency.
Task-based instruction within relevant contexts or themes enables us to provide relevant and meaningful teaching
and learning activities and ensures that learners have the opportunity to engage in purposeful communication.
By using task-based instruction we can address all skill areas in an inter-related manner. Consequently, teachers
may find knowledge and skill in using task-based instruction a valuable asset in their repertoire of methodologies,
activities and techniques.
a)
Language tasks
In Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 a language task is understood to be a communicative,
real-world use of language to accomplish a specific purpose (language function) in a specific social situation.
These tasks reflect the way people use language in authentic situations and have the following
characteristics:
• There is a communicative purpose. Tasks are oriented toward communicative goals. Participants are
expected to arrive at an outcome and to carry out a language task with a sense of what they need
to accomplish. The CLB competencies provide some goals that are appropriate for Canadian Adult
ESL classrooms.
• Participants take an active role in carrying out a task, whether working alone or with other participants.
Communication tasks require learners to mobilize and orchestrate knowledge and abilities in order
to complete the task. The participants choose the elements, verbal and non-verbal, required for
performing the task (i.e. they are not supplied with the means for performing it).
• There is a primary focus on conveying the meaning of the message rather than on the accuracy of
linguistic forms. This does not suggest that form is not important. It means that form is addressed
in its role in facilitating meaning in the message.
• There are opportunities for meaning-negotiation when performing the task. That is, in order to carry
out and complete a task, language learners take initiatives in seeking help with whatever they do
not understand and in making themselves understood whenever their own message is unclear. The
interaction required in negotiation of meaning facilitates language learning.
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b)
Tasks and functions
A communicative task usually incorporates more than one language function or purpose. For example, the
task, 'phone and arrange for an appliance repair person to come and fix a stove', incorporates functions,
such as:
• on the phone, greet the receptionist/service person
• describe a problem
• request repair service
• arrange time of service call
• close conversation
c)
Types of tasks
There are two categories of language tasks that an ESL learner will engage in: authentic language tasks
and language learning tasks.
Authentic language tasks occur both inside and outside the language classroom. Outside the classroom,
they occur when the learner makes an appointment to see a doctor or has a job interview, etc. Inside the
classroom authentic language tasks occur when the learner apologizes for arriving late or explains yesterday's
absence or when the teacher gives the homework assignment. While these tasks provide learners with an
opportunity to use their language skills (and provide the teacher with insight into the learner's communicative
competence), the purpose of the task is not to practise or learn English. It is to communicate a message
and accomplish a communicative purpose.
Language learning tasks are tasks developed or used by the teacher to facilitate the language learning
process. There is a continuum of language learning tasks, from real-world to enabling, that we can develop
and use:
• Real-world learning tasks "require learners to approximate, in class, the sorts of behaviours
required of them beyond the classroom."2 They focus on using skills to negotiate meaning.
Real-world tasks:
• provide little scaffolding
• focus on fluency and meaning
• involve unpredictability
• are learner-managed
• require spontaneity and flexibility
• may be accomplished using a variety of linguistic and non-linguistic options
• need comprehension of meaning to complete task
2
Nunan, 1989, p.40
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The teacher's role is one of observing the language use and noting problems for remediation. Some typical
skill-using tasks include role-plays, problem-solving tasks, discussions, and information-gap.
• Enabling tasks "require learners to do things which it is extremely unlikely they would be called
on to do outside the classroom."3 They are used to build the skills necessary for real world tasks.
Enabling tasks or activities:
• provide maximum scaffolding
• focus on form and accuracy
• are usually structured, controlled and repetitious
• are teacher-managed
• require limited choice
• may be accomplished by manipulating language forms or using memorized chunks of language
• may or may not be communicative
The teacher's role is one of providing input, modeling and correcting errors. Some typical skill-building
tasks are drills, dialogue practice, and fill in the blank or multiple-choice exercises. The following diagram
illustrates the continuum:
Language Learning Task Continuum
Enabling Tasks &
Activities
3
Real-World Tasks
• Skill-building
• Skill-using
• Develop isolated, pre-requisite skills
• Provide rehearsal for authentic tasks
beyond the classroom
• Focus on form and accuracy
• Focus on fluency and making meaning
• Provide maximum scaffolding
• Provide minimum scaffolding
• Require limited language choices, and/or
memorized chunks of language
• Require repertoire of linguistic and nonlinguistic resources to accomplish goal
• May involve controlled practice through
manipulation of discrete grammatical or
phonological forms
• May require negotiation of meaning to
ensure message is understood
• Require limited resources
• Need comprehension to complete task
• May or may not be communicative
• Are communicative
• Are teacher-managed
• Are learner-managed
Nunan, 1989, p.40
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Teaching Implication:
Because these tasks fall on a continuum, there is often an overlap between enabling and real-world tasks and
between real-world and authentic language tasks. For example, if learners, asked to plan a class party, are using
language skills practised in class, such as stating preferences, expressing opinions or reservations, etc. are they
engaged in a real-world learning task or an authentic language task? We might call it by either term and be
correct. The best real-world tasks are those that are most authentic.
Effective language learning opportunities involve both enabling (skill-building) and real-world (skill-using) tasks.
Learners who engage in tasks with only skill-using characteristics often develop fossilized English as they repeatedly
struggle to communicate with little structured input or correction from the teacher. Learners who experience only
skill-building tasks and never have the opportunity to use the language they've been learning about in the
negotiation of real meaning will find themselves limited in their ability to function outside the classroom.
It is important to remember, however, that skill-building tasks can be communicative. In fact, Robinson and
Selman say,
In the past, for example, many teachers taught ... by using exercises in which
meaning was unimportant, such as following a pattern by adding ed to verbs.
As a result, learners were often unable to transfer the grammar skills they'd
mastered while completing the exercises to situations in which they needed to
use language to achieve real purposes.4
I came to Canada on
I came with
I landed in
. It was
outside.
I felt
.
I thought
.
Now, I am
that I came to Canada.
I hope
.
4
Skill-building activities can be changed to make them more
purposeful or meaningful and more communicative in nature.
A non-communicative activity, such as a WH question-formation
drill on name, address and phone number can be modified
into a questionnaire using either cues or the same target
questions as in the drill. In the questionnaire activity, learners
repeat the same drill questions more communicatively to elicit
real information from their classmates and the resulting data
can be used to create a class phone book.
Similarly, a writing task, such as writing a description about
their first day in Canada, can be provided with more scaffolding
and be focused on limited options by providing formative
questions (arranged in a typical narrative order) or by providing
a paragraph "template", such as the one here. The template
provides sentence stems to be completed with the details of
the learner's personal experience.
Robinson & Selman, 1996, p.57
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Assumption: Grammar and pronunciation are important when creating meaning.
The role of grammar and pronunciation presented in Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 reflects the
changing recognition of the role of form in creating meaning. Prior to the introduction of communicative
approaches to language teaching, methodologies tended to focus on form, often to the exclusion of a focus on
meaning. Later, methodologies based on traditional communicative approaches to language teaching tended
to focus on meaning sometimes to the exclusion of form. In recent years, however, we have learned that when
learners understand how language form helps them create meaning, they are better able to do things with
language in various social contexts.
This balance of focus on form and meaning is apparent in the Canadian Language Benchmarks, which looks
first at the holistic effectiveness of the communication - Can the learner do the task? - before considering
specific analytic language aspects, such as grammar, intelligibility, etc. and how these aspects affect the quality
of the communication.
Teaching Implication:
Critical to a task-based approach is the need to focus the learners' attention on grammar and pronunciation
elements that are implicit in the particular communicative task the learners will be carrying out. Grammar or
pronunciation taught in isolation to the roles they play in the real-world task will likely be less useful and meaningful
to learners than grammar and pronunciation taught in context.
In the classroom therefore, activities can be designed that encourage learners to look at grammar and pronunciation
elements in a text that contribute to conveying a particular meaning. Learners then need to be able, not only
to learn about these features, but also practise them in both skill-building and skill-using activities. The goal is
that learners can draw on this linguistic information to create or understand new messages in other contexts.
Another important feature of grammar and pronunciation relates to their role in a task-based instructional
approach. Carrying out a language task often involves using language in extended discourse, that is, in language
longer than a phrase or sentence. Therefore, learners need to correctly apply grammar and pronunciation in texts
longer than sentences so that they can observe how shifts in tense, pronouns or stress and intonation, etc. occur.
In a unit on Going to the Doctor, for example, learners at CLB Speaking 5 might be developing the one-on-one
interaction competency related to providing information. An analysis of a spoken text related to providing a
health history reveals the need for the present perfect and past tenses. These tenses can become a focus for
grammar lessons in a skill-building activity, such as the following.
Giving a Health History for a Child
Use the following model to practise asking and answering health history questions with a partner.
A) Has your child ever had chicken pox?
B) Yes, s/he has. S/he had chicken pox when s/he was 5. or No, s/he’s never had chicken pox.
Other cues: mumps, scarlet fever, measles, etc.
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Methodology
Assumption: Language and culture are inter-related in effective communication.
Language without culture can degenerate into a study of forms and vocabulary; in short, it can
become completely boring for most of the students in the class. For many students, particularly
those who are learning the language for reasons of integrative motivation..., culture instruction
is what brings life to language learning.
- Robin Scarcella & Rebecca Oxford, 1992
As ESL teachers, we are very aware of the many differences among cultures. Getting to know learners and gaining
insights into the richness of their cultural heritages is one of the great benefits of our work. Values may be shared
among several cultures, or may be unique to a culture or to an individual. They affect the organization of our society
and the systems we put in place. They affect our relationships and how we communicate with each other.
Cultural conventions that centre on oral and written communication are frequently less obvious and operate more
at a sub-conscious level than other aspects of culture. A learner may have quite good grammar, vocabulary and
pronunciation, but occasionally, communication just doesn't seem quite right. A learner's, "Please, teacher, give
me a pen," may seem more like a directive than the polite request it was intended to be. Equally, a note indicating
a learner will be absent the next day that begins, "Most revered teacher..." doesn't fit the conventions of this genre
of writing in Canada. These are both examples of learners using English linguistic elements with cultural elements
appropriate to their L1 (first language).
The CLB descriptions of competencies at various levels include expectations that the task is carried out in a way
that is culturally appropriate for the social context. Therefore, it is important that learners learn about the cultural
dimension of oral and written communication.
Teaching Implication:
Culture affects our behaviour at the sub-conscious level. We don't make decisions about what to say or do by
asking ourselves what is culturally appropriate. We ask ourselves what is the right thing to do or say in a given
situation, or more commonly, we don't ask ourselves anything, we just act. In addition, the language level of our
learners critically impacts the degree to which or the way in which we can examine culture. Therefore, we have
to help learners bring culture from the sub-conscious to the conscious, and we have to move from addressing the
more concrete and direct culture content at the beginner language levels to the more abstract and indirect at the
higher levels. The following are some aspects of language and culture that can be taught at CLB Stage 1 and 2:
At CLB Stage 1 levels we can teach concrete things like facts (usual times of business, national
holidays, historical facts, famous people, laws, etc.), common formulaic expressions (greetings,
introductions, closings, compliments, politeness terms), taboo topics (non acceptable personal
questions), and certain behaviours (firm handshake, personal space, gestures, tone of voice,
common back channeling forms, etc.). We can also address some basic intonation patterns that
carry meaning (I'm really sorry vs. I'm REALLY sorry).
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At CLB Stage 2 levels we can begin to look at more indirect ways of carrying out language
functions (indirect complaints are often ways of starting conversations or bonding), the intention
behind some things we say or do linguistically (let's do lunch sometime is NOT an actual
invitation). Meaning carried by intonation can be examined more intensively too at this level.
The following suggests strategies for addressing the cultural dimension of language use:
1
Making the subconscious conscious
There are a variety of techniques teachers can use to raise awareness of the relationship between culture
and language:
• We can ask learners questions, such as "How is this done in your first country/culture?" or
"Who is responsible for this in your first country/culture?” or"What are the laws/customs/rules
in your country?"
• We can provide learners with pictures to examine and describe from the perspective of their first culture
or country: for instance, facial expressions reflecting different feelings or different personality characteristics,
like honesty, openness, shiftiness, etc. Other pictures might look at dress styles or power relationships.
• We can have learners translate certain formulaic expressions generally used for some of those common
language functions, such as greetings or demonstrate the behaviour associated with carrying out a
particular type of exchange.
• We can have learners discuss their understanding of the intention of various utterances, such as differences
between utterances You had better..., and You should... when making a suggestion.
As we share the results of the above activities, it is of course important to emphasize that there are different
ways of being appropriate even in the Canadian context.
2
Examining the new culture
Our next step is to find out what learners know or assume about how Canadians behave or what Canadians
might say in some situations. We can use the above suggestions and add a next layer and ask, "What
do you think Canadians do/say? Why?" Learners can check out their assumptions or, begin consciously
to observe situations and draw conclusions about the "rules" or conventions that are used.
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Some ideas to try are:
• Have learners listen to taped exchanges and identify the relationship of the speakers (relative ages of
speakers, gender, familiarity, status), and the mood of the exchange (happy, angry, embarrassed, etc.). Ask
why they have drawn these conclusions.
• Have learners go into the community to observe certain situations for the language and behaviour.
For instance, observe what people do when they meet, how far apart they stand, eye contact, gestures,
facial expressions, etc. What do people do/say when they want to interrupt?
• Have learners conduct surveys about various questions or behaviours. They could use some of the material
mentioned above, such as pictures and go out and ask individuals questions they answered previously from
the perspective of their own cultures or what they think the Canadian perspective would be.
• Assign a TV show to view and have learners watch for certain cultural language or behaviour or have
learners summarize the values they think were held by the characters in the show and explain why.
(NB - It's important to discuss the degree to which REAL people and culture are represented in the
video text.)
• Present learners with a variety of scenarios related to a particular situation or language function and have
them discuss how these functions should be carried out and why.
• Examine different taped or written transcripts of real conversations and identify different parts of the
conversations. Use questions to focus examination, such as What pre-closings are used in the conversation?
Or An offer is made. What words form the offer?
• Compare two conversations that portray an appropriate/inappropriate or a rude/polite, cool/friendly,
formal/informal, etc. speech event. Identify the aspects of each that contribute to its impression. (For
beginners: Teacher, please give me a paper. instead of Excuse me. Could you please give me a paper?)
Assumption: Communication is interactive in nature and is based on choices and therefore, is not
completely predictable. Because of its unpredictability, ability to compensate for communication
breakdown is an important factor in communicative competence.
All too frequently an ESL learner's efforts to communicate fail, leaving the participants frustrated and confused.
Often, too, learners make assumptions that they have understood messages they have received, which can lead
to unfortunate, sometimes even dangerous results especially in the workplace. Therefore, having effective
communication strategies (strategic competence) is an essential aspect of communicative competence.
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Teaching Implication:
We need to ensure that we include both enabling and real-world tasks in our lessons that help learners develop
communication strategies. At CLB Stage 1, learners benefit by learning formulaic expressions and questions,
many of which are described in the Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000. Stage 2 learners and above
can analyze transcripts of authentic spoken text for the strategies individuals use for different strategic purposes.
Often, expectations around use of clarification strategies vary from culture to culture. Sometimes, therefore,
learners may be hesitant to use them in the way Canadians generally expect them to be used. Higher level
learners often benefit from discussions that explore some of the cultural expectations related to communication
strategies. For instance, in Canadian workplaces, if a boss gives an instruction and the worker doesn't understand,
the worker is expected to clarify the instructions with structures, such as, "I'm not sure I understand what
you mean." or "Do you mean you want me to _________?" In the workplace, reluctance to indicate lack
of comprehension is commonly raised as a major concern of employers because of the cost in accidents or ruined
products. We need to ensure that classroom activities help learners recognize the importance of using appropriate
strategies and develop effective ones. Following is a sample of a clarification activity, for Stage 2 learners.
Prepare a variety of instruction cards that provide several key pieces of information, such
as the action to be performed, a time or date, a location or a person. Underline one piece
of the information. Have learners work in small groups or circulate in the class reading
their instructions to other learners but mumbling the underlined information. The listener
must use a clarification technique to determine the correct information.
Assumption: Language learning is not a linear process. Each learner learns different things in
different ways, at different times to different degrees. Therefore learning is enhanced when
language elements are recycled and learner differences are accommodated.
Learning a language is not like building a structure of bricks where each new brick, uniform in its size and shape,
is added to the structure. Learning a language is, instead, more like spinning a web, with each new thread
re-shaping and expanding the network that was there before. As teachers, we contribute to the process by
selecting, organizing and implementing appropriate learning activities and content; however, we cannot guarantee
where the new threads will be attached or how the web will be re-shaped.
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The CLB recognizes that learners do not all acquire English at the same time, in the same way, or to the same
degree. The process of learning a language is as individualistic as the learners themselves are. Many factors
influence this process: similarity of the first language to the new language, number of languages already spoken,
exposure to English in and outside the classroom, age, years of education, motivation, confidence, stress and
natural ability.
In addition to these factors affecting readiness to learn, research shows us that learning is enhanced when new
elements are revisited at increasingly spaced intervals.
Teaching Implication:
Spiralling, the term commonly used to describe the process of revisiting or reviewing previously taught elements
of language, is effectively utilized in task-based instruction. Carrying out a language task frequently involves more
than one function. It can provide a relevant and meaningful context for revisiting and consolidating previously
learned language while focusing attention on practising new items. Furthermore, it is important that learners
recognize that various aspects of language can be used in many different contexts. Task-based teaching provides
an opportunity for learners to transfer their learning and expand their communicative competence web.
Assumption: Learning-to-learn and independent language learning strategies are important for
adults in the life-long process of learning
The Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 reflects the understanding that adult learners of ESL want to
improve their language skills so that they can "fulfil their personal, academic and employment goals and live lives
of dignity and purpose in Canada."5 They want to be self-reliant and able to act independently. In addition to
suggesting that learners need to develop metalinguistic knowledge (knowledge about forms, structures and other
aspects of language acquired through analyzing and reflecting on language), the CLB also refers to important
metacognitive knowledge learners need to develop. Metacognitive knowledge, or learning-to-learn strategies,
can assist learners to become more effective and more independent language learners.
Teaching Implication:
We can assist learners to become aware of their particular learning style preferences. One way is to develop
teaching activities that reflect various learning styles and help learners to identify ones they find most effective.
For instance, in a Consumer unit for CLB Level 8 learners, the teacher might present the following activities and
let learners form groups based on the activity each would prefer to do. In a follow-up activity, learners might
discuss why they chose the activity they did and what it tells them about their own learning styles.
a) You have $150.00 to spend on gifts for the members of your group. Set up a budget for the number
of people in your group and use catalogues and flyers to selects gifts which will both appeal to your
various group members and be good consumer buys.
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Manitoba CLB Curriculum Framework (1997)
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b) Tape three or four different television commercials. Interpret how advertising techniques in each
attempt to attract buyers and present your interpretation in visual or written form.
c) Use the Internet to research the history of credit cards and summarize your findings in a short report.
d) Interview several different people to find out if/how computers have changed their spending habits
and write an opinion piece, such as an editorial for a magazine or newsletter.
As part of the teaching/ learning process, teachers can introduce different language learning techniques and give
learners opportunities to practise them. For example, in learning vocabulary learners can be asked to work in a
small group to read a text related to a particular task and each make a list of unfamiliar words. They then work
together to provide each other with the meanings of any words already known by other group members. The
group would then look up all the unfamiliar words in a dictionary to confirm or correct definitions provided by
the group and to find out missing definitions. Other techniques might be the use of learner-prepared flashcards,
key words, or mind maps.
Learners who have formal education may have developed particular techniques to learn new information or skills.
Learners who have little formal education may have few such techniques. The language classroom provides a
valuable opportunity to learn about and practise new techniques, especially those that may help learners develop
the ability to use language effectively in the real world. Developing their use of effective language learning
strategies can play an important role in increasing learners' independence and success as language learners.
Why Do We Need a Methodological Framework?
If you say you are eclectic but cannot state the principles of your eclecticism, you are not
eclectic, merely confused.
- Henry Widdowson in Lewis,1997.
Having a clear methodological framework to work within helps us to decide which activities to keep, how to use
or modify them and what additional activities or tasks to develop and use. Without a methodological framework,
our selection and organization of activities and tasks is ad hoc, random and may not be based on sound teaching
and learning principles.
The underlying assumptions inherent in the Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 clearly have methodological
implications. Task-based instruction provides teachers with a sound approach to teaching ESL to Adults and
developing learning tasks and activities. It enables teachers to address the multiple facets of language learning
in a principled and integrated manner that is focused on language use in the real world. A task-based approach
also provides an effective, flexible organizing principle for unit and lesson planning, the focus of Chapter 6,
Planning for Teaching and Learning.
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Helpful Readings
Burns, A. & Joyce, H. (1997). Focus on Speaking. Sydney, Australia: National Centre for English Language Teaching
and Research.
This book and two others in the series, Focus on Reading by Susan Hood, Nicky Solomon and Anne Burns,
and Focus on Grammar by Helen de Silva Joyce and Anne Burns are very helpful resources. The development
of CLB in Canada was significantly influenced by work that had been done in Australia to develop their
Certificate in Spoken and Written English. Consequently, teachers will find these resources very compatible
with Canadian approaches. These are accessible, easy to read books with lots of practical suggestions.
Burns, A., Joyce, H. & Gollin, S. (1996). "I See What You Mean." Sydney, Australia: National Centre for English
Language Teaching and Research.
This practical and accessible handbook uses a task and case study approach to provide clear guidelines and
suggestions for using authentic spoken discourse in the classroom. It also includes a useful introduction to
some of the current theoretical approaches to spoken discourse analysis.
Kramsch, C. (1998). Language and Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
This is one of the handy little books in the Oxford Introductions to Language Study series edited by Henry
Widdowson. While intended as an introduction to the topic, this book and another in the series by George
Yule, Pragmatics, do more than that. They are both readable and current and have very helpful glossaries
and annotated references.
Lewis, M. (1993). The Lexical Approach. Hove, England: LTP Publications.
Michael Lewis' book and its companions Implementing the Lexical Approach and Teaching Collocations
are invaluable to the teacher interested in examining and teaching vocabulary and grammar as they occur
in authentic text. Teaching Collocations is particularly readable with a wealth of practical new ideas.
Mendelsohn, D. (1994). Learning to Listen. San Diego, CA: Dominie Press.
This book and an additional one Mendelsohn edited with Joan Rubin called, A Guide for the Teaching of
Second Language Listening, should be required reading for teachers concerned with helping their learners
develop effective, communicative listening skills. As well as being both very practical and informative, they
are user-friendly resources.
Nunan, D. (1989). Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
This is a must read for anyone interested in task-based instruction. It provides a clear and well-balanced
introduction to the theory and practice of teaching by tasks.
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Methodology
Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. Boston, MA:
Heinle & Heinle.
This very practical book is one of the best resources for teaching language learning strategies. It addresses
direct (memory, cognitive and compensation strategies) and indirect (metacognitive, affective and social
strategies). Numerous tools, inventories and activities are included in the book and explained in a downto-earth, accessible style.
Robinson, J. & Selman, M. (1996). Partnerships in Learning: Teaching Adult ESL. Toronto, ON: Pippin
Publishing.
This is a terrific resource, especially for novice teachers. It has very practical, pedagogically sound, step-bystep suggestions for methodology as well as other important teaching topics.
Sauvé, V. (2000). Voices and Visions: An Introduction to Teaching Adult ESL. Toronto, ON: Oxford
University Press, Canada.
Sauvé's book is both inspirational and informative and although it is intended primarily for the novice teacher,
experienced teachers will find it a re-energizing read. It is particularly helpful for teachers seeking guidance
in learner-centred teaching.
Scarcella, R. & Oxford, R. (1992). The Tapestry of Language Learning: The Individual in the Communicative
Classroom. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
This is a favourite resource that presents a teaching approach combining communicative, thematic and taskbased instruction with a concern for the learners’ differences in learning styles. It provides a valuable overview
of theoretical considerations presented in an accessible manner and a wealth of practical teaching suggestions.
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.
C H A P T E R
6
Planning for Teaching and Learning:
Linking the CLB to the Learner
Our central task is to help learners master those aspects of the language they need to fulfil
their own immediate and long term goals beyond language in the ways and environments that
suit them best...For good or ill, it needs to be borne in mind that the vast majority of students
do not learn English just for the fun of it, but as a tool to assist them in achieving other goals.
- David Nunan, 1985
This chapter includes the following major sections:
• planning a curriculum
• planning a course
• planning a module / unit of work
• planning a lesson
• helpful readings
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 provides a "framework of reference for learning, teaching,
programming, and assessing English as a Second Language in Canada" and "a national standard for planning
second language curricula for a variety of contexts".1 It assists learners, teachers and others to 'speak in the
same language' when describing milestones along each learner's pathway to his or her goals. The descriptive
statements which comprise the CLB competencies are generic and, as such, can be used to describe learners
in a variety of program contexts and situations in Canadian communities. Curricula and courses are developed
in localized situations to address the needs of groups of learners in specific contexts. The planning process at
all levels links these specific contexts to the CLB competencies.
Interpreting the CLB in Local Contexts
Curricula, courses, modules or lessons which are to be linked to the CLB, must approach language learning
in a manner compatible with the CLB. The CLB describes English language proficiency in terms of tasks
and language functions. Therefore, in order to select tasks and functions for learning and for assessment
related to the CLB, the teaching and learning experiences must be planned in the same functional and taskbased terms as the CLB descriptors. A curriculum, course or lesson plan which describes language learning
only in grammatical terms, for example, will not assist teachers and learners to describe proficiency in CLB
terms. A module which outlines only situations in which learners will use English (for example - at the bank,
in the workplace) but which does not define the language functions and tasks which learners are expected
to use in those situations, does not assist teachers to describe learning in CLB terms.
1
CLB 2000, p.viii
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6
Planning
The example below illustrates how CLB outcomes may be interpreted in various specific contexts.
Speaking Benchmark 4: 2
What the person can do
Examples of tasks and texts
Performance indicators
III. Suasion
(Getting things done)
• Obtain a service or purchase; return or
exchange goods in a transaction.
• Responds to openings, routine questions
and closings in a service or sales
transaction discourse.
• Request, accept or reject goods
or services, assistance or offer
in a service or sales situation.
• Respond to warnings.
• Respond to warnings on simple by-law
violations. (E.g., You can't park here.
Please remove your car. Smoking is not
allowed.)
• Provides required information/ description
of item. Asks relevant questions about
price, availability, location, appearance,
function.
• Responds to warnings.
For teaching or assessment purposes the above CLB Benchmarks could be contextualized to address a variety
of learner communicative goals. For example:
• in a workplace setting, curricula, courses and lessons can be based on content, situations and tasks which
simulate and develop actual workplace language use. Tasks could be developed around responses to
common warnings about safe operation of equipment or requests to other workers for assistance with a
job task.
• in a community setting, content, situations and tasks are planned to develop the language of participation
in the community. Tasks could be developed around responses to warnings on prescription medications
and household cleaners, or requests to a landlord for assistance with a problem in an apartment building.
• in an academic bridging program, tasks may be developed around getting information and assistance in
the college library, or registering for courses at the Registrar’s office. Science units could include tasks
related to understanding warnings about chemicals or procedures in the science lab.
Not everything that will be learned during language learning activities or courses may be described in terms of
the Benchmarks, however. Curriculum frameworks, course outlines and lesson plans will include outcomes, goals,
objectives and learning activities in addition to those outlined in the CLB. At all levels of planning for language
learning and teaching, we need to consider the richness, complexity and individual idiosyncrasy of learners'
underlying communicative abilities and communication needs. Some of these may be reflected in the CLB
competency descriptors and some may be related only to a specific group of learners.
2
CLB 2000, p.13
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Planning
This chapter addresses planning at several levels: curriculum, course, module, and lesson. The following table
defines the levels and provides questions for planning at each level.
Level of teaching and learning
Planning questions
• A curriculum is a generic framework on
which courses for specific groups of learners
can be based. Includes philosophy, purposes,
design and implementation of a whole
program.
• How is this curriculum, course, module, lesson, task related to the language
learning and other goals of the learners? Are expectations of learners
consistent with the Global Performance Descriptors, Performance Conditions,
Competency Outcomes and Standards given in the CLB?
• A course3 is an integrated series of teaching
and learning experiences which fits within a
given time frame in a specific program for a
defined group of learners. The course is
designed to lead learners to a particular state
of knowledge. A course is comprised of a
series of modules or units based on a
curriculum framework.
• Course development includes syllabus design.
A syllabus specifies the content of the course
- with principles for ordering / sequencing
elements of the content. It defines the what,
why, the sequence and often, the how of the
course.
• Module / Unit: a series of lessons - related
thematically or functionally.
• Lesson: sequence of tasks and activities
planned to enable learners to experience and
practice specific aspects of English and to gain
understanding of specific content. Activities
are usually related by theme; covers a specific
unit of time.
• Will learners participate in a variety of activity types that address communication
needs as described in the CLB? Are all of the language functions and skill
areas addressed at some point in the learning plans?
• What is the language learning and language function focus of each
activity, unit, and course?
• How will the activities be sequenced within the unit / module/ course?
• How will the learners be organized / grouped for learning?
• What background and/ or content learning will take place related to
community, workplace, or academic area? Do students have the background
knowledge to accomplish the learning and assessment tasks? Is there provision
for developing background knowledge along with the language competencies?
• What resources are needed (audio-visual/ print/ human)? Do resources enable
a task-based, functional approach to learning language?
• What are the time constraints?
• How will learning be assessed and reported to learners and others? Do the
learning and assessment tasks relate to the performance indicators in the CLB?
• Are strategies which are outlined in the Overview sections of the CLB for
the specific level incorporated into the planning at all levels?
• Activity/ task: single planned classroom
undertaking which is directly related to
language teaching and learning. Each has its
own objectives, content, working procedure
and criteria for success.
Planning for instruction at any level (curriculum, course, module, lesson) requires creativity and expertise. It involves
constant negotiation as curriculum and course developers and teachers strive to integrate all aspects of language
learning into comprehensive and coherent plans that are accessible, relevant and open to negotiation with learners.
Planners need to balance identified learner needs, available resources, program and community requirements
and limitations. The process requires a disciplined approach, grounded in beliefs and principles with respect to
language learning.
Note: There is some confusion and inconsistency in the literature and in practice in the use of the terms syllabus, course, and curriculum. In this
Guide, the terms course, curriculum and syllabus will be used as defined above. This is consistent with the use of these terms in most ESL settings
in Canada.
3
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Planning A Curriculum
PLANNING A CURRICULUM
The curriculum framework is ... a process, not a product. It is not a specification of what should
be taught but rather a guide for how to set up a program for each student that meets the criteria
which had been articulated. It helps set realistic objectives for each course, it can be adapted to
a variety of needs and program lengths, it makes use of the initiative and creativity of the instructors,
and it provides them with a set of guidelines that they can draw on, with little advance notice, to
develop their course.
- Laura Hull, 1996
This section includes the following:
• an outline of curriculum elements
• steps in curriculum development
• advantages of developing a curriculum framework linked to CLB
• examples of curriculum frameworks
A curriculum is the most general level of planning for teaching and learning. It relates to groups of learners and
teachers in a variety of learning situations and contexts. Curriculum development projects should consider the
"whole of the teaching process, including planning, teaching and evaluation".4 Nunan cites the tendency to focus
on curriculum as product - as a specification of lists of items to be taught and suggestions about methodology.
However, he suggests that curriculum should be less concerned with content than with the articulation of processes
and procedures for deriving content and methodology - a set of procedures or steps to follow in planning courses.5
See Appendix for Guiding Questions for Curriculum Development.
4
5
Nunan, 1987, p.12
Ibid., p.11
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Planning A Curriculum
What are the Elements of a Curriculum?
A curriculum framework answers the
following questions:
A curriculum makes
general statements about:
• Why are learners learning English? What do they
hope to be able to do as a result of learning English?
• the purposes for which learners are learning English
(Needs Assessment)
• What content (linguistic and other content) will assist
the learners to achieve their purposes?
• principles for choosing the content
• What is the range of CLB levels that the curriculum
will address?
• range of CLB levels to be included
(Syllabus Development)
• What types of learning experiences (activities and tasks)
will lead to learning and achieving desired outcomes?
• principles for choosing and planning learning
experiences which are necessary to achieve
these purposes
(Goals and Objectives)(Goals and Objectives)
• How will material be available to learners? What will
learners do with the content in order to learn? How
will our beliefs about how learners learn a language
be reflected in the approach that is taken?
• principles of teaching and learning - procedures
and approach
• How will groups of learners with differing goals achieve
those goals? How will different levels of achievement
be connected? How will different courses relate to
one another, and how will learners move through a
number of courses?
• various pathways that learners might follow to achieve
goals and outcomes at various levels
• What resources will be required to support learning?
Will new materials need to be developed or adapted?
• resource selection, adaptation, and development
(Materials Development)
• How will we know that the desired outcomes have
been achieved? What processes and tools will be used
to assess learning?
• some means for assessing whether or not the
educational purposes have been achieved and
principles for choosing and developing assessment
processes and tools
(Teachin
(Teaching)
• connections between courses in different contexts
(Program Development)
(Assessment)
• How will the curriculum be evaluated to decide whether
it supports desired outcomes? What changes need to
be made in the curriculum?
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
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(Assessment
• processes for evaluating the curriculum to determine
if the curriculum leads to desired outcomes
(Program Evaluation) (Program Evaluation)
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Planning A Curriculum
What are Steps in Curriculum Development?
The following steps that guide curriculum development are adapted from Stenhouse:6
1 Carry out extensive needs analyses.
A needs analysis for curriculum development takes into account the needs of all of the stakeholders with
interests in the curriculum. This includes all the potential groups of learners with their diverse backgrounds,
communicative goals, language learning needs, learning styles, general educational needs, etc. A curriculum
is general enough to take account of the diversity of student needs. Determine the needs of the educational
institution, program funder(s), employer(s), community. Consult ESL teachers from a broad range of
backgrounds and program types who will be affected by the curriculum. Research models of ESL curricula
from various places and for various purposes. Research current models of second language learning /
acquisition, including current research that might be reflected in the curriculum framework. Survey the
political, social, cultural, and historical contexts in which the language programs will be implemented.7
2
Articulate the beliefs about and principles of second language learning and about adult learners that
will guide and inform curriculum implementation.
These beliefs and principles will be reflected in all aspects of the curriculum - goals, objectives, outcomes,
content, learning experiences, assessment processes, and methodology.
3
Formulate the goals and objectives which will provide an orientation to the main emphases in the
program(s) and which will guide the making of decisions about what to cover, what to emphasize,
what content to select, and which learning experiences to emphasize.
The goals and objectives turn the results of the needs analysis into action statements for teaching and learning.
4
Become familiar with Canadian Language Benchmarks, 2000, to determine how the competencies
and outcomes can be reflected throughout the curriculum.
Decide how the CLB might provide a framework for the curriculum development. What aspects of the CLB
will be incorporated into goals, objectives, content, assessment?
5
Decide on organizing principles for the selection of content.
The content of language learning curricula may include: topics / themes; situations; CLB competencies;
learning strategies; communicative functions; linguistic skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening); grammar;
vocabulary; genres (texts).
6
7
Stenhouse, 1975, p.55
Nunan, 1992 a, p.230
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6 Select learning experiences.
This is informed by principles and beliefs about second language learning about the best way for adult to learn
a second language; what kind of information, knowledge, skills, and attitudes are being developed;
and what emotional and attitudinal changes will affect language learning.
7 Organize learning experiences broadly into pathways related to groups of learners.
These pathways may subsequently be developed into courses for specific groups of learners.
8 Determine what and how to evaluate learning. Chapter 8, Classroom-Based Assessment presents a rich
variety of assessment tools and strategies.
What are the Advantages of Developing a Curriculum Framework Linked
to the CLB?
The pattern of participation of adult learners in ESL programs is often 'discontinuous' - students enroll in and
attend programs depending on availability of funding, perceived match of program to their most pressing needs,
availability of spaces in appropriate programs, family situations, employment requirements, time available for study,
etc. Learners may move from program to program, with gaps of time in between. A curriculum based on the CLB
framework provides some continuity over time and geographical space.
In addition, many Adult ESL programs and classrooms operate without a curriculum. Teachers plan interesting,
engaging lessons and activities for learners based on their understanding of learners’ interests and goals for
learning English. They gather information and suggestions from published textbooks and other sources and create
units or modules based on themes and functions of interest to learners. However, in the absence of a curriculum,
it may not be clear to learners or teachers how these individual activities and lessons fit into an overall plan.
A curriculum linked to the CLB can provide this overall plan, linking a course to related courses and to courses
and programs across Canada.
A curriculum linked to the CLB:
• assists learners, teachers and others to 'speak in the same language' when describing milestones along each
learner's pathway to his or her goals
• assists teachers to negotiate clear 'roadmaps' to learners' desired destinations and assists learners to gain a
sense of direction in their learning
• assists in planning to prevent duplication and avoid gaps and overlaps in language learning activities,
themes / topics, and use of resources as learners move to different levels and courses
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Planning A Curriculum
• enables teachers to communicate in a consistent way about language proficiency levels even if the specific
curricular and program contexts have been very different, especially in situations where learners
work with more than one teacher, or where learners move to different levels within the same program
• assists learners to create pathways for achieving their own learning goals - especially when the curriculum is
transparent and is negotiated, at least in part, with the learners
• provides a basis for sharing ideas, and resources, among teachers, which enables the maximum use of resources
• provides a starting point for a set of shared beliefs, goals and terminology which makes it possible to provide
effective, coordinated programs for learners
• helps teachers to develop learning and teaching plans that articulate and coordinate across a range of proficiency
levels and program organizations
• saves time as teachers develop specific courses and programs
• provides new teachers with guidelines with respect to the nature and direction of the program context
• provides principles on which to choose resources
From Curriculum to Learning
A curriculum framework should be all encompassing and comprehensive, and framed in as broad terms as possible.
The curriculum then provides a basis for planning more specific courses to meet specific needs of specific groups
of learners in specific contexts.
From the basis of a curriculum framework, teachers in particular settings and programs may begin the work of
developing courses based on the curriculum. A curriculum framework, especially one linked to the CLB, provides
continuity between courses that are offered in various settings. Learners and teachers are able to see connections
between, for example, community-based ESL programs and workplace programs. Learners may move more easily
between types of programs, according to their emerging and changing needs as they establish themselves in the
Canadian context. Teachers in a setting that offers multi-level programs have a basis upon which to negotiate
the parameters of each particular course level and to develop and utilize materials in a principled way throughout
the program.
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Classroom Examples
The following examples represent three different approaches to the development of curricular frameworks.
Example one describes the process undertaken in Australia in the 1980's to develop a common curriculum
framework for various program types. The process worked both from the 'bottom up' and from the 'top down'.
Teachers, supported by centralized administrative and management services, planned, implemented and evaluated
their programs. They undertook classroom research projects in which they documented curriculum activities
according to a set of guidelines. This resulted in 'curriculum consciousness-raising' for teachers. The data which
was gathered was then analyzed and categorized. The next step was to write curriculum frameworks derived from
the data. These frameworks enabled teachers to systematize planning, monitoring, and evaluation of their programs.
Courses derived from the frameworks met the needs of specific groups of learners. The project reinforced the
value of a learner-centred, school-based curriculum model, using frameworks that can be adapted to changing
learner groups.
Example two describes a process which is similar in some ways to that used in Example one. However, in this
example, one teacher was given the responsibility of developing a curriculum framework which would assist
teachers to quickly develop courses for groups of learners who were coming to a college in the USA for shortterm English courses. The curriculum developer gathered information about what was being done in the many
courses which were being taught - and then she refined and clarified the information into a three-component
framework.
Example three illustrates the process used in Manitoba to develop a curriculum framework based on the Canadian
Language Benchmarks. The resulting framework consists of sets of principles and beliefs about second language
learning. In addition, a set of language learning objectives was developed for all the competencies outlined in
the CLB. The principles, goals and objectives are being used to generate courses for groups of learners in various
contexts in Manitoba.
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Planning A Curriculum
A Classroom Example
Example 1:
Adult Migrant Education Program (AMEP) (Victoria) 8
In the 1980's, AMEP undertook a collaborative process involving classroom teachers and curriculum developers
to develop curriculum frameworks that could in turn be used to develop curricula for learners in various program
types. The frameworks were written in such a way as to enable teachers working, either individually or in small
groups, to systemize the planning, monitoring, and evaluation of their programs.
The following principles underlie the frameworks:
1. The teacher has a key role to play in curriculum development, particularly in systems in which courses are meant
to be responsive to learner needs.
2. Curriculum guidelines and frameworks should be flexible enough to allow teachers to work from a variety of
different starting points in planning courses. They can start with resources, learning tasks, communicative skills,
or lists of learning outcomes. They are intended to facilitate planning for courses with either grammatical,
functional, or notional (topic) focuses.
3. Existence of a framework does not imply that courses derived from it will be identical. Each course is unique,
being shaped by interaction and negotiation between learners and teacher.
Each framework contains the following information and resources:
1. An introduction and statement of underlying principles
2. A description of how the framework might be used
3. A description of the learner type for whom the framework is written (see below)
4. A statement of appropriate goals for the target group
5. A set of principles underlying the framework
6. Models and examples of alternative methods of program planning
7. Sets of syllabus-planning checklists (including topics, tasks, objectives, functions, notions, morphosyntax, vocabulary,
settings, learning styles, and strategies appropriate for the designated group)
8. Sample teaching units
9. Assessment and evaluation resources
Learner types for which curriculum frameworks were written (each with specific levels of
language proficiency):
1. Indo-Chinese; cultural focus
2. Slow; elderly; reading / writing focus
3. Young; fast-track; survival
4. Young; fast-track; educational focus
5. General; social/communicative interaction
6. Job-seeking; work experience focus
7. Social interaction focus
8
8. Media focus
9. Education / study skills focus
10. Long-term residents (stabilized learners);
reading/writing focus
11. Linked skills (bridging to other programs)
12. Particular professional skills focus
13. Mixed ability
Nunan, 1992 a, pp.230-253
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A Classroom Example
6
An example of principles from one of the frameworks:
This framework is based on the following principles:
❑ The goals and objectives of the course should be determined on the basis of the learners' needs and should
be apparent to both teachers and learners. Learning tasks should be linked to objectives, i.e., the relationship
between what learners do in class, and what they should be able to do after instruction should be clear.
❑
Authentic samples of language will be presented as far as possible. Task complexity rather than linguistic
complexity will be adjusted to the level of the learner.
❑ Learners will be encouraged to develop an awareness of how language learning takes place and how they can
be involved in achieving their language learning objectives.
❑ There will be a focus on the development of learning skills and skills in learning-how-to-learn. As adults, learners
should be encouraged to develop independent learning skills.
❑
Learners will be encouraged to practise their developing language skills in the real world outside the classroom.
❑ Learners will be encouraged to be involved in assessing their language ability in relation to learning objectives.
❑
As learning is an organic rather than a linear process, tasks and language items will be recycled and represented.
It is not assumed that learners will master a particular linguistic element or aspect of language after a
single exposure.
❑ Learners learn at different rates and in different ways. As far as possible, these differences should be
accommodated.
❑ Learners learn best in a caring, supportive environment.
❑
While tasks will generally focus learners on comprehending, producing and interacting in meaningful contexts,
learners will also be given the opportunity of focusing on English as a linguistic system.
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A Classroom Example
Planning A Curriculum
Example 2:
Developing a Curriculum Framework
Laura Hull9 describes a situation familiar to many ESL teachers. She worked in a context where loosely related
programs were offered to diverse groups of students - corporate executives from Asia, Latin America, and Europe.
Program components - such as in-class instruction, conversation partners, corporate language training, access to
social and business contacts outside the classroom were being used on an ad hoc basis by the teachers. However,
there was little consistency in program delivery among programs and between sites. "Much 'reinventing of the
wheel' was commonplace."10 This lack of continuity and consistency is noted by Nunan as an issue identified
during the development of a state-wide curriculum in Australia.11 Teachers there stated that "too many courses
were ad hoc, we do not know what learners are taking away from courses, why they come back, and what they
are looking for when they come back."12 Teachers saw as problematic that some topics were over-represented
whereas others were completely untouched. They noted that there was a lack of a general framework to assist
teachers to conceptualize and integrate what they were doing.
The process that Laura Hull used to develop a curriculum framework involved:
1. reconciling the various expectations and needs of learners, corporate clients, teachers, and the institution's
philosophical approach to learning
2. determining what was feasible within the constraints of each course
3. developing realistic objectives for each student or group of students
Hull states, "Much of the raw material for an effective curriculum was there. What was lacking was an organizing
principle to provide clarity, coherence, consistency, and continuity to the programs."13 She describes an evolutionary
process of curriculum development which refined and clarified the elements and resources which were already in
place.
The process of developing the curriculum framework involved an evaluation of an existing program through weekly
feedback meetings with students and teachers about what was and was not working; reading client files to
determine their expectations; and reviewing course evaluations by clients and students to see whether their
expectations were being fulfilled. A conflict emerged between the institution's educational philosophy of experiential
learning and the students' expectations about how they would be taught. There was also a mismatch between
the clients' expectations and what the instructors felt could be done within the time frame of a given course.
Hull, 1996, pp.176 -200
Ibid., p. 179
11 Nunan, 1987, p. 26
12 Ibid., p. 26
13 Hull, 1996, p. 177
9
10
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The following questions emerged which were related to 'key elements' of the developing
curriculum framework:
1. What could we reasonably expect to accomplish in on-site language training programs of one to twenty weeks'
duration?
2. What curriculum framework would be adaptable to programs of varying lengths for individuals with diverse
cultural, business, and personal backgrounds, learning styles, and language proficiencies?
3. How could a curriculum framework provide consistency and continuity and still leave room for the individual
experience, creativity, and initiative of instructors - one of our perceived strengths?
4. What kind of curriculum framework would be most useful for instructors and allow them to be ready to provide
a language- and cultural-training program within a day or two of a student's arrival, often with little advance
notice or pre-arrival information.
The curriculum framework which emerged was flexible, but gave instructors guidelines and a sense of accountability.
Instructors had a list of core elements and variable elements to draw on while designing the course learning plan
and devising objectives. The curriculum framework was a process, not a product. It was a guide for how to set up
a program for each student, a program that met the criteria established earlier.
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A Classroom Example
Planning A Curriculum
Laura Hull's Curriculum Framework for Corporate Language Programs14
COMPONENTS
I. Designing the program learning plan
II. Implementing the program learning plan
III. Setting up the independent ongoing learning plan
I. Designing the program learning plan
A. Needs assessment: formal, informal, learner training needs
B. Learning styles analysis
C. Goals and objectives: specific, measurable, achievable
D. Learning strategies to achieve goals and objectives
E. Community contacts, conversation partner
F. Independent study outside of class
G. Schedule
II. Implementing the program learning plan
A. Core curriculum elements
1. Structured pronunciation practice
2. Listening comprehension practice
3. Error analysis and correction strategies
4. Weekly outside learning activity
5. Independent ongoing learning strategies
6. Community contacts and conversation partners
7. Weekly feedback session with program administrator
8. Report writing: accountability to the client
B. Variable curriculum elements
1. Computer composition: business memos, reports, letters
2. Reading comprehension and fluency
3. Dialogue journal writing
4. Specific cross-cultural or multicultural awareness training
5. Learning strategies through case studies
6. Functional language for business and social contexts
7. Vocabulary practice
8. Idiomatic language practice
9. Focused grammar practice
10. Presentation skills
11. Business meeting skills
12. Negotiation, persuasion, clarification
13. Other business skills
III. Setting up the independent ongoing learning plan
A. Before departure from the USA
1. Analyze ongoing learning needs
2. Determine appropriate learning strategies
3. Define time frame for language study
4. Assemble tools and resources
B. Back at work in home country
1. Initial follow-on
2. Three-month questionnaire
3. Six-month follow-on workshop in student's country
14
Hull, 1996, p. 194
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Example 3:
The Manitoba Curriculum Framework for Teaching Adult ESL in Manitoba
Since the introduction of the CLB, the Manitoba provincial government has led the process for the development
of a curriculum framework for Adult ESL instruction. Adult ESL teachers in the province have been actively involved
in ongoing curriculum development.
The framework is intended for all types of Adult ESL programs and is used with Workplace Language Training
classes, Employment Preparation courses, English for Specific Purposes groups, Community-based classes and
generic ESL schools and training centres.
The following components are included in the curriculum framework:
• Goals and context of Adult ESL instruction in Manitoba
• Communicative Competence
• Guiding Principles from the CLB
• Adult Learning Principles
• Adult Language Learning Principles
• Learning Styles and Strategies
• The Role of Culture in Language Teaching
• A Humanistic Teaching Approach
• A Reflective Teaching Approach
• Principles of Needs Assessment
• Principles of Student Assessment
• Language Learning Objectives based on the CLB. (See sample pages which follow)
• Objectives for ESL Literacy Learners
• Methodology
• A 12 Step Teaching Plan
• Uses of Skill-Building and Skill-Using Activities
• Professional Development Expectations
See blank Objectives form in Appendix.
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A Classroom Example
Planning A Curriculum
CLB Learning Objectives: Format for Writing Curriculum Objectives
Benchmark
Skill
General Learning Objectives: One or more General Learning Objectives will be developed to reflect
all the information covered in each Benchmark
May be
general across
all the
competency
categories of
objectives.
May be
general for all
the action/
function
objectives.
May be
general for all
the action/
funtion
objectives.
Begins with
an action
verb.
Begins with
an action
verb.
Begins with
an action
verb.
Strategic
Sociocultural
May also
contain
categories of
words, i.e.
cardinals,
ordinals, etc.
Textual
Begins with an
action verb.
General
vocabulary
items ( words &
phrases) which
will be used
while
addressing
other
objectives.
Pronunciation
Will relate
specifically to
the action/
function
objectives.
Vocabulary
Begins with an
action verb.
General
vocabulary
items ( words &
phrases) which
will be used
while
addressing
other
objectives.
Grammar
Will need to be
broken down into
smaller parts
through a task
analysis process.
Structure
Example
Functional Specific
Learning Objectives
Will be derived from
“What the person
can do” column and
Performance
Conditions and
performance
Indicators columns.
Linguistic
May be general
for all the action/
function
objectives.
Begins with an
action verb.
May be derived
from themes or
topics, which
will indicate
additional
specific
vocabulary.
Begins with an
action verb.
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CLB Learning Objectives: Example
Benchmark
1
Skill Speaking
General Learning Objectives: To participate in an interview about personal information.
name, first
name, family
name,
surname,
address,
phone
number, date
of birth, hello,
hi, good-bye,
bye, see you,
yes, no, sorry
Verbs: speak,
live, have,
read, write,
come, BE
Use Canadian
vowel and
consonant
sounds in
target
vocabulary.
Use basic
formulaic
exchanges
(adjacency
pairs)
Recognize
formality level
of inquiries
used in
greetings and
respond
appropriately:
• How are
Recognize
you? Fine
intonation for
thanks; and • How are
following
you?
you?
sentence types.
Respond to
• How’s it
• Statement interview
going?
• Negative
statement
• Imperative
• Negative
imperative
• Yes/No
questions
• WH
questions
Strategic
Fine, thanks.
Use the
following
vocabulary:
Sociocultural
Use response
and inquiry:
Recognize and
use the verb BE
Textual
Responds to
greetings, leave
takings.
Hello: Hi.
Pronunciation
Use: greetings:
Vocabulary
I. Social interaction:
Indicate problems in
communication.
Grammar
Structure
Example
Functional Specific
Learning Objectives
Linguistic
Recognize
problems in
communication
non-verbally:
Indicate
problems in
communication
verbally:
• Say, “Please
repeat”
format:
Openings:
• How are you
doing?
• Greeting
• Small talk
Recognize
formality level
of inquiries
Topic
establishment: used in leave• Statements takings and
respond
of intent
Turn-taking: appropriately:
• Recognize
• Good-bye
end of
question &
• Bye
respond
• See you
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6
Planning A Course
PLANNING A COURSE
Designing a language course is a work in progress in its whole, in its parts, and in its implementation.
Each aspect of course design, the content, objectives, needs assessment, materials, and evaluation
are works in progress both in their conception and in their implementation. This does not mean
that it is better to go into the classroom with no plan at all, although in some cases that is possible...
On the contrary, I have found that teachers who carry out the planning process of course design
are better prepared to let their plans go because they have thought through the whats, hows, and
whys of the course and are better prepared to pay attention to their students. To me this is
analogous to great conductors who can conduct without a score and pay attention to the musicians
who are playing the music. But they can only do so because they know the music so intimately
that they carry it in their bones.
- Kathleen Graves, 2000
This section includes the following:
• factors to consider in designing a course
• suggestions for organizing course content
• components to include in a course document
• steps in planning a course related to the CLB
• classroom examples
A course is designed for a specific group of learners, in a specific setting, for a specific amount of time. It may be
derived from or based on a curriculum. It is "an integrated series of teaching-learning experiences, whose ultimate
aim is to lead the learners to a particular state of knowledge."15 Course design is concerned essentially with the
selection and appropriate sequencing of content and learning activities. A course outline / plan should:
• provide an accessible framework of the knowledge and skills upon which learners and teachers
will work
• show relationships between different aspects of content and language that will be available to learners
• provide continuity and a sense of direction for its users
• provide a record of what has been done which is useful for teachers who might work with the learners
at a later stage
• provide some accountability for colleagues, learners, the wider institution and society
• enable users and others to evaluate its appropriateness for its purposes and for specific learners
15
Graves, 1996, p.3
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Planning A Course
What Factors Need to be Considered in Order to Design a Course?
Much of the information needed to design a course is derived from the needs assessment process and the program
parameters, as discussed in Chapter 3, Needs Assessment. This information must include:
People:
• Learners:
purpose for learning English
how many, age, gender, culture(s), other language(s), education, profession, experience
• Other Stakeholders: Administrators, Funders, Community
Nature of course and institution:
• Type / purpose of the course
Mandatory / optional
Continuous intake
Relation to current / previous courses
Prescribed curriculum or not
Required tests or not
Teaching Resources:
• Materials available
Required text? Texts available to students?
Need to develop new materials?
Equipment: computer hardware and software; cassettes, video, photocopying availability
Clerical support
Physical setting:
• Location of school - convenience
• Setting: classroom (size, furniture, light, noise)
Always the same classroom?
Time:
• How many hours total over what span of time
• How often class meets; for how long each time
• Day of week, time of day
• Where the course fits in schedule of learners
• Learners' timelines and other commitments; attendance patterns
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Planning A Course
How Should the Content of Courses be Organized?
"Organizing a course is deciding what the underlying systems will be that pull together the context and material
in accordance with the goals and objectives that give the course a shape and structure...The product of organizing
and sequencing a course is a syllabus"16
The nature of the CLB, task-based and learner-centred, provides a framework for organizing the content of a
course related to the CLB. CLB competencies can be integrated into a course structure that best suits learners'
needs, their purposes for learning English and the context in which they are learning. Usually course planners
choose one aspect of language which becomes the organizing principle of the course. That is, one aspect becomes
the course 'backbone' around which other aspects are grouped. For example, if a course is to be topic or themebased, the choice of language functions, tasks, grammar, situations, etc, will all be chosen to reflect the topics.
Topic-based courses may include texts or content-based material; all courses may include projects in which
students are actively involved.
The following list indicates some of the main types of focus around which courses may be organized:
Topic / Theme-Based Courses:
Topics and themes are derived from the needs and interests of learners. CLB outcomes are then related to
topic / theme units as appropriate. The same CLB outcome may be contextualized in different topics. Appropriate
language functions, structures and skills are clustered around topics and sub-topics for teaching and learning
purposes.
Text / Genre-Based Courses:
Courses can be based on an identified range of written and oral texts required within a specific context employment, academic, social interaction. The course integrates various elements of language content, functions
and skills through the study of spoken and written texts. Examples of texts in different types of ESL programs
are: Community Access: community newsletters, local papers, school newsletters, brochures. Vocational:
meeting formats; labeled diagrams; floor plans, time lines, safety procedures. English for Study: summaries
of academic material; excerpts from technical manuals and text books, lectures.
Course activities and tasks will familiarize learners with the organizational conventions, language structures
and vocabulary commonly used in these types of texts. This approach to course design is based on the
sociolinguistic view that language occurs as whole texts in social contexts and that people learn language
through experiencing spoken and written texts which are contextualized in specific situations and social contexts.
The spoken and written texts which form the text-based course are selected according to student needs and
the social contexts which students need to be able to access. In the CLB document, sample texts are suggested.
For example, at Reading Benchmark 3 the following texts are suggested: greeting card, TV Guide, short
news article, diagram, messages and notes.
16
Graves, 2000, p.6
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Project-Based Courses:
These courses focus on learning language and content in the context of completing a specific project. Projects
typically have a concrete outcome, such as making recommendations about where to settle in Canada for a
fictitious immigrant family, producing a recipe book, making a presentation to a group of people outside the
class, developing a class newsletter. Projects typically involve student participation in several related tasks or
activities - skill-building and skill using - as they develop the skills and background information to complete the
project. Language skills, functions, grammar and other aspects of language learning are planned in the context
of the project.
Content-Based Courses:
These courses focus on learning the language necessary to explore a specific body of information or ideas.
Learners seek, exchange and apply information and ideas on a particular subject. Often these courses are within
an academic context, where learners are participating in learning English along with learning about something
related to employment, a vocation, or an academic area. For example, courses may focus on aspects of Canadian
history, science, health, or specific vocational or employment language needs.
Process-Based Courses: 17
In the language learning classroom, there are some key decisions which have to be made: purposes of learning
(Why are we learning?); content (What will be the focus of our work?); ways of working (How should the learning
be carried out?); evaluation (How well has the learning proceeded?). The process course outline identifies:
the range of decisions that can be open to negotiation; the steps in a negotiation cycle and the elements or
levels in the classroom curriculum to which the negotiation cycle can be applied. It provides a framework for
decision-making during teaching and learning in the classroom setting. In such a course based on the CLB,
desired outcomes may be identified initially, and then teacher and learners might jointly negotiate means for
achieving the outcomes.
During the implementation of the course, the elements of the course and the sequence of those elements are
jointly negotiated with the learners as the course progresses. The focus is on the process of language learning
rather than content or outcomes. This type of course organization is a means of planning, implementing and
evaluating negotiation in the classroom, and the decisions to which teachers and students may jointly arrive.
Outcomes from the process have to be evaluated in some way.
17
Breen & Littlejohn, 2000, pp. 5-38.
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6
Planning A Course
What are the Course Components and Steps Involved in Planning a Course
Related to the CLB?
The processes and steps involved in developing courses are similar to those involved in curriculum development.
The main difference is that curriculum frameworks are usually more general - capable of generating different
kinds of courses for different groups of learners. Courses are designed for specific learners in specific contexts.
There are many ways of approaching course development, but here are some useful guidelines regarding
components and steps that might be included in developing a course that is based on the CLB. Graves suggests
the following framework - the elements of which are not hierarchical nor meant to be addressed in a particular
sequence. She describes the process as "messy, multi-faceted, two-steps-forward one-step-back"18 rather than
systematic. Teachers working within a CLB framework have an added component to work into the process.
Graves' Framework of Course Development Processes:19
Assessing needs
Conceptualizing
content
Formulating goals
and objectives
Course Design
Developing
materials
Organizing
the course
Designing an
assessment plan
Articulating
beliefs
Defining the
context
The course outline may include outlines of units or modules, with the appropriate components clustered around
topics, projects, texts, functions or tasks. It should include an indication of the order in which units will be presented.
Some of the components may be listed in the form of checklists that teachers can use during the planning and
implementation process to ensure coverage.
18
19
Graves, 2000, p. 2
Ibid. From Designing Language Courses A Guide for Teachers, 1st edition, by K. Graves © 2000.
Reprinted with permission of Heinle & Heinle a division of Thomson Learning. Fax 800 730-2215.
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What are Some Possible Components of Courses?
• Needs assessment information
• Principles of teaching and learning which provide guidance for the approaches to be taken
in the course
• CLB outcomes to be achieved - at appropriate levels
• Outcomes in addition to those in the CLB that are appropriate to learner purposes - for
example content knowledge outcomes related to themes, etc. (vocation specific; academic;
community systems; workplace)
• Goals and objectives which relate to the outcomes
• Topics, functions, themes, texts, content, processes or projects which are to become the focus
of the course (core/optional)
• Tasks and related activities and processes that are intended to help learners develop their
knowledge and skills and which are consistent with principles of teaching and learning that
have been identified
• Functional features: Communicative functions related to learner purposes, selected and
organized in clusters related to tasks, topics, texts or situations in which the functions and
notions will be contextualized
• Linguistic features: Lexical items (vocabulary) selected and organized according to the topic,
theme, text or process. Focus may be placed on categories of meaning, or formation of
different grammatical categories of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc)
• Sociocultural features
• Strategic features: Learning and communication strategies
• Textual features: Types of texts that will be used for learning
• Assessment tasks that will be used to assess the CLB competencies, with an indication of the
form and timing of assessment and suggested tools for gathering assessment information
• Resources that are appropriate for learning purposes, topics - books, media, computer
software/hardware, teacher developed
• Course evaluation processes and tools
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6
Planning A Course
What are Some Steps in Planning a Course Related to the CLB?
• Determine the needs and goals of the group of learners for whom the course is being developed through an
assessment of needs. See Chapter 3, Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred Approach. These needs can be
stated in terms of communicative functions, which these learners need to perform which can in turn be related
to the CLB outcomes. Focus on learners' common communicative needs or create common categories that
encompass several individual goals. If there are several levels and different teachers involved in the program,
establish a collaborative process for course development to ensure continuation of language and possibly content
learning from one course to the next.
• Decide how characteristics and requirements of the context (program and community) will be reflected in the
course. For example, the program may take place in a context where there are many opportunities for ESL
learners to interact with learners in other programs. These opportunities should be reflected in the course design.
Or the program may take place in a suburban neighbourhood where other community programs and activities
provide opportunities for interaction and language learning.
• Identify appropriate approaches to teaching for the learner group and for the anticipated course outcomes.
Decide on principles of teaching and learning which are appropriate for the particular group or learners.
See Chapter 5, Methodology.
• Decide on aspects of the course which could be negotiated with learners and on the processes that could be
used to facilitate learner input to the course. The following are possible aspects that can be negotiated: purposes
(immediate and long term language learning needs - ongoing needs assessment); content (topics, themes,
functions, skills, strategies); ways of working in the classroom (types of resources, learner groupings, out-of-class
work); ground rules for the classroom; assessment and evaluation processes (what has been effective; what have
we learned). Decide on appropriate points at which such negotiation can occur.
• Formulate goals, outcomes and objectives both at the course and unit / module levels. Refer to statements
of competency for a particular CLB Stage and Level. See Chapter 4, From Benchmark Outcomes to Learning
Objectives, and the section on Curriculum in this chapter.
• Organize the content through the following overlapping processes: 20 1) determining the organizing principle(s)
that drive(s) the course and which will create continuity as learners progress through the course (topics,
themes, texts, content, processes); 2) identifying units, modules, or strands based on the organizing principle(s);
3) sequencing the units; 4) determining the language and skills content of the units 5) organizing the content
within each unit.
20
100
Graves, 2000, p.125
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• Select and design tasks and related activities that are appropriate to the goals of the learners, to the CLB
competencies and to the time available in the course. Relate to selected topic, CLB outcomes, content outcomes,
goals and objectives, specific skills, functions, text types, grammar, lexical items, learning strategies. Identify
time required.
• Decide on a sequence of tasks (a developmental progression) across the levels or stages using the CLB
descriptors as a framework and guide. If there are several levels and teachers involved, decide on appropriate
levels for tasks. Map the relevant CLB competencies from specific levels to each unit / topic / task.
• Organize tasks into modules or units of work. Identify the time frame for each.
• Determine which specific linguistic features (grammar, phonology, textual features) will be addressed within
the course. Indicate their relationship to tasks and content, and the order in which they might be presented
during the course. Grammatical structures may be sequenced according to their usefulness in carrying out
specified communicative functions, tasks or activities.
• Determine what purposes assessment will serve for learners and teachers, and decide how CLB Benchmarks
will be determined. (See Chapter 8, Classroom-Based Assessment).
• Develop assessment tasks, which relate to the topic and to the CLB Benchmarks. Decide how assessment
information will be communicated to learners. Decide on common processes and times for Benchmark assessments
to take place. Develop processes for documenting learning outcomes (Chapter 8, Classroom-Based Assessment)
• Select or develop materials and resources that will support the students' learning in a way that is consistent
with the beliefs about teaching and learning that have been articulated. (Chapter 7, Selecting Resources).
• During and after teaching, evaluate the planning process, the learner achievement of competencies, and the
relevance of course content to learners' needs and goals, and make the relevant changes.
The processes involved in designing language courses require us to use everything we know and believe about
learning and teaching ESL. We are challenged to plan coherent, interesting, relevant, time-sensitive series of
learning experiences which are open to change in the classroom when plans meet actual learners! The process
of course design is a creative process of solving problems and of bringing together all the elements that assist
learners to achieve their language learning goals.
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Planning A Course
A Classroom Example
Ensuring Coverage Of Relevant Canadian Language Benchmarks Outcomes
The chart in the Appendix (Check List for Planning Courses) can be used in planning courses to ensure that relevant
CLB outcomes are addressed throughout the course. The chart could be used by one teacher, or by a group of
teachers who are teaching aspects of a course. Through discussion and collaboration, teachers can ensure that
there is a range of competencies addressed throughout the course. Teachers could use the chart as a check list
to check off when a specific outcome is addressed; or teachers could write in the boxes the task or activity which
was used to contextualize the outcome.
Classroom Examples
The three examples provided in this section show different ways in which course development may be approached.
Each uses a different starting point and provides different guidelines to teachers in their programs.
Example 1:
Adult ESL Centre of Winnipeg: Settlement Topic Outlines
The Adult ESL Centre of Winnipeg has developed resources to assist teachers for the first level of decision making
and choice for topic-based courses for specific groups of learners. These resources include comprehensive thematic
/ topic outlines for Settlement courses. The Centre also provides Lesson Development Exemplars, and an exercise
to assist teachers to relate the results from a learner Needs Assessment to learning objectives and CLB competencies.
The thematic Topic Outlines provide a resource bank of related topics - a step towards course development. By
relating the results of the Needs Assessment with topics, learning objectives, and the CLB competencies - they
are moving towards the development of a course for a specific group of learners.
Settlement Topic Outlines
• Employment: Finding a Job: Self Assessment; Job Search Tools; Job Search Techniques; Job Interviews.
• Employment: Surviving on the Job: Job Descriptions; Workplace Policies and Procedures; Hours of Work;
Attendance: Rights and Responsibilities; Termination; Workplace Safety; Labour; Staff Services Legislation;
Remuneration.
• Education: Home / School Communication Youth Education: Types of Schools; Structure of the Education
System; Hierarchy; Sources of Funds for Schools; Support Programs; Educational Services.
• Wellness: Physical Wellness (Health; Safety and Protection); Emotional Wellness; Relationships; Customs;
Traditions; Celebrations; Rituals; Recreational and Leisure Activities; Stress Management Strategies.
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• The Canadian Government: Constitution; Government Structures; Systems and Process; Customs; Traditions
and Rituals.
• Consumerism: Housing; Shopping; Accessing Services; Accessing Transportation; Accessing Information; Consumer
Law, Protection and Advocacy.
• History (The Basics): Native Peoples; Early European Explorers; Settlement; Settlement in Manitoba; Joining
Canada Coast to Coast; Multicultural Society; Famous Canadians Past and Present.
• Geography: Climate and Environment; Time Zones and Regions; Economics; Natural Resources; U.S. Canadian
Border; Trade and Industry.
After topics have been selected, teachers might use the steps suggested above to continue with the process of
course development. Based on this information, the next steps teachers could take could be:
❑ Select specific topics or sub-topics that relate to the identified language learning purposes of groups
of learners.
❑ Group topics into manageable modules or units of learning. This may require expanding on or
deleting some topics. The needs identified by learners are very specific. Teachers need to determine
the best way to integrate and contextualize these into a course.
❑ Sequence modules into a coherent sequence.
❑ Develop tasks and activities related to each topic, and sequence these for each module. Decide on
products and processes for each task. Determine time lines for each task.
❑ Develop lessons - taking into account the time required for each task / activity and the time blocks
designated by the program. Use the Lesson Exemplars to plan an integrated approach for the lessons.
❑ Decide on tasks which will be used for assessment and feedback purposes and set criteria for task
performance related to CLB performance descriptions.
❑ Set time lines (for teachers and learners) for module and task completion. Establish times for
feedback to students.
❑ Write out the Course Outlines in a form that can be shared and discussed with students. Negotiate
any changes.
❑ Implement - re-evaluate and ...
Start again for the next course!!!
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A Classroom Example
Planning A Course
The following work sheet can be used to assist teachers to relate student needs, Settlement Topics and the CLB
Objectives. Locally developed objectives could also be included in this chart:
Needs Assessment
indicates students
want to:
Read notes from
child's
school/daycare
Settlement topic
and
its sub-topic
Education:
Home School
Communication
Skill
emphasized
Reading
Which CLB Outcomes
are related? Stage 1
Which CLB Outcomes
are related?
Stage 2
CLB Reading 3:
CLB Reading 5:
I. Social interaction texts:
Get information from short
personal notes and letters.
I. Social interaction texts:
Identify factual details
and inferred meanings
in moderately complex
notes, e-mail messages
and letters (personal and
public) containing
compliments, invitations,
likes, dislikes,
preferences.
III. Business /service texts:
Get information from short
brochures, notices, form
letters and flyers.
III. Business /service
texts: Identify factual
details and some inferred
meanings in moderately
complex texts (public
announcements,
business notices, letters).
Talk to child's
daycare worker
Education:
Home School
Communication
Speaking
CLB Speaking 3:
CLB Speaking 5:
I. Social interaction: ask for
explanation; indicate
problems in
communication.
IV. Information:
Interaction one-on-one:
Ask for and provide
information related to
routine daily activities.
III. Suasion:
Ask and grant permission.
Write cheques
104
Consumerism
Writing
CLB Writing 2:
CLB Writing 5:
III. Business /service
messages. Fill out simple
forms (write out a cheque).
III. Business / service
messages:
fill out forms (fill out
application form for bank
account).
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A Classroom Example
Planning A Course
6
Example 2:
LINC 4&5 Curriculum Guidelines
The Toronto Catholic District School Board developed LINC 4&5 Guidelines21 to establish measurable outcomes
based on the CLB so that LINC 4 and 5 programs in Ontario would be 'consistent and well co-ordinated and
reflect the needs of ESL learners throughout the province.' The guidelines are designed for Settlement purposes and the suggested topics are designed to give learners some initial understanding of Canadian communities while
at the same time developing language competencies. Objectives are expressed in a mixture of functional language
terms with related topic information. For example: Give and ask for information about Canada's Native
Peoples. (Outcome at LINC 4: Canadian Culture & Society: Cultural Diversity). Suggested Tasks and
Topic Outcomes are both stated as language functions. For example: Topic Outcome: Describe impressions
of Canada's cultural diversity. Language Task: Interview a classmate about impressions of Canada's
multicultural society.
Processes that were undertaken in the development of these guidelines:
❑ A Needs Assessment carried out through questionnaires distributed to LINC 4 and 5 instructors
across the province and to learners. This helped to establish themes, topics and computer tasks
which would be of interest.
❑ Topics were field-tested by centres across the province and teachers who participated in the field
testing gave feedback on the resource sections of the guidelines.
❑ An expert panel, with expertise in computers, CLB, curriculum development and cultural
appropriateness provided input.
❑ An advisory committee provided input on an ongoing basis.
❑ Workshop presentations also provided opportunity for feedback.
Course Design and Organizational Structure:
The document uses a spiral design - with some Benchmark competencies repeated at different levels of complexity
in Levels 4 and 5.
The document is organized on a Thematic / Topical basis. Themes include: Business, Canada, Canadian Culture &
Society, Canadian Law, Community and Government Services, Education, Employment, Finance & Banking, Global
Issues, Health & Safety, Relationships, Travel & Transportation. Each topic has three sub-topics.
21
Hajer et al, 1999
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Planning A Course
A Classroom Example
Effectiveness:
Topic:
Sub-topic:
Classes might want to learn more about:
Suggested additional related topics.
Learners find it useful to...
Additional strategies, tasks and activities.
Suggested Resources:
Print, media, community, internet.
Topic Outcomes: by the end of this topic, learners
will be able to:These are expressed in terms of
functions. For example, LINC 4: Canadian LawThe Police; Topic Outcomes: follow police instructions
in an emergency situation; express worry to a police officer;
ask and answer questions from the police in person or on the
telephone; describe a crime scene in some detail; ask for
clarification of police instructions by paraphrasing and repeating;
understand purpose and get information from police notices;
write a short text about a crime for the police.
Language Focus: Items to help learners achieve
Sample Language Tasks:
Sample Computer Tasks:
Brief descriptions of tasks. For example, LINC 4:
Canadian Law- The Police; role-play calling 911 and
reporting a crime in progress; read a list of legal / illegal actions
and decide if they are true or false; write a description of a
burglary or car accident.
the outcomes: Grammar; structures; pronunciation.
For example, LINC 4: Canadian Law- The Police;
suggested vocabulary and idioms; expressions; adjectives;
sequence markers; wh-questions; simple tenses; propositions
of location and time; pronunciation of "-ed" endings.
Including suggested computer skills level
See Appendix for a blank ‘Course Planning Chart’
Included in the document are:
❏ some suggested strategies for instructors
❏ suggested Needs Assessment tools
❏ planning grids for tracking competencies that are covered in each topic
❏ suggested Grammar Items for each level (See Appendix)
❏ planning model for Long Range Plans
❏ Sample Lesson Plans including some handouts
❏ Checklist of Computer Skills
❏ lists of resources categorized according to topic/ subtopic
❏ a section on Assessment & Evaluation (Evaluation Checklists for Levels 4 & 5 which describe the CLB
competencies the learner must achieve in the three skill areas with performance conditions; Learner
Self- Evaluation Form; Program Evaluation Sample)
❏ Glossaries of computer and grammar terms and glossary of general terms related to language learning
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A Classroom Example
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Example 3:
Vancouver Community College ESL Vocational Department
The ESL Vocational Department at Vancouver Community College designed the following course outlines. This course
was designed for two reasons: to respond to the goals of the British Columbia Settlement and Immigration Language
Program, English Language Services for Adults (ELSA), and to meet the needs of ELSA Level 3 learners attending
the College.
The ELSA Mandate has four major objectives. They are to provide the opportunity for adult newcomers to:
1. acquire basic English language skills
2. learn about the culture, norms, values, legal systems, laws, and basic service systems of Canada and
British Columbia
3. develop supportive social networks
4. access broader community services, further education/training, and labour markets
The courses reflects these objectives and current ESL pedagogy, which has at its core the idea that the most basic
goal of language instruction is the development of communicative competence for the purpose of being able to
participate fully in society.
Please note: A sample unit related to the course described below is included in the section of this chapter,
Planning a Module/Unit.
Features of the Course:
• Approach to Course Design
The ELSA Level 3 course is a competency-based course, which integrates content and language skills.
The competencies have been developed in accordance with the Canadian Language Benchmarks standards.
Competencies are developed through thematic content and have measurable outcomes.
• Language Learners
We feel that learners' needs and interests are fundamental to any course. We therefore surveyed learners for
their opinions on which settlement themes and topics were relevant and interesting. Themes and topics appearing
in the course were derived from the topics and themes students ranked highest. Instructors are encouraged
to consult their learners throughout all stages of implementation in order to tailor content and language to
learners' specific needs and interests.
• Tasks and Activities
Suggested Activities integrate language skills and are task-based and interactive. They are
designed to reflect real-life situations as well as developing linguistic and sociocultural competencies.
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A Classroom Example
•
Planning A Course
Spiralling
Linguistic tasks, skills, competencies and thematic content are spiralled through the courses at different levels
of complexity and in different themes and topics. This reflects the Canadian Language Benchmarks
guidelines and provides opportunities for review and refinement of particular competencies and skills.
•
Learning Strategies
It is recognized that learners benefit from formal instruction, which is aimed at raising awareness of learning
strategies and the language learning process. It is also recognized that learners benefit from instruction on
ways to become independent learners. Suggestions to the learners called Tips for Learning, found in the
Developing the Skills sections of the topic pages, are included as suggestions to be passed on to learners to
encourage them to take advantage of any opportunity to learn English, in or out of the classroom. In addition,
the topic "Effective Learning" is part of the Stage I Theme: Education and Learning.
•
Assessment
Learners will be assessed on their ability to perform tasks based on the Level Outcomes for each stage. The
assessment tasks are based on the Canadian Language Benchmarks. Instructors could also use the Topic
Outcomes to design a personal Evaluation Checklist for learners to fill out after completing the class work
on a topic. This would encourage learners to reflect upon their own learning.
•
Level Outcomes
Level outcomes are descriptions of the overall competencies expected of learners at the end of each stage.
Learners will be assessed on their ability to perform these outcomes before progressing to the next stage.
These outcomes are based on the Canadian Language Benchmarks.
Learners can achieve the Level Outcomes through various contexts. These guidelines suggest ten themes, each
with several topics, which contextualize the competencies in the Level Outcomes. These themes/topics were
chosen based on the results of the student survey conducted in late 1999 and reflect the strong emphasis
on settlement language and issues in the ELSA program mandate. Instructors can regularly consult with
learners about their needs and interests and choose the most useful and relevant topics for that class. It is
anticipated that most courses will cover 6-10 topics in two full-time months (part-time classes may cover a
few more).
Level Outcomes: ELSA Level 3:
Hours
Benchmarks: Listening/Speaking
Benchmarks: Reading
Benchmarks: Writing
108
Stage I
Stage II
200
3-4
3-4
3-4
200
5-6
5
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A Classroom Example
Planning A Course
6
• Grammar Guide (a list of structures is included in the course outline)
• Competencies
The following competencies are the specific abilities learners are expected to gain at each stage. These
competencies can be introduced through the themes/topics and then isolated for further practice or they can
be introduced first and then reinforced through theme/topic work. Many instructors will also want to have their
learners take the functions and grammar beyond the topic/theme to demonstrate the transferability of the
language learned or to further explore vocabulary or pronunciation. This gives instructors flexibility in presentation
and provides for language practice in different contexts.
Competencies for ELSA Level 3:
Note: These competencies relate to the 1996 CLB Working Document.
Stage I
Stage II
Listening/Speaking CLB Levels 3-4
Listening/Speaking (using appropriately
a variety of registers) CLB Levels 5-6
• Give and follow sets of simple spoken directions and instructions
• Greet, introduce self and others and ask about the other person
• Ask for and give permission
• Ask for and give personal, factual information
• Ask and answer questions about personal experience
• Ask and answer questions about everyday topics of personal
relevance using past, present and future markers
• Attract attention and ask for assistance, goods or services
• Express satisfaction, dissatisfaction and preference
• Express present and future wants, needs and plans
• Describe briefly people, objects, situations and common activities
• Indicate problems in communication by checking, clarifying, asking
for repetition and confirmation (Did you say...?)
• Relate a story about a personal experience, understand simple
oral texts
• Ask for and give suggestions and advice in personal or
familiar situations
• Agree/disagree, compromise, accept, and reject
• Use the telephone for short, predictable exchanges
• Give and respond to warnings
• Initiate, sustain and end social conversations, including making
small talk
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
• Give and follow spoken directions and instructions in person and
on the phone using a sequence of steps in order
• Give and respond to compliments, apologies and excuses/reasons
• Express and respond to worry, disappointment and other feelings
• Give, refuse and ask for permission, give reasons
• Give, accept, and refuse oral invitations, make arrangements,
give reasons
• Request assistance, goods or services, provide and get information
as needed
• Make and respond to requests using polite formulaic expressions
• Relate a story about a familiar event
• Give information about own educational and employment
background
• Describe personal characteristics and strengths
• Describe people (physical attributes and personality traits), objects,
situations and scenes
• Ask for and give information on the telephone
• Express obligation, ability, inability and certainty
• Indicate and specify problems in communication
• Clarify meaning and paraphrase
• Give and respond to suggestions and advice and predict
consequences
• Describe and ask for information about routine daily activities or
familiar events in some detail
• Express and support opinions, agree/disagree, participate in a
simple discussion
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Stage I
Listening (using resources & topics for Stage I)
CLB Levels 3-4
• Demonstrate comprehension of main ideas/gist
(topic, relationships, purpose, setting, mood, cause/effect)
• Demonstrate comprehension of a sequence of significant details
• Demonstrate comprehension of implicit meaning, attitude and
opinion (expressed verbally and non-verbally)
• Demonstrate comprehension of some specific details
Reading CLB Levels 3-4
• Understand a variety of short written instructions without relying
on pictures
• Find specific information in authentic application forms, pay slips,
bills, fine tickets, labels, receipts, menus, schedules and directories
• Identify main idea and supporting points in 2-3 paragraphs of
simple narrative, biographical or descriptive prose
• Understand purpose and get information from maps, public signs
and displays, public announcements, news items, greeting cards,
simple notices, labels. tags, flyers, pamphlets, and ads
• Compare facts to make choices
Writing CLB Levels 3-4
• Take notes from simple spoken directions and instructions and
printed directories, schedules, instructions, dictionaries,
encyclopaedias and manuals
• Fill out simple forms using personal and other required information
• Write appropriate messages on a variety of greeting cards
• Take short telephone messages
• Write short notes (e.g., note to excuse a child from school or
about a change of plans, thank you note)
• Write sentences about daily routines, people, objects, places,
situations, and events
• Write 75-100 words about personal or familiar experiences or
events in the past and plans for the future
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Planning A Course
Stage II
Listening (using resources & topics for Stage II)
CLB Levels 5-6
• Demonstrate comprehension of main ideas/gist
(topic, relationships, purpose. setting, mood, cause/effect)
• Demonstrate comprehension of a sequence of significant details
• Demonstrate comprehension of implicit meaning, attitude and
opinion (expressed verbally and non-verbally)
• Demonstrate comprehension of some specific details
Reading CLB Levels 5
• Understand a wider range of short authentic written instructions
with pictures
• Find specific information in authentic schedules, charts,
maps/legends and directories
• Identify the main ideas and supporting points in authentic texts
(such as newspapers)
• Get specific information from public service announcements,
news items, flyers, brochures, invitations, employment information
and ads
Writing CLB Levels 5
• Write down information received in person or by phone
• Fill out forms with personal and other information as required
• Write appropriate notes/letters with minimum required information
(letter to a friend, simple complaint letter)
• Give directions in writing using proper sequence and accurate
details
• Write 100-150 words about personal or researched topics
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Planning A Course
A Classroom Example
6
Themes and Topics
Stage I
• Accessing Community Services - Libraries
• Accessing Community Services - Community Centers
• Accessing Community Services - Community Volunteering
• Canada- Regions of Canada
• Canada- Famous Canadians
• Canada- Government
• Canadian Culture- Social Conventions and Small Talk
• Canadian Culture- Leisure and Recreation
• Canadian Culture- Family and Relationships
• Canadian Law- Personal and Community Security
• Canadian Law- B.C.’s Law and Legal System I
• Consumer Information- Finance and Banking I
• Consumer Information- Customer Service I
• Consumer Information- Shopping Around I
• Education and Learning- A Child’s Education
• Education and Learning- Educational Experiences
• Education and Learning- Effective Learning
• Employment- Job Search
• Employment- The Job Interview I
• Employment- Working in Canada
• Health and Safety- Food and Nutrition
• Health and Safety- B.C’s Health Care System
• Health and Safety- Safety at Home
• Housing- Finding a Place to Live
• Housing- Moving In
• Housing- Home Maintenance and Problems
• Media- TV
• Media- Newspapers
• Media- Beginners’ News
• Travel and Transportation- Around Vancouver
• Travel and Transportation- Around BC and Further Afield
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A Classroom Example
Planning A Course
Stage 2
• Business- Starting a Small Business
• Business- Business Networking
• Canada- Aboriginal People
• Canada- Early History
• Canada- Rights & Freedoms
• Canadian Culture- Cultural Diversity
• Canadian Culture- Customs & Social Behaviour
• Canadian Law- Citizenship
• Canadian Law- Immigration
• Employment- Employment Standards
• Employment- Skills Assessment
• Global Issues- Environment
• Global Issues- Human Rights
• Health and Safety- Healthy Lifestyle
• Health and Safety- Emergencies
• Media- TV as a Learning Tool
• Media- Current Events
• Telephone- Using Directories and Services
• Telephone- Etiquette
• Travel & Transportation- Air Travel, Immigration & Customs
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Planning A Module/Unit
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PLANNING A MODULE / UNIT
The content of a unit brings together the language and skills that will enable students to achieve
the focus of the unit. For this reason, organizing principles must be capable of bringing together
a variety of language and skills elements to support it in achieving the objectives.
- Kathleen Graves 2000
This section includes the following:
• benefits of using modules
• deciding what modules should be developed
• steps in planning a module
• examples
A module or unit is a framework for several lessons related to a particular theme, task or series of processes.
It enables us to plan CLB related tasks and activities for learning and assessment purposes. Each module includes
a range of learning activities related to CLB outcomes and other specified outcomes and thereby creates a link
between learner goals, language learning, and CLB competency descriptors. Goals on which the units are based
provide criteria that teachers and students can use to assess achievement.22
What are the Benefits of Using Modules?
Building a course out of a series of 'building block' modules provides several advantages to learners and teachers:
• Learners can be involved in negotiating a set of topics or themes in which they are interested. Modules can
then be developed around those themes enabling learners to see clearly how their interests and language
learning goals are incorporated into a course. Learners may also be involved in negotiating priorities for
competencies they wish to develop. When these competencies are clearly related to tasks in the module, learners
can see their progress towards goals that they have identified.
• Planning by modules gives a 'shape' to a course that extends over a period of weeks or months. Each module
has a beginning and an end, and includes an explicit set of outcomes, goals and objectives. Language learning
tasks and activities which comprise the module are all clearly related to achieving a particular set of learning
outcomes. The shorter time frame of a module enables learners to gain a sense of accomplishment as they
reach the outcomes they have participated in determining.
22
Robinson & Selman, 1996, pp. 37-55
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Planning A Module/Unit
• CLB related competency outcomes can be 'spiralled' or repeated within a module and throughout several
different modules in a course. The re-cycling of features (spiralling) such as structures, vocabulary, discourse
features of texts, in different tasks as learners progress through the module, allows for a kind of natural repetition
and practice of these features in different but related contexts. This enables learners to gain confidence and
increased proficiency in performing the communication tasks in different and increasingly complex communication
contexts.
• A series of modules builds in variety to the learning and teaching process. Each module may have a different
focus which enables the development of different sets of competencies.
• A module may have a 'culminating' task which integrates several communication skills. These tasks may closely
resemble authentic communication tasks that learners have identified as learning goals for themselves. These
culminating tasks provide contexts for authentic assessment of communication skills and provide learners with
information about their increasing ability to communicate in English in the communities in which they live.
See for example, the Classroom Example in Chapter 8, Classroom-Based Assessment. The culminating task in
the module was participation in volunteering at the Children's Festival. This was an activity that learners had
identified as a goal. They worked at gaining increasing ability to enable them to participate in this activity
with confidence. When such an activity is successfully completed, learners demonstrate to themselves and others
their increasing proficiency in English. Identified CLB outcomes related to the communication goal are no
longer theoretical but real goals achieved in authentic community contexts.
What Modules Should be Developed?
Deciding which modules to develop is part of the art and science of teaching! A needs assessment process, such
as that discussed in Chapter 3, provides information about learner interests and communication goals. This provides
a basis for deciding on topics and communication tasks which can then be developed into modules.
Many ESL programs have developed lists of topics that are related to typical learner interests and settlement needs.
See for example, the list of thematic / topic outlines that have been developed by the Adult ESL Centre of Winnipeg
for Settlement ESL courses, or the topics listed in the Vancouver Community College example. (See Examples in
the section Planning a Course). These lists are generally inclusive and exhaustive. It is not possible to include
every topic on the list in every course. The lists provide a starting point for negotiation with learners about their
priorities for learning. The process of choosing several topics from a list is much easier than starting the negotiation
process by asking learners, "What topics are you interested in?"
Learners may come into a specific course with very specific learning goals. For example, they may enter an ESL
program in a workplace environment or in an academic context. Their English language learning goals may be
specifically related to their participation in that context. Modules may be developed to reflect these specific learning
goals. For example, see the English in the Workplace example in Chapter 3, Needs Assessment in a Learner-Centred
Approach.
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Planning A Module/Unit
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In many ESL programs, availability of resources is limited. Teachers can build modules around existing resources,
supplementing them with communicative activities and tasks that extend the value of those resources. Often the
resources themselves suggest themes or topics that teachers can adapt and supplement to meet the needs of a
specific group of learners.
Of course, teachers develop favourite modules for use with a specific group of learners. These modules may be
appropriate with other groups of learners, but will often require adaptation because of the particular interests,
background knowledge or English language proficiency levels of new learners.
What are Some Steps in Planning a Module?
❏ Determine priorities that learners have identified during formal and informal needs assessment processes.
❏ Decide how these priorities might cluster together into topics or themes if they have identified topics of interest.
If learners have framed their communication goals in terms of skills ("I would like to talk to my landlord about
problems.") or functions ("I would like to improve my English for a job interview."). Determine how these
might cluster together, perhaps into topic or theme-based modules.
❏ Explore opportunities that are available to learners in the wider institution or community. Modules may provide
connections to other courses within the program. They can assist learners to prepare for other levels or other
courses which meet their long term educational or working goals. Modules may also be planned to take
advantage of communication opportunities in the community. See the example in Chapter 8, Classroom-Based
Assessment.
In some situations, the scheduling of ESL classes makes planning modules difficult - even unrealistic. For
example, teachers in drop-in programs or part-time programs may find it difficult to plan complex task-related
language learning modules. In such cases, loosely related, short tasks or activities that cluster around a topic
or problem that learners have identified may be a better approach than planning longer complex modules.
❏ Identify key real-world communication tasks that are tasks related to the identified communication goals, topics,
etc. For example, if learners have identified a need for finding employment, what communication 'tasks' would
they need to be able to participate in during a job search? Examples are: filling out application forms, reading
job advertisements in the newspaper or job descriptions in the Employment Canada office, talking to an
employment counsellor about their skills and experience; participating in job interviews.
❏ Decide which of these real-world tasks are realistic for the learners, based on the needs and language proficiency
abilities of learners in the class. These selected tasks become the identified outcomes of the module. That is,
if participating in an interview with a Career Counsellor at the Employment Centre is a realistic goal for the
learners, that task becomes one identified outcome of the module.
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Planning A Module/Unit
❏
Analyze the tasks that have been selected to identify the skills and communication tasks that are required
to complete the task. Identify what speaking, listening, reading or writing skills are required. For example,
in the interview with a Career Counsellor, the job applicant will be required to set up an appointment, in
person or on the phone; fill in forms with information about their own background, experience and education;
respond to questions about themselves; talk about their strengths; state preferences, limitations, etc.
The Section on Lesson Planning discusses task selection and analysis in detail.
❏ Decide which tasks relate to CLB competencies at the level of the learners. For example, for Level 3 learners,
the following CLB competency outcomes might be identified:
Listening:
Identify verbal and non-verbal details of social exchanges, including styles of greetings
leave-taking and introductions
Identify indicators of communication problems
Speaking:
Greet, introduce self
Indicate problems in communication
Express immediate and future needs, wants and plans
Reading:
Find information in formatted texts (e.g. List key information points in an ad)
Writing:
Fill out simple forms
Write a short text about familiar situation (past events)
❏ The skills and communication tasks then become the basis for learning activities and tasks during the module.
Each learning activity has its own set of outcomes, goals and objectives, and its own set of criteria for success.
Some tasks may be selected for assessment and feedback to learners. Aspects of the language system grammar, vocabulary, discourse features and pronunciation can be identified and practised in the context of
the activity through skill-building and skill-using activities. As learners work through the set of activities in
the module, they are working towards being able to complete an identified real-world task.
In the case of the CLB Level 3 learners identified above, the learning tasks will have to be modified and highly
scaffolded. The culminating activity in the module may be either an actual interview with a career counsellor,
or an in-class simulated interview with someone who is role playing the role of career counsellor. For Level
3 learners, an in-class simulation with a sympathetic role player would be an appropriate culminating task.
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Planning A Module/Unit
A Classroom Example
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❏ Sequence the tasks and activities so they move from the more simple to the more complex.
❏ Assemble available resources that are related to the topic or text-type, etc. Include realia, examples of related
text types: copies of landlord tenant information brochures, job advertisements, etc. Determine what resources
need to be developed specifically for the module. See Chapter 7, Selecting Resources.
❏ Set criteria for assessment tasks, and develop tools for gathering the information. See Chapter 8, Classroom-
Based Assessment.
❏ Begin the teaching and learning cycle for the module. Note changes that have to be made as the plan becomes
the reality of the classroom. Change the planned activities as required.
❏ Celebrate the end of the module - demonstrate learners' developing competencies; publicize their achievements;
note their increased skill level.
Classroom Examples
Example 1:
Class Newsletter23
Gail teaches a class of adult ESL learners in a program which focuses on the academic goals
of the learners. Many of them want to move to adult education courses to complete a high
school diploma, or enter other academic programs. The program strand into which the module
fits is Community Access. The learners in the class are at the upper level of the ESL program which is equivalent to CLB Level 7-8. Gail created a module which focuses on a culminating
task or project of creating a class newsletter. A number of carefully sequenced and planned
activities prepare the learners to participate in this major task. The activities familiarize students
with the ways in which actual newspapers are structured and created. Each activity focuses
on specific language purposes (functions), and includes a grammar focus and a task which will
be used for assessment purposes.
The module consists of a variety of language focussed tasks/activities and includes a range of
language purposes (functions). Some tasks are chosen for assessment purposes and these
assessments yield descriptors related to CLB descriptors.
See Appendix for blank Module Planning Chart
23
Shervey, May 1997
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Planning A Module/Unit
A Classroom Example
Overview of the Module:
ACTIVITY
COURSE OUTCOME:
CLB
COMPETENCIES/
OUTCOMES
LANGUAGE/
ASSESSMENT RESOURCES FUNCTIONAL
STRATEGIES
FOCUS
1. Survey
• Locate and gather
information; organize
information sequentially
and chronologically
CLB Listening 8
CLB Speaking 8
Anecdotal
Staff and
students
Polite request;
questioning
2. Reporter Visit
• Gather and interpret
information
• Synthesize and
summarize
CLB Listening 8
CLB Speaking 8
CLB Writing 7
Thank you letter
Reporter
Questioning,
passive voice
3. Visits to Newspapers
• Compare and contrast,
synthesize and
summarize
• Express and inquire
about the interests,
activities and needs
of others
• Follow and give
Instructions
CLB Writing 7
Journal Entry
Newspaper
staff
Note-taking,
passive,
questioning
4. Headline Hunting
• Locate, gather and
interpret information;
define key vocabulary
CLB Reading 7
Quiz
Newspapers
Use of tenses,
finding main
idea &
importing
details
5. Editorial Cartoon
• Gather and interpret
information
• Develop a variety of text
forms
CLB Listening 8
CLB Speaking 8
CLB Writing 7
Critical response
Newspaper
cartoons
Sentence
structure,
combining
ideas
6. Newspaper
Comparison
• Compare and contrast;
describe physical
attributes, functions,
composition and
behaviours
• Interact to accomplish
a task
CLB Listening 8
CLB Speaking 8
CLB Writing 7
CLB Reading 7
Oral presentation Pairs of
newspapers
for the same
day
Describing,
comparing,
giving opinions
• Locate, gather and
interpret information.
• Categorize and classify
information
• Interact to accomplish
a task
CLB Listening 8
Newspaper article Students
Sentence
structure,
combining
ideas
7. Class Newspaper
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Planning A Module/Unit
A Classroom Example
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Example 2:
Vancouver Community College, ESL Vocational Department
The following unit plan is adapted from Vancouver Community College (VCC): A Curriculum Guide for Benchmarks
Level 3 & 4 students. See the Classroom Example in the section Planning Courses, for a full explanation of the
VCC Unit. The unit "Consumer Information: Bank Accounts & Services" illustrates how an ESL program has
integrated the language competencies with content which students, faculty and funders believe is important for
new immigrants to Canada.
The Topic Objectives /Outcomes are drawn from the CLB descriptors of competencies. The skills are taught in
an integrated fashion, and each unit includes Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing Objectives. A Developing
Skills section offers suggestions for classroom tasks which will enable the students to acquire the competencies.
Grammar suggestions are included.
See Appendix for blank Unit Planning Chart
Consumer Information: Bank Accounts & Services
Topic outcomes
By the end of this topic, learners will be able to:
• Identify different types of financial institutions (banks, credit unions, and trust companies)
• Identify and briefly describe variety of banking services (e.g. safety deposit boxes, mortgages, loans, wiring money
overseas)
• Identify different types of accounts and the purpose of each
• Ask for service/assistance from bank (e.g. apply for bank/debit card, ask about service charges) or credit card
company (e.g. report lost/stolen credit card)
• Describe the use of bank cards for ABMs and debit purchases (point-of-sale), and the purpose of a PIN
• Follow spoken and written instructions for using ABMs; ask for repetition, clarification
• Identify bill payment options (in person, cheque, ABM, telephone, online)
• Fill out a cheque
• Understand credit card choices (e.g. with airmiles, for post-secondary students), fees, and rules of interest (Stage II)
• Fill out a credit card or bank application forms, bank signature cards
• Find specific information about accounts and services from bank brochures
• Find specific information on credit card statements and bank statements
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A Classroom Example
Planning A Module/Unit
Suggested Resources
• B.C. Newcomers' Guide to Resources and Services (1999), Money and Banking
• Canadian Concepts 3, Unit 5, Money and Banking
• Helping You Bank; Mock ABMs
• Money and Banking (resource box)
• Words We Use, Unit 1, Using Bank Machines
• LINC 2 Video, 2.29, Using a Bank Machine
• LINC 3 Video, 3.06, Opening a Bank Account, 3.22, Credit Card Problem, 3.23, The NSF Cheque
• Bank brochures, credit card application
Suggestions for Connecting with the Community
• Get brochures from local financial institutions, phone or visit for further info, conduct a survey
• Ask a friend to show you how to use the ABM
• Invite a bank representative to come to speak to class
Language Focus: Grammar
Language Focus: Functions, Vocabulary,
Pronunciation
• Information questions
• Modals for requests (can, could, would)
• Asking for and giving information
• Review of present and simple past
• Banking vocabulary and abbreviations
• Passive voice (My card was stolen)
• Vocabulary on statements and
• Comparatives/superlatives (Which
account has the highest interest rate?)
• Sequence markers
application forms
• Question intonation and linking
• Asking about necessity/rules (Do I have to
pay off the balance each month?)
• Requesting assistance/service
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Planning A Module/Unit
A Classroom Example
6
Developing the skills
To achieve the outcomes, learners could:
Listening/Speaking
• Watch LINC 3 Video, Opening a Bank Account, to find out about different kinds of accounts. Fill in chart
identifying interest rates and fees.
• Brainstorm names of financial institutions including local credit unions and trust companies. Choose a financial
institution. For homework, find out charges for several services (e.g. ABM, teller withdrawal) from information
desk or bank leaflet. In class, compare charges at different institutions.
• Do a Find-Someone-Who (e.g. has a credit card, pays bills at an ABM). If answer is yes, ask a second question
such as "What kind of credit card do you have?"
• List pros and cons of using credit cards vs. bank debit vs. paying cash when shopping.
• After role-playing a variety of bank transactions, set up a simulation of a bank in class. Use task cards for the
"customers" and realia such as toy money for the "tellers." Include filling out deposit/withdrawal slips and
other forms if relevant.
Reading/Speaking
• Brainstorm variety of services offered by financial institutions. In groups, find specific information about an
assigned service in bank brochure. Share information with a partner or other group.
• In pairs, answer questions about text on money and banking (B.C. Newcomers' Guide).
• In pairs, scan a credit card or bank statement for specific information to answer Wh? or do an
information-gap activity.
• Read a short text on banking. Match key vocabulary and meanings. Then quiz a classmate on definitions.
Complete a fill-in-the blank exercise.
• Order sentence strips with instructions for using an automatic banking machine (to pay bills). Tell a partner
the steps, using sequence markers. Partner mimes the actions.
• In groups, infer/discover what a list of common abbreviations stand for. e.g. NSF, PIN.
• Do an oral crossword puzzle to review banking terminology and practice defining/paraphrasing. Student A has
half the clues and words; student B the other half.
• Read a simple text on credit card use in North America. In groups, discuss the issues through guided questions.
(Culturally Speaking, p. 141-142).
Writing/Speaking
• Fill out a sample credit card application. In pairs, practice reporting a lost/stolen credit card using list of key
words to prompt standard questions (card #, address, date of birth, mother's maiden name).
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6
Planning A Lesson
PLANNING A LESSON
One of the first lessons of teaching that most of us learn with some pain is that our carefully crafted
lesson plans are fragile constructs once in the classroom, and that attachment to them may cause
us to blame the students when the plans don't work. The lesson plan is not the lesson.
- Katheen Graves, 2000
This section includes the following:
• using a task-based approach
• lesson-planning frameworks
• classroom examples
Lessons are a series of tasks and activities planned to enable learners to develop and practice specific aspects of
English and to gain an understanding of specific content. The tasks and activities will cover a specified unit of
time but may not fit neatly into one class time segment. The components of the lesson will be related in some
way (by theme, topic, or progression of skill development) and learners should be able to see the connection
between the various components.
How Do We Use Tasks in the Lesson Planning Process?
Selecting and designing tasks for use in the classroom
Tasks can become a building block for planning lessons and courses. They provide a basis for describing a learner's
English language proficiency in terms of the CLB. And tasks can also be used as a framework for developing
modules and units.
The outcomes that we identify for a unit or series of lessons will likely be derived from a consideration of our course
outcomes in combination with the specific goals that learners have identified through a needs assessment process.
These goals are defined in terms of the purposes for which learners want to use English. They help us to plan
language tasks that will be as close as possible to the authentic tasks that learners will engage in once they leave
the classroom. In other words, these are the tasks that adult learners in Canada will engage in for "work and
career, for education and training, and for self development and community participation."24 These tasks are rich
and multi-faceted because they have been selected and designed based on 1) information from learners about
their specific goals for language learning, and 2) analysis of the language demands of the 'real world' context
beyond the classroom.
24
Pawlikowska-Smith, 2000 b
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Planning A Lesson
Once real-world tasks are identified, they need to be analyzed to determine what background knowledge and
language skills students will need in order to be able to accomplish the task. These skills can then be related to
CLB competencies and outcomes. Next, learning activities are designed to develop the specific skills and
knowledge learners will need for the tasks. These learning activities will include both skill-building and skill-using
activities. (See Chapter 5, Methodology, for a discussion of a task-based approach, and Chapter 6, Planning a
Module/Unit, for a discussion of how tasks fit into modules.)
Analyzing Authentic Tasks to Identify Language Learning Activities
To decide what classroom activities we should plan to help learners accomplish the tasks, the first question we
ask is:25
• What skills are absolutely necessary if students are to complete the tasks successfully?
We then identify other considerations that help us to select and prioritize activities by asking questions such as:
• What skills are required by the program curriculum?
• What skills would be useful in other contexts of interest to the students?
• What skills worked on in previous units can be usefully reviewed or extended?
• What skills will students need to complete tasks in future units?
• What skills do students need to enhance their overall language development?
Robinson and Selman state that while pedagogic tasks and activities have a communicative purpose, they also
have learning purposes such as:
• To activate students' previous knowledge
• To identify or use a new concept
• To review, practice or extend language use
• To build confidence
• To build group rapport
Using a task-based approach can help us to plan lessons that link the skills and strategies we teach to opportunities
for learners to use these skills in purposeful contexts.
The following examples illustrate how three different teachers have used a task-based approach related to CLB
competencies to plan a lesson (or series of lessons). In the first example, Martha has built her lesson around an
authentic task at CLB Level 3-4 that learners will need to undertake as they apply for jobs. She analyzes the
task in terms of CLB competencies and then plans a series of activities to help learners develop the skills to
complete the task successfully. In the second example, André plans a series of activities at CLB Level 2-3 around
the authentic task of getting information about recreational facilities that has been identified by learners. In the
third example, a teacher plans a lesson on providing personal information for learners at CLB Level 1-2.
Robinson & Selman,1996, p. 51
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A Classroom Example
Planning A Lesson
Classroom Examples
Example 1:
Job References
Martha teaches in a full-time ESL program. The program has a pre-employment focus and learners are expected
to enter the workforce or continue in training programs after they leave the ESL program. Teachers have developed
a program framework that identifies a weekly employment topic (e.g. job interviews, applications, workplace
culture) for each level of the program. Learners in this class are generally working towards Speaking Benchmark
4, Listening Benchmark 4, Reading Benchmark 3 and Writing Benchmark 3. They are working on job applications,
and this week the specific focus will be on getting job references.
Martha has used the following framework
for planning:
Title: Job References
Lesson Outcomes: Content
• Title: ( topic / theme )
• Lesson Outcomes: Content
• Real World Task
• Lesson Outcomes: CLB
• Activities & Assessment Strategies
• Resources
Learners will:
• demonstrate an understanding of the importance and
necessity of references.
• be able to call and ask someone to be a referee for a job
application form.
Real-World Task:
As a final task at the end of this lesson, learners will phone a former employer or teacher and ask permission to
use them as a referee. They will record the necessary information on an application form.
Lesson Outcomes: CLB
Martha analyzes the task to identify the underlying skills that are required to complete the task successfully.
She focuses on the speaking, listening and writing skills necessary for the task. She refers to CLB 2000 and
selects the following outcomes that relate to the final task:
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Note: The descriptors come directly from the CLB document. Italics text indicate sample text and performance
indicators that Martha has added that are specific to this task.
WHAT THE PERSON
CAN DO
PERFORMANCE INDICATORS AND EXAMPLE
OF TEXTS (UNDERLYING SKILLS)
Listening Benchmark 4
p. 25
I. Social Interaction
• Identify specific factual details and
inferred meanings in dialogues of
casual small talk, introductions,
leave-taking and in short phone
calls.
• Identifies specific factual details and inferred meanings
in audio-taped listening discourse as required.
Speaking Benchmark 4
p. 13
II. Social Interaction
• Open, close and respond to short
casual small talk.
• Take leave appropriately.
• Opens, develops and closes short small talk
conversation, as appropriate to the situation (casually
or more formally).
SKILL/LEVEL CLB PAGE
e.g."Hello, this is ____. I worked at ___ in ___."
• Handles basic phone situations and standard replies.
• Greets, introduces self and asks about the
other person using telephone.
• Can use turn-taking appropriately.
Speaking Benchmark 4
p. 13
III. Suasion
• Request... assistance
• States need and makes a request e.g.
Writing Benchmark 3
p. 47
III. Business/service messages
• Fill out simple forms
• Fills out form with required information. Spells and
follows punctuation conventions.
• Has legible handwriting or printing. Makes no major
omissions.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
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"I'm applying for a job as a _____. May I use
your name as a reference?"
• Expresses appreciation.
• Uses clarification strategies as required to
obtain necessary information to complete
form e.g. "Could you spell that please?”
“Would you mind repeating that?" "Let me
repeat that."
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6
A Classroom Example
Planning A Lesson
Classroom Activities, Assessment Strategies and Resources
Martha identifies the following classroom activities, assessment strategies and resources that will be part of the
lesson sequence.
TASK/ ACTIVITY
ASSESSMENT STRATEGY
#1. Warm-up activity: Learners will discuss the use of references for
employment applications and compare this practice with hiring practices
in their own country.
#2. Skill-building activity- Vocabulary: Learners will be introduced
to vocabulary required for job references: occupation, job title, years known,
full name and complete a short matching quiz using terms as a review.
Vocabulary matching quiz. Self correction.
#3. Listening activity
a) Listening for details: Learners will listen to several pre-recorded telephone
conversations of a speaker asking someone to be a referee for a job.
Learners will be asked to identify the purpose of the conversation, the
questions that are asked and responses that are given. They will complete
a reference data form and compare it with a model.
Audio clips: Learners will compare the information
they recorded with a correct model.
b) Language focus: Learners will compare the conversations for degree
of formality, for the various ways that the speakers introduce themselves,
make their requests, and clarify meaning. Expressions for making requests,
clarifying meaning, showing appreciation or responding if request is denied,
will be reviewed.
#4. Role play: Learners will role play with a partner a telephone call
requesting to use the partner as a referee and getting the information
needed to complete the reference data section of an employment application.
Learners will sit back-to-back to simulate a telephone situation and compare
the information they recorded with their partner to determine their level
of accuracy. Learners will switch partners so they have an opportunity to
practice the conversation two to three times.
Role plays: As learners complete the role plays,
Martha will circulate to the small groups and note
if learners are able to successfully complete the
role-play and get the correct information.
#5. Real-world task: Learners will actually call one of their referees,
introduce themselves, ask for permission and the information required for
an application form, express appreciation, make sure the information they
have is accurate (phone number, name, address, job title, name of company,
years known) and spelling is correct. If learners are unable to reach a past
employer, they will call the instructor at the school office and ask her to be
a referee.
Learners will discuss their experience with their
classmates and either complete a learning log entry
or a short self assessment questionnaire rating their
listening and speaking skills on this task.
RESOURCES
• Matching quiz using job application and reference vocabulary.
• Audio tape of short conversations asking someone to be a referee for a job. Martha will ask colleagues
to record several short unscripted telephone dialogues. (She will describe the situation and purpose of the
conversation and colleagues will tape a spontaneous dialogue).
• Reference data form simulating the Reference section of an application form. It will include name of referee,
job title, years known, address and phone number. The form will be reprinted three to four times on a page
so learners can use the form to record information from the audio tape clips and also the role play task.
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Example 2:
Describing Local Recreational Opportunities
André teaches in a part time LINC program in a community college. Learners attend classes five mornings a week
and they have identified an interest in getting information about recreational opportunities in their community.
The learners are currently working at CLB Levels 2 and 3. The class will begin a unit on recreation and André
develops a task that learners will find interesting and useful. He begins to build a lesson sequence around the
task by:
• Identifying the skills learners will need to accomplish the task
• Establishing language objectives for the lesson sequence
• Brainstorming possible activities that will support learners to complete the task
This is not a step-by-step linear process; it is a rather messy and circular endeavor. André moves back and forth
among the three processes, adding, deleting and refining details until he is satisfied that the lesson sequence is
coherent and complete. Following are excerpts from his planning process and the resulting lesson sequence.
Lesson goal: Content
Learners will become familiar with several local recreational facilities.
Final task:
Speaking: Learners will get information about a local recreational facility of their choice and present the
information to a small group of classmates in a short poster session.
Writing: Learners will describe the facility they visited in a short written passage.
Skills learners will need to undertake the task:
• Get information from brochures (e.g. schedule, costs)
• Ask questions about the facility (use of 'WH' questions)
• Clarify when they have difficulty understanding a speaker
• Use appropriate vocabulary to describe the facility and recreational activities
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A Classroom Example
Planning A Lesson
Lesson objectives: Language
Based on the underlying skills required to complete the final task, André identifies a number of language outcomes,
which he relates to the CLB. These become the lesson objectives.
Learners will be able to:
• get factual details from a simple brochure or information sheet (CLB Reading Level 2 and 3: III. Business/service texts)
• ask and answer questions about activities one enjoys (CLB Speaking Level 2: IV. Information)
• ask questions to get information about schedules, costs and activities available (CLB Speaking Level 3: IV. Information )
• describe the facility they visited (CLB Speaking Level 2 and 3 IV. Information)
• write a passage describing the place they visited (CLB Writing Level 3: IV. Presenting information)
Tasks and activities to support completion of the final task:
Brainstorming:
André uses the planning web on the next page to brainstorm possible learning activities. He identifies more activities
than he can use in the time he has allocated for this lesson sequence. He selects those that will be most useful in
achieving the goal and language objectives he has identified. Some of the activities that he eliminates may be used
at another point in the course with another topic. For example, following directions may be used in a unit on transportation.
Other activities may be eliminated because resources are not immediately available. Andre makes a note to collect
readings on typical Canadian recreational activities so he will have them on hand if he uses this topic with another class.
The planning web also helps him to quickly identify which skills are being emphasized or omitted in the lesson sequence.
Andre notes that there are no listening activities. He will ensure that a listening activity, such as listening to recorded
messages is included in the next lesson sequence.
Planning the lessons:
Andre plans a lesson sequence based on the final task, the skills he has identified, the language objectives and the
activities he has selected from his brainstorming web. He uses the following chart to outline his lesson sequence which
will take place using a portion of the class time over several days.
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LESSON PLANNING WEB
Content Goal/Purpose:
To become familiar with local
recreational opportunities.
Get info from brochures #2
Identify recreational
facilities on map
Vocabulary
matching quiz
Fill out a form to get a
recreation pass
Read short articles about
typical Canadian recreational
activities
Listen to recorded message.
Identify times, costs, etc.
READING
Write about activities
one enjoys
TASK
Get information about a local
recreation facility and
present it to classmates
WRITING
Write about the place you
visited #6
LISTENING
SPEAKING
VOCABULARY
Discuss recreational activities
you enjoy
Practice clarification
strategies #3
Survey Sheet #1
Visit Site #4
Swimming pool, arena,
wave pool, Gym, all day
pass, entry fee,
fitness class
Poster Fair #5
See Appendix for a blank copy of the planning web.
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A Classroom Example
Planning A Lesson
Lesson Sequence
CLB Levels 2/3
Topic: Local recreational opportunities
TASKS AND ACTIVITIES
LANGUAGE FOCUS:
LINGUISTIC,
SOCIOCULTURAL,
TEXTUAL,
FUNCTIONAL, STRATEGIC
ASSESSMENT
STRATEGIES
#1. Warm-up: Skill-building activity. Using a
survey sheet, learners will ask their classmates
about recreational activities they enjoy.
Speaking Benchmark 2:
Information. Talk about
things one enjoys.
"WH" and Yes/No questions
#2. Reading task. Learners will locate specific
information from brochures or information
sheets from 3 local recreational facilities and
complete a retrieval chart.
Reading Benchmark 3:
Business/service texts.
Find information in
formatted texts: tables,
schedules.
Reading strategy: Locating
information from schedules
#3. a. Clarification strategies activity - Learners
will practice strategies for getting clarification
to avoid conversational misunderstandings.
Speaking Benchmark 2
and 3: Social interaction.
Indicate communication
problems.
Speaking Benchmark 3:
Suasion. Ask for
assistance.
Clarification strategies e.g.
“Did you say . . . ?"
#4.Contact task: Learners will visit (individually
or with a partner) a recreational facility in their
community and get information about the
activities, costs, and schedules.
Speaking Benchmark 3:
Information.
Review of WH questions
Question intonation patterns
#5. Final speaking task: Learners will create a
poster of the facility they visited with key
information, and a visual - a map or picture.
They will describe the facility they visited to a
small group of classmates during a class "poster
fair."
Speaking Benchmark 3:
Information. Describe a
place.
Eye contact, speaking with a
visual
Observation of
presentation
Writing Benchmarks 2
and 3: Presenting
Information.
Level 2: Describe a
personal situation.
Level 3: Describe a place.
Past tense review
Simple sentences
Analysis of writing
samples
b. Requesting assistance activity - Learners
will practice expressions used to get
assistance, express appreciation.
Final task: Writing assignment
CLB 2: Learners will describe where they went
and what they did in response to questions.
CLB 3. Learners will write a short passage
describing the facility they visited.
130
CLB COMPETENCY
Completion of chart
Polite requests
Expressions of appreciation
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A Classroom Example
Planning A Lesson
6
Example 3:
Providing Personal Information
The following example is adapted from The Adult ESL Curriculum Guidelines published by Toronto Catholic District
School Board. It shows how a teacher develops a series of activities that help learners ask for and provide personal
information and complete simple information forms.
Sample Lesson Plan
DATE:
DURATION:
Unit: INTRODUCTIONS
Topic: PERSONAL INFORMATION
Benchmarks 1-2 Competencies
1. LISTENING/SPEAKING (lV. Information)
Provide and identify basic personal information.
2. READING (III. Business/service texts)
Understand very short basic common forms.
3. WRITING (III. Business/service messages)
Fill out simple forms.
OBJECTIVES
1. Learners will be able to ask for/provide names, address, telephone numbers, postal code, marital status and age.
2. Learner will be able to recognize/find specific information in a registration form.
3. Learners will be able to fill out a registration form.
LANGUAGE
GRAMMAR: information questions with wh-words
VOCABULARY: address, postal code, marital status, age, etc.
IDIOMS/PHRASAL VERBS:
PRONUNCIATION: intonation in wh-questions
RESOURCES
Simple registration forms
Self-prepared material
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6
A Classroom Example
Planning A Lesson
Sample Lesson Plan
PROCEDURES
POST-LESSON NOTES
I. PRE-COMMUNICATIVE STAGE (Enabling Tasks and Activities)
1. Warm-up:
• Instructor introduces himself/herself by saying and
writing on the board his/her: name, address, telephone
number, marital status, date of birth, etc.
• Using WH-questions, instructor asks the class questions
about his/her name, address, etc.
Example: What's my name?
What's my address?
2. Explanation:
• Instructor explains the form, and how to use
WH-questions
• Instructor has learners practice the intonation in
WH-questions
3. Reading Task:
• Instructor distributes a simplified registration form that
has already been filled out
• Learners work individually, read the form and underline
specific information
Example: name, telephone number,
date of birth
ll. COMMUNICATIVE STAGE (Real-World Tasks)
1. Listening/Speaking Task:
• Learners interview one another using wh-questions
and fill in the chart with their partner's name, address,
postal code, telephone number, marital status and
date of birth
Name:
Address:
Postal Code:
Telephone Number:
Marital Status:
Date of Birth:
• Learners introduce their partners to the class.
2. Writing Task
• Instructor provides the learners with a blank registration
form
• Learners fill it out with personal information
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Planning
Helpful Readings
Curriculum
Burton, J. (Ed.). (1987). Implementing the Learner-Centred Curriculum. National Curriculum Resource Centre,
Adult Migrant Education Program Australia. 5th Floor, Renaissance Centre, 127 Rundle Mall, Adelaide, South
Australia 5000.
This is a companion to the Nunan (1992) chapter describing the process used in Australia for the development
of a national curriculum.
Hagan, P., Hood, S., Jackson, E., Jones, M., Joyce, H., Manidis, M. (1993). Certificate in Spoken and Written
English. NSW Adult Migrant English Service and the National Centre for English Language Teaching and
Research. NSW Adult Migrant English Service, P.O. Box 1222, Darlinghurst NSW 2010 Australia.
This is a curriculum framework which is used to develop courses leading to a certificate in English. The curriculum
for the Certificate in Spoken and Written English is to assist adult ESL learners to develop language and literacy
skills for: further education and training, employment and community participation.
The competencies described in the Framework provide a description of learning outcomes at three Stages.
Clearly defined pathways assist learners to develop language and literacy skills which will enable them to
participate in Australian society.
Hull, L. (1996). A curriculum framework for corporate language programs. In Kathleen Graves, (Ed.). (1996).Teachers
as Course Developers. Cambridge University Press.
This chapter describes the process used to develop a curriculum framework for international corporate executives
in a post-secondary institution in the US.
Nunan, D. (1988). The Learner-Centred Curriculum. Cambridge University Press.
This book presents a thorough look at the processes involved in planning and implementing a learner-centred
curriculum. There are chapters on curriculum processes, learner-centred curriculum development, pre-course
planning. Issues related to learner-centred curriculum development and communicative classrooms are discussed
and illustrated with examples. This book could be used as a reference by a group of teachers who are embarking
on the process of developing curriculum.
Nunan, D. (1992). Toward a collaborative approach to curriculum development: a case study. In Nunan, D. (Ed.).
(1992). Collaborative Language Learning and Teaching. Cambridge University Press.
This chapter describes an 'experiment' in collaborative curriculum development by classroom practitioners and
curriculum developers in Australia. A network of teacher-based curriculum projects was established, with
support from a national curriculum project. Eleven curriculum frameworks were written for a range of learner
'types'.
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6
Planning
Course Development
Breen, M. P. & Littlejohn. A. (Eds.). (2000). Classroom Decision-Making: Negotiation and process syllabuses
in practice. Cambridge University Press.
This book provides an excellent, if somewhat academic, introduction to the uses of negotiation in the process
of second language learning. Process syllabuses have evolved to assist in planning, implementing and evaluating
negotiation in the classroom. There are examples of actual practice in primary and secondary schools, in postsecondary contexts, and in teacher education programs.
Graves, K. (Ed.). (1996). Teachers as Course Developers. Cambridge University Press.
This book contains chapters written by several people who have designed courses in different settings and
for different purposes. Each chapter reflects one aspect of course design. Two chapters by the author outline
her beliefs about course design and a framework of course development processes. The examples provided
are varied, and reflect authentic processes that these teachers have used and their reflections and questions
about the processes and courses they have designed. Each chapter also ends with an analysis and comments
by Graves.
Graves, K. (2000). Designing Language Courses: A Guide for Teachers. Newbury House.
This is a very readable, practical, hands-on book. Graves firmly believes that teachers are the best people to
design the courses they teach. The book includes many examples of courses designed by practicing teachers,
with discussions that reflect on the theory and practice of second language learning and teaching.
Lesson Planning
Ministry of Citizenship and Immigration Canada. (1999). LINC 4 & 5 Curriculum Guidelines.
Toronto, ON.
In addition to sample units for LINC Levels 4 and 5, this useful framework includes a number of references,
sample lesson plans and planning grids.
Robinson, J. & Selman, M. (1996). Partnerships in Learning:Teaching ESL to Adults. Toronto, ON: Pippin
Publishing Corporation.
This very practical introductory teaching handbook has an excellent chapter on lesson planning.
Toronto Catholic District School Board. (1998). The Adult ESL Curriculum Guidelines: Canadian Language
Benchmarks 1-12 Edition. Toronto, ON.
This very useful planning framework provides sample units for CLB levels 1-12. Each unit includes CLB
competencies, sample tasks, language/grammar focus and sample computer tasks. In addition the framework
includes a number of useful planning grids, templates, and reference sections.
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C H A P T E R
7
Selecting Resources
Fully exploited, authentic texts give students direct access to the culture and help them use the
new language authentically themselves, to communicate meaning in meaningful situations
rather than for demonstrating knowledge of a grammar point or a lexical item.
- Bernice S. Melvin & David F. Stout, 1984
This chapter includes the following:
• guidelines to choose materials that are CLB compatible
• a discussion on the importance of using authentic materials
• ideas for adapting authentic text for the ESL classroom
• a program example of resource review and selection
• helpful readings
Teachers working within a CLB framework use materials that are realistic and meaningful to adult learners
and support learning in a way that is consistent with learner-centred, task-based and communicative teaching
and learning.
This Guide does not prescribe the materials to be used in a CLB class nor suggest that new resources must
be purchased or developed. Many of the resources that have been useful in the past will continue to be
valuable. Understanding the CLB may result in a shift in how some materials are used or in the inclusion
of authentic materials in the program. Focusing on theCLB principles may require teachers to tailor the
currently used resources to the learners' needs and to adopt, adapt or develop new materials.
When looking at resources within a Benchmarks framework we need to understand that we cannot assign a
CLB level to a book, a form or a transaction. CLB levels are given to individuals who perform tasks using
English, depending on what the task involves and the criteria set up for assessing the performance.
For example, many teachers use phone books in class. The expectations of this use are dramatically different
at CLB 1 and at CLB 5. As such, we can't assume a phone book, or any other authentic resource, is used
only at certain levels.
Teachers can draw on a variety of resources, such as authentic materials, commercially-produced resources,
and teacher-prepared materials that have been designed for a specific group of Adult ESL learners.
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Selecting Resources
How Do I Choose Commercially-Prepared Materials that are
CLB Compatible?
More and more Canadian ESL materials are available to us and many of them are referenced to the CLB. Choosing
teaching materials from the many commercially-prepared materials that are on the market can be daunting.
It is virtually impossible to find one textbook that will be able to meet the varied language needs of all learners.
Textbooks are designed for different purposes, some contain real-world learning tasks and others have enabling
or pedagogic tasks. As material selectors we need to develop a discriminating eye and choose resources that
complement one another and can be used to address all the necessary elements of language teaching.
The following questions can guide our choices in finding materials to balance our teaching; that is, textbooks or
parts of books which may be useful in addressing some aspects of language and which can be interspersed with
authentic materials in our lessons.
136
❏
Is it task-based?
Texts that concentrate on doing things with the language can be inspiring and effective. Texts that are not
task-based might still be useful for their skill-building or enabling activities.
❏
Is it based on the communicative approach?
Is there attention given to the creative and spontaneous use of language? Is the conveyance of meaning
the primary purpose of each task?
❏
Is it realistic and meaningful to the learners?
Learners need to see a clear link between their communicative needs (long and short-term goals) and what
is happening in the classroom. Texts that provide learners with opportunities to interact with things from
the real world and enable them to relate the material to their own interests and experiences are the most
useful. Is the material oriented to adults? Does it take into account affective factors, such as attitudes
and feelings?
❏
Is it organized around functions? What functions are included?
Some new texts can be deceptive: even if the chapter seems organized around functions it may be grammar
based. If it is not organized around functions, how is it organized? How were the items chosen? Does it
address English competencies for community, educational or vocational access purposes?
❏
What is the level of difficulty?
Some texts are now clearly designed for CLB Stage l or Stage ll learners. Other texts may assume a certain
level of language ability or familiarity with Canadian culture as a starting point.
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7
❏
Is there spiralling?
Some texts are meant to be used in a sequential manner, so learners can review previously acquired
knowledge and skills and build upon them in subsequent lessons. Although this organizational structure
has many advantages, one disadvantage is that we may not be able to choose only one unit or activity
from the center or back of the book to fit into our own spirally planned lessons.
❏
What skill areas does it address (listening, speaking, reading, and/or writing)? Are the skills addressed
separately or are they integrated? "Does it go beyond the four skills approach and reflect an understanding
of the communication abilities - interpretation, expression and negotiation of meaning - that underlie all
language use?"1
❏
How does it view role relations within the classroom?2
Is the teacher set up as the authority figure in the class? Are learner roles always passive? Is it set up
for total class participation, group work or pair work?
❏
Does it offer views of language other than language learning as reproduction?
The CLB reinforces our understanding that communication involves the negotiation and interpretation
of meaning, and therefore the texts we choose should present teaching suggestions that help us plan
lessons that include 'language learning as problem solving' activities.3
❏
Are the five components of the communicative proficiency model4 (linguistic competence, textual competence,
functional competence, sociocultural competence, strategic competence) used in the CLB considered in
the activities presented?
❏
Does it provide models or examples for learners, to promote independent learning? Does it promote
looking for opportunities to use the language outside of the classroom? Does it include metacognitive
(learning to learn) strategies? Are there opportunities for learners to use and practise clarification strategies,
such as, "How do you pronounce this word?" "Can you repeat that?" "Do you mean...?", etc.
❏
Does it reflect Canadian culture, values and attitudes?
Is there awareness that in acquiring a second language one is acquiring a new perspective on interpersonal
relations? Does it reflect an awareness of varieties within the second language?5
❏
Is it natural sounding or has the language been contrived or distorted to 'illustrate' a grammatical point
or another element? In many instances oral texts are idealized when written in dialogue form and often
omit typical discourse strategies employed by native speakers.
❏
Does it address different learning styles?
Savignon, 1997, p.153
For a detailed discussion on this topic see Littlejohn & Windett in Johnson, 1989
3 Ibid., p.171
4 Pawlikowska-Smith, G., 2000 b
5 Savignon, 1997, p.153
1
2
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Selecting Resources
❏
Is it appealing?
Does it contain visually stimulating graphics or photos and a clear layout? Is it inviting and challenging to
learners?
❏
Is it adaptable?
Lots of excellent resources on the market come with suggestions for modification for pre-activities,
enhancement activities or activities for multi-level groups.
❏
Can it be reproduced (copied)? Before we can copy pages or sections from texts for use in our classes,
we need to check copyright laws and program photocopying budgets.
❏
Are there other supplementary materials available such as audio/video cassettes, teacher's resource books,
and CDs, and how are they related?
The example at the end of this chapter presents one program's experience in selecting commercially-prepared
resources.
Why Use Authentic Materials?
Using authentic text in the classroom invites learners to experience the richness and natural variations of real
language. Authentic materials also provide opportunities to have close contact with the culture. Lessons with
authentic materials can be tremendously motivating because the chosen items are of immediate relevance.
Through the use of authentic materials, learners are able to 'see' the language in its real context and increase their
cultural understanding.
Authentic items can be manipulated, interpreted, analyzed and used as a basis for task development. This is
discussed in the next section. Some authentic materials will be of little value to beginner ESL learners so we must
often modify or alter texts. Even at the beginning levels, however, adult learners need to interact with complex
and authentic items of language.
Using authentic materials in a language class is more that just having them in the class: it means using the materials
in an authentic way. For example, using a real cheque for a task on completing a service transaction is appropriate,
but using a cheque for a dictation/fill-in-the-blanks activity is not an authentic use.
To summarize, working within a CLB framework means that learners are interacting with authentic materials in
the ESL class in an authentic way. How that is done can vary greatly from very basic use of realia in the beginner
classrooms to more complex interactions with materials at higher levels.
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Selecting Resources
We choose authentic materials to use in the language class by matching the learners' needs with authentic
material, even though it does not fit into neat linguistic packages. We can find appropriate resources by looking
carefully at our world and our learners' worlds. Some rich sources are:
• Bus tickets, passes, transfers and schedules
• Companies and /or services with phone announcements (hours of operation, special events, such
as museum openings, airport information, etc.)
• Flyers or ads, bills, notices that come in the mail
• Food packages, clothing, medicine labels, menus, money
• Government departments - information notices, brochures
• Guides, manuals, catalogues, calendars
• Maps, postcards, greeting cards, letters, notes, memos
• News reports, documentaries, videos
• Newspapers, magazines
• Receipts, invoices, songs, poems
• Speakers from consumers bureau, police, community health organizations
• Talking yellow pages and other telephone information lines set up for the public
• Telephone answering machines, store announcements
• Websites such as Essential Skills
Adapting Authentic Text for the ESL Classroom
Some authentic texts may at first seem overwhelming or too difficult for beginner ESL learners. It is our job
to find a way 'into' the material, by rewriting them using plain language, dividing long passages or dialogues
into manageable chunks of language, or including photos or other realia to help set the context. Effective
teaching and use of scaffolding (see Chapter 5, Methodology) will enable even beginner learners to work with
authentic texts.
Resources with links to authentic texts (written or spoken) can be developed in a number of ways, and much has
been written on designing effective classroom materials. The following are some ideas for designing activities
using authentic materials.
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7
6
Selecting Resources
1
To bridge the gap between the scripted, artificial presentation of textbook dialogues and real-life conversations
(which include hesitations, interruptions, overlaps, implied context, etc.), we can develop semi-scripted texts.
In order to produce a semi-scripted exchange:
- set the context
- identify a purpose for the interaction
- identify aspects of authentic discourse which should be included (e.g. backchanneling, idiomatic
phrases, etc.).6
2
To help learners understand a spoken text, a list of the key words or phrases could be generated (either
alphabetically or chronologically). Learners can check the word or phrase as they hear it. The same list can
be used for other skill-building activities in the class.
3
Use advice articles such as, 'Dear Abbey' to practise modals. Modals are often used to express something
in a polite or tactful way, for example, Could you open the window? Should we start now?
4
Use various articles to increase the student's awareness and understanding of customs of Canadians and
other nationalities. Some discussion topics might be:
- What are the attitudes to this subject in your country? What are the laws? Example: drinking
and driving
- Discuss customs: Which ones are similar/different to theirs? Which Canadian customs do they like?
Would they adopt Canadian customs or not? Why? Which ones?
5
Use newspaper articles or ads to increase learners' awareness of different services in the community such
as Women's Health Clinics or Senior Centres. Articles on different services or agencies can be used to develop
language skills necessary to receiving services. Discuss the things that prevent them from going somewhere
or doing something (fear, embarrassment, lack of information, etc.). Practise dialogues and role plays.
6
Attend a community forum about a topic studied. For example, a library series of public service information,
or a seniors' centre's information session on foot care or diabetes.
7
Develop community contact assignments, such as using the 'talking yellow pages' to find specific information
or interviewing some community members.
8
Develop comprehension questions for facts, main ideas, sequence of events, cause and effect, and inference.
Skim/scan articles or the newspaper itself for specific information.
9
Practise synonyms, antonyms and homonyms. Use the newspaper to increase vocabulary by replacing words
with synonyms, looking for opposite meanings and finding words with similar sounds but different
meanings/spellings.
10
Use photographs and pictures to write a language experience story.
Burns, 1997, p.88
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A Classroom Example
7
Select Resources that are Meaningful to Learners
It is reassuring to know that many of the resources that are currently being used in Adult ESL programs can
continue to be used in a CLB program. This chapter has provided some suggestions for looking at commerciallyprepared materials in a different way and offered advice and encouragement in using or modifying authentic
materials. Authenticity assists in making the resources meaningful and relevant to learners' lives and preparing
them for interactions outside the classroom.
It can't be said too strongly that choosing and developing materials, authentic or otherwise, is of limited value
if they are not being used in an effective manner.
Classroom Examples
Example 1:
Professional Development Session for Teachers on Choosing Materials7
The following example is from a participant who attended the Manitoba CLB workshops. See the workshop
summary in Chapter 2 of this Guide.
One of the most effective and enjoyable PD days in the CLB implementation process was the session on choosing
materials. This session was early in the process and most of us were still grappling with the CLB and its implications
for our teaching. One of my colleagues asked for CLB teaching materials and was surprised to hear that we
could use the materials we had been using.
The session was a 3-hour, hands-on experience with resources. The resources were loosely categorized by skill
and level and placed in different areas. After a brief review of CLB principles we were shown how we might
take a fresh look at our materials. We followed an example provided and completed the chart (see Appendix)
as we reviewed the resources. It was very satisfying to be able to take the time to discuss books, listen to tapes
and watch video clips armed with a new perspective and surrounded by experienced colleagues.
The resources included old favourites that had been used in language classes for many years as well as newly
published resources. We were able to talk to teachers in different programs about what choices they had made
and the advantages and disadvantages of the materials they had been using.
In the end, we submitted copies of our individual charts and they were compiled into a small resource package
that was distributed to us so we all have a record of the material that was reviewed.
7
For similar events see Morley (p.101) and Gebhard (p.56) in Freeman & Cornwell, 1993
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7
Selecting Resources
Helpful Readings
Brown, H. D. (1994). Teaching by Principles An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
In this extraordinarily comprehensive book about teaching language Brown includes a chapter on techniques
and materials.
Burns, A. & Joyce, H. (1997). Focus on Speaking. Syndey: National Centre for English Language Teaching and
Research, Macquarie University.
This is an incredibly helpful resource for ESL teachers. See chapter 6 for a discussion about spoken texts,
unscripted, scripted and semi scripted texts.
Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed.). (1991). Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Boston, MA:
Heinle & Heinle.
See "Textbook Selection and Adaptation" by Alexandra Skierso (pp. 432- 453).
Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. www. language.ca
The CCLB website contains the most up to date information, policies and projects about the entire CLB
initiative. Follow the links to classroom resources.
Freeman, D. & Cornwell, S. (Eds.). (1993). New Ways in Teacher Education. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English
to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.
This is a part of the New Ways in TESOL Series. It contains 46 different activities that teacher educators in
various contexts around the world use in helping people learn to teach. See the sections by Jerry Gebhard
and Joan Morley.
Johnson, R. K. (1989). The Second Language Curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
See the section written by Littlejohn and Windett.
Rivers, W. (Ed.). (1987). Interactive Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
In this collection of essays teachers will find a number of original and practical ideas for the classroom. There
are articles on tapping the community as a resource, a discussion on the use of authentic materials (see Melvin
and Stout) and using audio and video and computer software to enhance learning.
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7
Savignon, S. J. (1997). Communicative Competence Theory and Classroom Practice, Texts and Context
in Second Language Learning. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Toronto Catholic District School Board, (1998). The Adult ESL Curriculum Guidelines CLB 1-12.
This Curriculum Guidelines document was developed in accordance with the CLB and contains valuable
reference for teachers in developing lesson plans. It also has a very good section on material evaluation with
a clear and concise checklist to assist instructors in evaluating teaching materials.
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.
C H A P T E R
8
Classroom-Based Assessment
Classroom assessments enable students to demonstrate their learning in multiple ways from
multiple perspectives, thus serving as learning experiences themselves.
- Anne Katz, 2000
This chapter includes the following:
• principles of assessment
• processes for teacher-designed assessment
• strategies for learner self assessment
• classroom examples
• helpful readings
Assessment
is a systematic
approach for collecting
information on student
As teachers working in programs using Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000,
we want to find ways to chart learner progress related to CLB competencies in the
context of daily classroom teaching and learning activities. This involves including
learners as partners in the assessment process and structuring opportunities that will
lead to learner success.
learning or performance
Current research and practice in the field has helped us move towards more communicative
approaches to assessment, and away from reliance on traditional forms of fill-in-the
sources of evidence.
blank, multiple-choice, and discrete-item grammar-based testing. One of the most useful
forms of assessment in a communicative task-based approach is performance assessment.
Performance assessment is assessment that requires students to construct a response,
create a product, or demonstrate applications of knowledge. In this Guide the focus is on performance assessment
as the primary way to describe and monitor language competence related to the CLB. In performance assessments,
an attempt is made in the assessment to have the learners actually do that which they have been learning to
do. For example, if they have been learning to call someone to act as a referee for them,
then the assessment should involve them making such a call, rather then some language
Performance
items related to this, but removed from the actual situation.
based on various
assessment
is assessment that
requires students to
Principles of Assessment
construct a response,
create a product, or
demonstrate applications
of knowledge.
1
In planning classroom-based assessment we look for processes that will enhance the
teaching and learning process. Current approaches to classroom-based assessment
are based on the following principles:1
See Katz, in Snow, 2000 , pp.138 - 141 for an overview of the changing trends in assessment.
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8
Classroom-Based Assessment
Effective assessment processes
• are an integral part of the teaching and learning process and relate directly to course contents
and outcomes
• are continuous and ongoing, using multiple sources to inform every aspect of instruction and
curriculum building
• are based on authentic and meaningful contexts
• are dynamic in that they focus on the process of learning (e.g., learning strategies) as well as the products
(performance standards)
• invite active collaboration with learners and teachers working together to plan, monitor and assess learning
• recognize that learner self evaluation is an essential component of the assessment process
• are developmentally and culturally appropriate
• focus on learners' strengths
• include effective methods of communicating learner growth
What is the Assessment Process?
The assessment process is a cycle. The following framework may be useful as a classroom planning tool to ensure
that all necessary components of the assessment process are considered. Each component of the model will be
examined in detail and at the end of the chapter a case study will show how a classroom teacher uses the model
as she designs an assessment process for a teaching module.
The Assessment Process2
Planning Assessment
• Identifying Learning Outcomes
• Clarifying the Purposes for Assessment
Using Information for Feedback,
Reporting and Future Planning
• Creating Feedback and Reporting Tools
CLB
Collecting and Recording
Information
• Selecting Assessment Strategies
• Recording the Information
Analyzing and Interpreting
Assessment Information
• Identifying Criteria for Success
• Developing Evaluation Processes and Tools
2
145
Adapted from Katz, in Snow, 2000, p.148.
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Classroom-Based Assessment
Planning Assessment
The Assessment Process
Planning Assessment
Using Information for Feedback,
Reporting and Future Planning
CLB
Collecting and Recording
Information
Analyzing and Interpreting
Assessment Information
Identifying Learning Outcomes
In order to carry out effective assessment it is important to be able to relate the assessment to clearly articulated
learning outcomes. These outcomes will include language outcomes and may include other skill outcomes
(e.g. research skills) and content outcomes (e.g. knowledge of Canadian history, knowledge of workplace safety
regulations). In courses that use Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000, unit or module language outcomes
will always include reference to specific CLB competencies. For a fuller discussion of learning outcomes, see
Chapter 4.
Clarifying the Purposes for Assessment
The primary purpose of assessment is to provide ongoing feedback to learners and teachers in order to enhance
the teaching and learning process. The three major purposes of assessment are diagnostic, formative and summative.
Diagnostic Assessment
Usually occurs at the beginning of a term or a unit of study. May be used to
• find out what learners can do
• identify learner strengths in order to plan teaching and learning activities that build
on these strengths
• target difficulties in order to plan teaching and learning activities to meet these areas
of difficulty
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Classroom-Based Assessment
Formative Assessment
Provides ongoing feedback to teachers and learners about the effectiveness of teaching and learning activities.
May be used to:
• monitor student learning and provide feedback to learners related to CLB proficiency
• identify areas of growth
• help focus learner attention and effort
• emphasize what is important to learn
• encourage learners to set goals and monitor their achievement
• reflect on program/course effectiveness and modify or adjust teaching as necessary
Summative Assessment
Provides feedback at the end of a learning unit or program. May be used to:
• provide feedback to learners about progress and achievement
• document learners’ communicative proficiency related to CLB levels
• determine program effectiveness and identify where improvement may be required
The information gathered from summative assessment provides a snapshot of learner performance at a given
time in specific contexts. Summative assessment that occurs at the end of a unit, semester or course will be based
on a number of assessments, tasks and activities that have occurred over a period of time. The results of ongoing
evaluations in which learners have had opportunities to demonstrate their skills in a variety of contexts using a
variety of assessment strategies are much more likely to provide a true picture of learners’ communicative
competence than single exit tests administered at the end of a semester.
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Classroom-Based Assessment
Planning Assessment
The Assessment Process
Collecting and Recording Information
Using Information for Feedback,
Reporting and Future Planning
CLB
Collecting and Recording
Information
Analyzing and Interpreting
Assessment Information
What will serve as evidence that a learner has demonstrated competency at a specific
benchmark level?
When we are assessing learners’ communicative competence, we are inferring competence from various types
of performance. Effective classroom assessment is based on multiple “snapshots” of a learner’s performance,
using a variety of contexts and multiple assessment strategies.
Selecting Assessment Strategies
One of the challenges in designing effective classroom-based assessment is ensuring that there is a match between
the evidence we collect from learners and the outcomes we have established. This is known as validity.
In considering the validity of our assessment strategies, we ask questions such as:
Will satisfactory performance on this assessment task be a true indication of Benchmark competency?
How much can we generalize about what a student knows and can do by using this sample of evidence?
Following is a chart outlining some of the possibilities of “evidence” that can be collected and analyzed to indicate
learners’ current level of communicative language competence.3 The examples listed below can be either
instructional tasks or assessment strategies, depending on how they are used. For example, a role play may be
a classroom task in which learners practice skills and strategies needed to make a doctor’s appointment. The
same role play may also be an assessment strategy, if learners’ performance of the role play is evaluated.
3
Adapted from O’Malley & Valdez Pierce, 1996
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Classroom-Based Assessment
Assessment Strategies-Some Possibilities
CLB Skill
Speaking
Assessment
Strategy
CLB Stage
CLB
Competency
Sample Language
Functions
• Oral interview
All stages
Information
Social Interaction
Describing
Giving information
Giving an opinion
Introducing
• Story retelling
Stage 1, 2
Information
Describing
Narrating
Giving information
• Role play
Improvisations
All stages
Social interaction
Instructions
Suasion
Information
Greetings/leave
takings
Requesting assistance
Agreeing/disagreeing
Giving directions
Suggestions
Persuading
• Audio dialogue journals
All stages
Information
Describing
Narrating
Explaining
• Debates
Stage 2, 3
Information
Describing
Explaining
Giving opinions
Summarizing
Synthesizing
Persuading
• Picture-cued
descriptions or stories
Stage 1
Information
Describing
Narrating a story
Giving information
• Information gap
All stages
Instructions
Information
Describing
Giving information
Giving directions
• Demonstrations
All stages
Instructions
Information
Describing
Sequencing
Explaining
• Oral reports
All stages
Information
Describing
Explaining
Giving/asking for information
• Audio clips
All stages
Social interaction
Instructions
Suasion
Information
Varies depending on clip selected
(e.g. story, radio broadcast,
lectures)
• Video clips
All stages
Social interaction
Instructions
Suasion
Information
Varies depending on clip selected
• Think-a-loud
Stages 1, 2
Social interaction
Instructions
Suasion
Information
Various
Listening
Continued...
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Classroom-Based Assessment
CLB Skill
Assessment
Strategy
CLB Stage
CLB
Competency
• Short guided
written passages
Stage 1
Presenting information
Describe
Give information
• Stories
All stages
Presenting information
Describe
Narrate
• Informal notes and
messages (including
greeting cards)
All stages
Social interaction
Business/service
messages
Describe
Inform
Congratulate
Express sympathy
• Letters-personal
All stages
Presenting information
Describe
Narrate
• Business letters,
memos
Stage 2,3
Business/service
messages
Describe
Narrate
Outline
Request
Complain
• Forms
All stages
Business/service
messages
Identify
Describe
Explain
• Reports
Stage 2, 3
Presenting information
Describe
Inform
Contrast and compare
Analyze
Synthesize
Give an opinion
• Think a-loud
Stage 1,2
Social interaction
Instructions
Business/service
Informational
Various
• Text retelling
All stages
Social interaction
Instructions
Business/service
Informational
Narrating
Expaining
Describing
Sequencing
• Learning logs(response
to guided questions)
All stages
Informational
Explaining
Describing
• Journals (e.g.personal
response to reading)
All stages
Informational
Describing
Explaining
• Text with
comprehension
questions
All stages
Social interaction
Instructions
Business/service
Informational
Various
• Retrieval charts
All stages
Social interaction
Instructions
Business/service
Informational
Various
Writing
Reading
Sample Language
Functions
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Classroom-Based Assessment
Recording the Information
Most of the assessment strategies listed result in some type of written evidence (e.g. a composition, a learning log entry,
a set of written responses). In the case of speaking tasks, however, we need to consider how we will record learner
performance. There are a number of options to choose from and the one we select will depend upon the task, the size
of the group and the resources available. Following are some options and considerations.
Collecting Data for Speaking Tasks
Process
Considerations
Audiotaping
• Simple and easy to set up
• Useful for monologic tasks (e.g. story retelling, audio journals)
• Can be used in class (both in large or small group settings) or learners can self-record out of the
classroom (in a language lab, in a small breakout room, at home)
Videotaping
• Excellent tool for use with interactional tasks (captures body language, conversation management
strategies, etc.)
• Excellent feedback tool for learners to view and reflect on their performances
• Allows for consideration of performances for assessment purposes (tape can be replayed a number
of times)
• Requires careful planning in terms of set up and use of equipment
Observation
• Requires no equipment set-up
• Ratings are completed as learners carry out tasks (immediate feedback is possible)
• Time for making judgements is limited. No opportunity to “replay” the performance
Setting Up Speaking Tasks
Whether we use audiotaping, videotaping or direct observation to monitor learner performance, there are many ways
to “stage” speaking tasks. The method we choose will depend on many factors including the type of task, purpose
for assessment, size of class and time available. The following chart outlines some ways to set up speaking tasks.
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Classroom-Based Assessment
Setting Up Speaking Tasks
Sample Task Types
Method
Considerations
Individuals or small
groups perform for
the whole class.
• Oral presentations
• Panels
• Role plays
• Interviews
• May be very time-consuming in large classes.
• Peer assessment of selected aspects provides an active role for
learners who are observing the performance.
• Provides opportunity to observe and evaluate each learner as
they complete the task.
Small groups
(or partners) complete
the task
simultaneously.
Teacher circulates as
small groups engage
in the task.
• Role plays
• Discussions
• Interviews
• Story retelling
• In large classes teacher may not be able to monitor the performance
of all learners (but may choose to focus on selected learners and
choose to evaluate other learners on other tasks).
• Monitoring may be most effective if the observation focuses on one
aspect of communication (e.g. use of questioning strategies)
• Audiotaping or videotaping simultaneous group tasks may be
difficult due to background noise.
Resource fair
presentations Learners present
information at stations
as classmates and
teacher circulate.
If learners from other
classes are the
audience, all learners
can present at the
same time. Use of
visuals (realia, poster
boards) helps focus
the presentations.
• Oral reports
• Interviews
• Demonstrations
• Learners have opportunity to present their information a number of
times.
• Teacher has time to circulate to each of the groups and evaluate the
presentations and make anecdotal notes.
Planning Assessment
The Assessment Process
Analyzing and Interpreting
Assessment Information
Using Information for Feedback,
Reporting and Future Planning
CLB
Collecting and Recording
Information
Analyzing and Interpreting
Assessment Information
Identifying Criteria for Success
Once an assessment strategy has been selected to determine the evidence that will be gathered, criteria for success
must be identified. These will include both:
• criteria related to CLB performance indicators
• criteria related to other knowledge, skills or attitudes that have
been identified in the learning outcomes
In selecting criteria, it is important to limit criteria to the number that can be reasonably evaluated in the context
of the specific task and the time and resources available. There are a number of factors to consider when selecting
assessment criteria.
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Classroom-Based Assessment
Selecting Assessment Criteria-Considerations
What performance indicators are most critical to effective communication in this task? What factors most
significantly affect the quality of communication? For example, in a particular social interaction such as
introductions, appropriate use of non-verbal features (eye contact, handshake) might be significant. In
another situation, effective use of conversation management strategies such as using questions to extend
the conversation might be critical.
• Which CLB performance indicators for this skill do the assessment criteria relate to?
• Are the criteria for success tied to the learning outcomes for this unit? for this course?
• Have I made adjustments for learners who are working at different CLB levels?
• Are the assessment criteria related to classroom teaching and learning? E.g. If learners will be evaluated
on the use of sequence markers, have they been taught or reviewed in class?
• Have I communicated the criteria clearly to learners before they begin the assessment task?
• Have I limited the number of criteria to just a few indicators to help learners focus their attention on those
aspects most important for effective communication?
• Over a series of assessment tasks, will I have evaluated learners on all performance indicators identified
at this level?
Developing Evaluation Processes and Tools
Evaluation is commonly
defined as the interpretation
of assessment data regarding
the quality, value, or worth
of some response, product,
or performance. Evaluations
Having established assessment strategies and identified criteria, the next step is to determine
how to analyze and interpret the data. In practice the terms assessment and evaluation are
sometimes used interchangeably. However, most authors distinguish between the two
processes. Assessment focuses on the evidence that is gathered to demonstrate communicative
proficiency (e.g. a role play, a writing sample, an oral presentation). Evaluation focuses on
the processes used to make judgment about the quality of the performance.
are usually based on multiple
sources of information.
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The following chart outlines three common ways to make judgements about the effectiveness and quality of
learners’ language performance.4
Approach to
scoring
Description
Uses
Analytic scoring
Performances are evaluated on selected traits
with each trait receiving a separate score.
For example, a piece of writing may be
evaluated according to organization, use of
cohesion, and grammar. Trait scores may be
weighted and/or totaled.
• To give feedback on specific aspects of communication
• To diagnose areas of strength or weakness
Holistic scoring
A single score is assigned to a student’s
performance based on specific criteria.
• To determine the overall communicative effect.
Primary trait scoring
Focuses on a single aspect of communication.
(e.g. content, fluency, use of vocabulary)
• To give feedback on specific aspects of instruction
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 uses rating scales that combine holistic and analytic approaches to
scoring. In each of the rating scales the first factor that is scored is the overall effectiveness of the communication
(holistic approach). Then, several aspects that contribute to the quality of the communication are identified for
scoring (analytic approach).
A number of evaluation tools may be used to assist in the analysis and interpretation of the data. Examples of
the following tools are included later in this chapter:
4
Evaluation Tool
Description
Uses
Checklist
A list to identify characteristics or
behaviors that are present or not
present. Scored as yes/no ratings.
• Self evaluation of use of language strategies
• Observation checklist (for teacher/peer use)
Scale
Marking on a continuum. Two end
points are assigned a meaning and
performance is rated in relation to
the two extremes.
e.g. 0= never 5 = always
• Self evaluation of use of language strategies
• Self evaluation of language performance
• Teacher evaluation
Rubric
A fixed scale with a list of
characteristics that describe each
score for a particular outcome.
• Teacher evaluation
• Self evaluation
Anecdotal record
Informal written notes on learner
products or processes
• Teacher observation
• Self evaluation and reflection
O’Malley & Valdez Pierce, 1996, pp.142-43
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One of the issues that arises in the use of performance assessment is reliability.5 Reliability refers to the consistency
of the assessment in producing the same score on different testing occasions or with different raters. Performancebased assessment requires teacher judgement to obtain a score which introduces the possibility of subjectivity and
lack of consensus with other teachers. Reliability between raters as well as reliability within a rater from one occasion
to the next is important to ensure consistency and fairness.
One of the most effective ways to improve reliability is to participate in assessment sessions with other colleagues.
This could form the focus of a series of professional development workshops.6 Even doing assessments with another
colleague or colleagues and aggregating the ratings can be a useful way to improve reliability.
Self Assessment
Current thinking about assessment stresses the importance of learner self evaluation in the assessment process to
encourage learners to develop independent learning skills and to take greater responsibility for their own learning.
Research demonstrates that learners who are able to use self assessment strategies:7
• have access to continuous feedback and are able to define strategies for future action
• develop control over what and how they learn
• are able to adapt their learning to meet changing conditions
• develop an increased awareness of the learning process
• gain a better understanding of the evaluation process
• develop an understanding of their own skills profile
• develop their own criteria for judging the accuracy and appropriateness of their performance which can
be used for learning outside a formal classroom situation
5
McTighe & Wiggins, 1999; Brindley, 1995; Bachman & Palmer, 1996; O’Malley & Valdez Pierce, 1996.
O’Malley and Valdez Pierce, 1996, pp.24-25, describe a process to improve inter-rater reliability.
7 Cram, in Brindley, 1995, pp. 274-77
6
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Self Assessment Stategies
A wide range of strategies are suitable for self assessment and many classroom texts contain useful examples
and suggestions.8 There are many ways that self assessment strategies can be incorporated into classrooms that
are using the CLB. Following are some examples:
Self assessment
Strategy
Examples
Rating scales
• Assess skills you use outside the classroom. E.g. On a rating scale of 1 – 5 indicate what percentage
of a T.V. news report you can understand
Checklist
• Check which strategies you use to prevent conversations from breaking down
• Check which listening strategies you use when you listen to the radio
Compare speaking against
chosen criteria
• View videotaped performance (role play, interview, presentation) Choose 1 or 2 CLB performance
criteria and rate which things you did successfully in the video (e.g. Asked questions to get the
information needed, closed the conversation )
Learning log or journal
• Complete a learning log entry describing what new reading (or listening, etc.) strategies you have
started using
• Describe an exchange with a native speaker
Audiotape journal
• Complete an audiotape journal describing two things about your speaking skills you would like
to improve
Tests with answer keys
• Read a passage, answer comprehension questions and check answers against a key
Compare writing against
a model
• Compare your paragraph with a model paragraph on this topic at your CLB level (e.g. Are your
sentences all on topic? Did you use correct paragraph form? )
Use of Portfolios in Assessment
The use of portfolios may provide an excellent tool to support the assessment process. There are many different
approaches to the use of portfolios. For the purposes of this document, a portfolio will be defined as a collection
of student work showing student reflection and performance over time.9 Using this definition, portfolios
become much more than file folders to store student work. They provide an opportunity for learners to become
active partners in the assessment process.
See Brown, 1998 and O’Malley & Valdez Pierce, 1996 and classroom textbook series such as the Tapestry Series by Oxford
& Scarcella
9 Adapted from O’Malley & Valdez Pierce, 1996, p. 239.
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While there are many ways to organize and structure portfolios, the three essential elements of a
portfolio are:10
1. Samples of student work: The samples should be collected over time in order to show growth and
progress. It is helpful to include samples from early in the term for this purpose.
2. Learner self assessment: This is an essential element of the portfolio. Learners should
share in the responsibility for selecting what goes into the portfolio and for describing why it was chosen.
This may involve justifying why the learner believes the piece is an example of his/her “best work.” Or
the learner may be asked to compare a later with an earlier piece of work and discuss how his/her skills
have improved.
3. Clearly stated criteria: Criteria may be set for how pieces are to be selected for the portfolio. In addition,
there must be clear criteria for how each piece will be evaluated.
When setting up a portfolio process for the first time it is a good idea to start small and build
gradually. It is important to be clear about:
• The purpose of the portfolio: Will it be used for learner goal-setting? Will it be used alone (or in
combination with other indicators) to determine CLB exit level from a course?
• Selection of contents to match the purpose: Once the purpose is established, it is important the samples
included provide appropriate evidence.
It is also important to develop a process to review the portfolios. This is typically set up as an interview so that the
learner and teacher can go through the contents together.
Using portfolios requires considerable time and planning. While they may not be appropriate for use in all contexts,
portfolios can be a valuable learning tool.11 They are probably best suited for programs where learners study full-time
or in cases where learners stay in a program for more than one semester and have a chance to use the portfolio
process over several terms.
10
11
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O’Malley & Valdez Pierce, 1996, pp. 35-36
See Bailey, 2000, Chapter 13
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Classroom-Based Assessment
Planning Assessment
The Assessment Process
Using Information for Feedback,
Reporting and Future Planning
Using Information for Feedback,
Reporting and Future Planning
CLB
Collecting and Recording
Information
Analyzing and Interpreting
Assessment Information
In most cases, the results of formative classroom assessment will be reported to the learners themselves.
Formative assessment results may be reported using:
• Individual marking guide sheets and rating scales that are returned to learners with
comments after a task is completed.
• Interviews/conferences with learners to discuss the evaluation results of a task.
Conferences are time-consuming but can provide valuable opportunities to discuss
learner self assessment, highlight strengths and set learning goals.
Results of ongoing assessment should provide useful diagnostic information to plan future lessons and units.
It will pinpoint areas of learners’ strengths as well as gaps in knowledge and skills.
Summative assessment results may be reported using:
• End of unit reporting sheets that include results of a number of tasks
• Mid-term or end of semester “report cards”
• Mid-term conferences with learners to discuss progress and set learning goals
What is important in any of the reporting processes is that the criteria for evaluation and language used is
understandable to the audience.
Mid-term or end of semester evaluation results may need to be communicated to program administrators, student
advisors or funding agencies. Again, language must be clear and understandable to a professional outside the
ESL teaching field.
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Principles of Assessment: Implications for the Classroom
When assessing learners’ communicative language proficiency related to the CLB, going back to the Principles of
Assessment may provide a useful checklist to assist in the planning process. Following are questions that can help
focus our thinking as we plan for classroom assessment.
Principle
Focusing Questions
Assessment is an integral
part of the teaching and
learning process and relates
directly to course contents and
outcomes.
• Do my assessment tasks relate to what we have been doing in class?
• Do my assessment tasks relate to key outcomes I have set for this unit? This course?
Assessment is continuous and
ongoing, informing every
aspect of instruction and
curriculum building.
• Is my assessment based on multiple sources of information, including formal assessments as well as informal
strategies to monitor learner performance as learners carry out daily classroom tasks? Do these strategies include
reference to CLB descriptors wherever possible?
• How will I use the results of learner assessment to plan future lessons and units?
Assessment is based on
authentic and meaningful
contexts.
• How closely do the assessment tasks I have planned match real life tasks that adults engage in both inside and
outside of the classroom?
• How closely do the assessment tasks match contexts that are useful and relevant for this group of learners?
Assessment is dynamic in that
it focuses on the process of
learning (e.g. learning
strategies) as well as the
products.
• Have I included processes that document learners’ use of effective strategies and processes?
(See CLB 2000 Overview sections.)
Assessment processes invite
active collaboration. Learners
and teachers work together
to plan, monitor and assess
learning.
• How have I involved learners in planning assessment strategies and feedback processes?
• Have I clearly explained the purpose for each assessment activity and the criteria I will use for evaluation? Have
I related these criteria to CLB levels in a way that is clear to learners?
Assessment processes
recognize that learner self
evaluation is an essential
component of the assessment
process.
• What self assessment strategies have I included in this unit? Have I prepared learners adequately to engage in
self assessment?
Assessment is
developmentally and culturally
appropriate.
• Are the assessment tasks I expect learners to complete not “culturally biased”?( i.e. Have I ensured that there
are no features that are Canada - specific, that would be strange/unknown to the learners?)
• Have I adequately addressed areas that may be problematic and provided alternatives?
• Are the tasks appropriate to the age of the learners?
Assessment focuses on
learner strengths.
• Will the evaluation tool and feedback processes I’ve chosen identify what learners can do? (i.e. What skills they
are developing, what progress they’ve made related to CLB competencies?)
• Will areas of difficulty be highlighted? How will I address these areas of difficulty in future lesson planning so
learners will have opportunities to develop competence?
Assessment processes include
effective methods of
communicating learner growth.
• Do learners know their CLB levels in all four skills?
• Do learners understand how assessment of specific tasks relates to CLB descriptors?
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Program Considerations in Classroom-Based Assessment
Classroom-based assessment is an extremely important component of the teaching and learning cycle. It is also
very time consuming. The development of effective assessment practices is facilitated in programs with the
following characteristics:
• Long-term professional development supports teachers to develop expertise in classroom-based
assessment processes. This includes experience in creating evaluation tools and opportunities to work
with colleagues to develop consensus in interpreting and using the various tools.
• Program planning takes into consideration factors that support or limit effective assessment practice.
Challenges to effective assessment include:
• Large classes
• Broad multi-level groupings (extending over several CLB levels)
• Limited class time (courses of limited hours or weeks duration)
In cases where these challenges are unavoidable, expectations for classroom-based assessment need
to be adapted to the limitations of the situation.
• Program organization recognizes that effective and consistent feedback processes are an
important part of the learning process. Time is set aside within the teaching schedule for learner
conferences, portfolio review or exit interviews.
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A Classroom Example
Classroom-Based Assessment
Classroom Examples
The following example illustrates how one teacher uses classroom-based assessment in a unit she
has developed.
Ann teaches in a small full-time LINC program. She teaches a Canadian studies module two afternoons a week
to learners that come from a variety of backgrounds. The majority of learners are working at CLB Level 4. Through
a classroom needs assessment learners have chosen a unit in which they will take a day of class time to volunteer
at the local international children’s festival in order to interact with native speakers and gain volunteer experience
to add to their resumés. As part of the unit, learners will go to the volunteer centre to complete application forms,
receive an orientation, and volunteer for a half day at the festival. Ann has developed a repertoire of assessment
strategies after teaching the unit several times. She will choose the strategies that seem most appropriate for the
learners she is currently working with.
The Assessment Process
Planning Assessment
Identifying Learning Outcomes
What will learners gain from the teaching and learning activities in this unit?
Ann is not bound by a specific course framework. She is working in the general topic area of Canadian studies
and is expected to use Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 to guide classroom planning and determine
learner proficiency. Based on these parameters and the interests identified by learners through her informal needs
assessment process she identifies the following outcomes:
Content and general knowledge outcomes. Learners will:
• Demonstrate an understanding of
- the many benefits that people gain from volunteering
- the roles and responsibilities of volunteers in a specific setting
• Participate with native speakers in an authentic context
• Gain volunteer experience they can use on a resumé
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Language Outcomes
Learners in this class have all been assessed using the Canadian Language Benchmarks Assessment (CLBA)
prior to entering the course. Generally they have been assessed as meeting the criteria for Benchmark 3, so they
are now working towards the competencies of Benchmark 4. Of course, the profile for each learner is unique.
Some learners are working at higher reading levels or higher or lower writing and/or speaking levels. Within the
limits of the time available, Ann will modify tasks and expectations for the multi-level nature of her class.
She identifies the following language outcomes based on CLB Level 4.
Develop speaking skills at Benchmark 4: CLB 2000 p.13
The competencies Ann will focus on are:
• Instructions: Give sets of simple everyday instructions and directions.
• Suasion: Request, accept assistance or offer in a service situation.
(She will modify this to “Offer assistance in a service situation.”)
• Information: Relate a story about an everyday activity.
Develop listening skills at Benchmark 4: CLB 2000 p.25
The competency that Ann will focus on is:
• Information: Demonstrate comprehension of mostly factual details
and some inferred meanings . . . in a report.
Develop writing skills at Benchmark 4: CLB 2000 p.49
The competencies Ann will focus on are:
• Presenting information: Write a short text about personal or familiar situation,
event or personal experience.
• Business/service messages: Fill out simple forms.
Develop reading skills at Benchmark 4: CLB 2000 p.37
The competency she will focus on is:
• Business/service texts: Find information in formatted texts: tables, schedules.
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Clarifying Purposes for Assessment
How will I use the information gained from this assessment?
Ann will structure a number of opportunities to assess learners’ language performance during this unit. Assessment
will serve a number of purposes. It will:
• identify what learners can do and target difficulties in order to plan future teaching and learning
activities (diagnostic)
• help monitor student learning and provide feedback to learners (formative)
• help learners to identify skills and strengths as well as areas for growth (formative)
• provide a snapshot of learners’ communicative language proficiency related to CLB at a given point
of time in a specific context (summative)
The Assessment Process
Collecting and Recording Information
Selecting Assessment Strategies
What evidence will demonstrate learners’ language competence?
Ann identifies a number of assessment strategies that she will use with learners to demonstrate their understanding
and skills. She chooses tasks that align with the learning outcomes and are as close as possible to authentic tasks,
ones that learners might engage in outside the classroom. She will select several (but not all of) the following
strategies, depending on the specific needs of the learners in this class:
Role play – Learners will be given typical volunteer scenarios and be asked to role play how
they would respond in the situation. In small classes the role plays will be videotaped. In larger
classes learners will perform the role plays in small groups. Ann will do a “walk about” and
observe learners as they undertake the role plays. In a large class she may only have an
opportunity to assess half the learners as they engage in this particular role play. She will then
assess the other half of the class on a role play using similar competencies in the next unit.
Story Retelling – After the volunteer experience, learners will be interviewed by a classmate and
describe their experience. In a large class Ann may set up this activity as a four person panel
presentation and videotape the presentations.
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Completion of application forms – Learners will complete application forms on-site at the
volunteer centre. Ann may observe learners as they complete the forms and note the amount
of assistance that is required.
Volunteer experience – Ann may observe learners as they volunteer at the children’s festival
and note their ability to interact effectively and confidently, specifically focusing on the use of
conversation management skills and clarification strategies.
Listening – Learners will listen to a short presentation by a children’s festival staff member
explaining the role and expectations for volunteers at the festival. The speaker has worked
with E.S.L. learners and is able to simplify her talk and support it with visuals. After the
presentation, learners will complete a short sentence completion exercise demonstrating
their understanding of the key points of the talk.
Writing – Learners will describe their volunteer experiences in writing. Their writing will become
part of a class photo-story and will be used to introduce the volunteer experience to learners
in other classes.
Reading – Learners will locate specific information from the festival brochure and fill in a
retrieval chart.
Reflections and Self Assessment – Learners will discuss their experience and what they learned
from it with classmates after they volunteer. They will complete learning log entries reflecting
on their interactions, noting what they were able to do and what they would like to improve.
They will complete short self assessment questionnaires rating their listening skills during the
volunteer experience. Learners may be asked to self-rate their performances in either the role
play or the writing task and compare them with Ann’s rating.
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Assessment Example One: Speaking Task
Ann begins with one of the assessment strategies, the Role Play, and outlines the task and its relation to CLB
competencies.
She refers to CLB 2000, pages 12 - 13, and selects competencies, performance indicators and
performance conditions for the role play task. She then adds her own examples and indicators
that are specific to this role play. She records the information on a chart for future reference.
Task: Learners are asked to respond to a situation they might encounter as volunteers at the
Children's Festival (e.g. "You are an usher at the puppet show. A mother has lost her child."
“ You are helping a child in the craft tent make a bead necklace.”)
See CLB 2000 Speaking Benchmark 4: p.13. NOTE: Descriptions in italics have been added by Ann to those from CLB.
WHAT THE PERSON CAN DO
PERFORMANCE INDICATORS/
EXAMPLES OF TEXT
II. Instructions
• Give sets of simple everyday
instructions and directions
• Gives simple directions. Listeners can follow the
directions.
III. Suasion (getting things done)
• (Offers) assistance in service situation
PERFORMANCE CONDITIONS
• Interaction is face to face, with one
person at a time.
• Speech rate is normal.
• Verbal communication is strongly
supported by gestures and other
visual clues
(Learners will have map of site.)
• Instructions and directions have only
3-4 steps and are sometimes
supported with hand gestures.
• Some vocabulary and phrases
have been pre-taught.
e.g. You turn right at the craft tent.
Then,...
• Uses simple discourse markers to connect
phrases and sentences.
e.g. First, next, then
• Uses opener appropriate to the person
addressed (e.g. child vs adult)
e.g. Hi, how are you doing?
Do you need help?
May I help you?
• Provides required information/description
of item.
e.g. You need four square beads.
• Asks relevant questions about ... appearance,
Function: to get information needed.
e.g. What does she look like? What is she
wearing?
ASSESSMENT
Strategy: Observe learners as they
engage in role plays
CRITERIA FOR SUCCESS:
1. Holistic
Overall effectiveness - Does
learner respond effectively to
the request/need of the
customer?
2. Analytic
Adequacy of vocabulary for purpose
Is use of vocabulary sufficient
to convey meaning?
Organization of discourse -
Are instructions, directions or
explanations well organized
and sequence markers used
as needed?
Conversation management -
Does learner keep conversation
going until customer is satisfied?
• Background knowledge:
Volunteer role has been discussed.
Learners have visited site.
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Developing Evaluation Processes and Tools
How will I evaluate learners’ responses in a way that gives meaningful feedback and is practical
to administer?
Ann designs an evaluation tool based on the CLB four point rating scale. She will use the following chart to
evaluate the learners in the class. She will develop a template and use the chart again for other speaking activities
throughout the course. (See Appendix for a blank template.)
In the example on the next page she will be evaluating four aspects of the communication (Effectiveness, Adequacy
of vocabulary, Conversation management, and Organization of discourse). She is able to do this because the role
plays will be video-taped and replayed in class so she will have two chances to observe the role plays. If the role
plays were not being video-taped, Ann would limit the number of criteria being evaluated to two or three.
She will use a four point scale based on the one used in CLB 2000:
1
2
3
4
-
unable to achieve yet
needs help
satisfactory Benchmark achievement
more than satisfactory achievement
She will weight the scores as follows:
• Holistic criteria 40%
• Total of the three analytic criteria 60%
Ann will keep track of observations in a separate column. These anecdotal records are extremely useful for noting
specific feedback not identified in the criteria for success. (e.g. Great improvement in the use of eye contact!).
They also provide a place to keep track of aspects of communication that may need future attention (e.g. Intonation
of ‘WH’ questions.)
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Name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
• Appropriate
phrases &
vocabulary
Adequacy of
vocabulary
1 2 3 4
• Use of
questions to keep
conversation
going
Conversation
management
1 2 3 4
• Speech is
well-organized.
Organization of
discourse
Weighting 60%
1 2 3 4
Effectiveness: (Holistic) Quality of Communication: (Analytic)
Was purpose of communication achieved?
Weighting 40%
Effectiveness:
Weighted score
( x2 )*
• Could learner respond to the
problem/request effectively?
1 2 3 4
• A score of 15/20 is considered “at Benchmark level”.
* The score for effectiveness is multiplied by 2 to give it a weighting of 40% of the total.
Total Anecdotal Comments
/20
• Amount of assistance required
• Use of strategies
(e.g. clarification)
• Knowledge of volunteer protocol
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A Classroom Example
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A Classroom Example
Classroom-Based Assessment
8
Ann will use this rubric as a reference when she views the videotapes with a colleague. (Adapted
from the Rating scale for speaking tasks, in Pawlikowska - Smith, 2000 b.) The rating scale can
be re-used with other speaking tasks throughout the semester.
Effectiveness:
1
No
Learner is not effective in the speaking task; purpose of communication is not achieved
2
Marginally
Learner is marginally effective in the speaking task; interaction with others is sometimes difficult
with misunderstandings
3
Yes
Learner is effective in the speaking task purpose of communication is achieved according to task
requirements
4
Yes
Learner is very effective in the speaking task; purpose of communication is achieved according to
task requirements with excellence
Adequacy of vocabulary for purpose:
1
Vocabulary inadequate even for the most basic parts of the task
2
Vocabulary limited and restricts interaction; lexical gaps and inaccuracies
3
Vocabulary generally sufficient for the task; there may be some word choice errors
4
Evidence of adequate and accurate vocabulary for the task; only rare circumlocution; skillful use of idiomatic language
Conversation Management:
1
No apparent ability to follow structure of the conversation or keep it going
2
Control of the exchange not satisfactory
3
Response in the exchange satisfactory; able to keep conversation going
4
Manages interaction through appropriate responses and initiation
Organization:
1
No apparent organization structure that would allow listener to follow the structure of the interaction
2
Attempt at organization but problems with structure of discourse cause some difficulty in understanding speaker
3
Organization of speech is satisfactory and allows listener to follow the structure of the speech;
discourse markers assist organization
4
Organization of speech is very clear; learner uses simple discourse markers effectively
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Collaborating with Colleagues
In order to ensure that her rating of the learners is fair and consistent, Ann asks a colleague with whom she team
teaches to view several of the video-taped role plays and use the rating sheet and scoring rubric to evaluate learner
performance. They go through each role play, scoring it individually and then comparing the points they assigned
for each category. They discuss any differences with the aim of coming to a very small margin of difference (no more
than 10%) between overall scores for any one role play. Over time, doing team marking has helped the two teachers
develop consistency in the way they interpret the performance indicators for the Benchmarks.
Multi-level Considerations
Two of the learners in Ann’s class are working at Speaking Benchmark 3. She will give these learners two of the
least complex role play situations related to giving directions. She will expect that learners at this level will “give
short one to two-clause directions relating to movement and position in space.” (CLB 2000 p.11) When she rates
their performance, she will not rate them on the conversation management criteria. She will rate them on Effectiveness,
Adequacy of vocabulary, and Organization of discourse. If there are learners working at CLB 5, (See CLB 2000
p. 62-3) she will give them a more complex task, one in which the directions require five or six steps. She will expect
that discourse markers are used consistently and that the speaker in the volunteer role can manage the conversation
through the use of questions and supportive comments.
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Assessment Example Two: Writing Assessment
Ann outlines the major writing task for this unit using the same process she used for the speaking task.
She refers to the CLB, pp.48-49, and identifies the appropriate competencies, performance indicators and
performance conditions for this task.
Assessment Example Two: Writing Task
Learners will write a short paragraph describing their experience as a volunteer at the children's
festival. The writing will be included with photographs in a class photo-story which will be
shared with festival organizers as well as with other classes that would like to participate in
similar volunteer experiences.
WHAT THE PERSON CAN DO
IV. Presenting information
• Write a short text about a personal
or familiar situation, event, or
personal experience.
PERFORMANCE CONDITIONS
• Text is one paragraph long, on a
familiar and personally relevant
topic.
PERFORMANCE INDICATORS/
EXAMPLES OF TEXT
• Describes a situation: reader can
follow
• Conveys main ideas, supporting detail
• Uses basic paragraph structure
• Uses simple sentence structure with
few errors
• Uses adequate vocabulary for the
topic
• Text uses everyday vocabulary.
Unfamiliar vocabulary has been
pre-taught.
• Spells correctly; follows punctuation
conventions
• Topics are of immediate everyday
relevance.
ASSESSMENT
Strategy: Observe learners as they write.
Analyze writing samples.
CRITERIA FOR SUCCESS:
1. Holistic
Overall effectiveness - Does learner
clearly describe the volunteer
experience?
2. Analytic
Adequacy of vocabulary for purpose -
Is vocabulary adequate and
accurate?
Accuracy of grammar -
Is there good use of simple sentence
structure - one clause and coordinated
clauses?
Relevance, Accuracy and Adequacy of
Content - Is there sufficient information
to provide a good " picture" of the
experience?
Descriptors in italics have been added by Ann to those from the CLB.
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A Classroom Example
Classroom-Based Assessment
Developing an Evaluation Process and Tool
Again, Ann will use the four point rating scale suggested in CLB 2000. She may create an evaluation sheet
such as the one below which will be completed and handed back to students with their papers.
Writing Task: Describe the Volunteer Experience
1
2
3
4
Comments
Writing describes the volunteer
experience effectively
Vocabulary
Content
Grammar: sentence structure
Total
1= Unable to achieve yet
2= Needs help
3= Satisfactory Benchmark achievement: pass
4= More than satisfactory achievement
Alternatively, she may simply put her ratings on the learners’ papers. She will ask learners to write the
following words at the bottom of their paragraph:
Describes experience:
Vocabulary:
Content:
Grammar – Sentences:
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Having learners write these criteria for success on their papers helps focus their attention on the factors that will
be important in this assignment. Ann describes what she is expecting to see in each of these four areas. If she
has writing samples from learners who have completed the task in past semesters, she will show them to the class
using an overhead projector. They will serve as ‘exemplars’ of writing that demonstrates satisfactory or more than
satisfactory achievement. The rating scale will be based on the analytic scales for writing/speaking outlined in the
CLB. A paper should have a total score of 11/16 to be considered at Benchmark level.
Rating Scale for Writing (For reference)
Adapted from Pawlikowska - Smith 2000 b.
Effectiveness:
1
Writing does not communicate the experience to the reader.
2
Writing only partly describes the experience to the reader. It is not easy to understand.
3
Writing is effective in describing experience to reader.
4
Writing is very effective. An excellent description to reader.
Vocabulary:
1
Vocabulary not adequate.
2
Limited vocabulary. A number of words are not accurate. Meaning is difficult to understand in some places.
3
Vocabulary is satisfactory. There may be a few errors in vocabulary.
4
Excellent use of vocabulary to describe the volunteer experience.
.
Content:
1
Not enough information.
2
Some information but not enough information to clearly describe the experience.
3
Adequate information to describe the experience.
4
Information is full and detailed and gives a good description of the experience.
Grammar:
1
Many sentence errors. Writing very difficult to understand.
2
Several sentence errors. Some difficulty understanding meaning.
3
Some sentence errors but writing can be understood.
4
Good sentence structure. Few errors.
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A Classroom Example
Classroom-Based Assessment
Observation Tools:
Ann may use simple observation checklists as she does a “walk about” at the children’s festival. During the first
visit she will note learners’ ability to complete the application forms without assistance. She expects that learners
at CLB 4 or above should be able to complete the forms independently. Learners at CLB 3 may need assistance
with one or two items. If learners have difficulty with the forms, she will note to include an activity related to
application forms in future lessons.
Completion of application forms:
Learner
Required assistance
to complete form
Completed form
independently
Comments
1
2
3
4
In the second visit, she may observe learners as they undertake their volunteer experience. In
this case she will use a checklist to note the effective use of conversation management and
clarification strategies as they occur.
Volunteer Experience:
Learner
Conversation
management strategy
observed
Clarification strategy
observed
Notes
1
2
3
4
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Classroom-Based Assessment
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A Classroom Example
Self Assessment of Volunteer Experiences
Learners will be asked to assess their interaction skills after completing the volunteer experience. In addition to
writing a learning log entry, they will complete the following short self assessment rating.
In my volunteer experience:
I think that I was able to communicate successfully.
Disagree
Agree
I was able to understand what the guests said to me.
Disagree
Agree
When I didn’t understand something I was
able to use clarification strategies successfully.
Disagree
Agree
The guests were able to understand me.
Disagree
Agree
I felt comfortable interacting with guests.
Disagree
Agree
The Assessment Process
Using Information for Feedback, Reporting and Future Planning
Who needs to know this information? How will I present the results in a way that is useful to
the audience?
After completing the assessment tasks Ann shares her feedback directly with learners.
Role play: She discusses with learners her criteria for success before they begin the role plays,
rephrasing the criteria for success using language they can understand. She explains how she
will assign points. At the end of the role plays she will replay the videotape so that learners can
view themselves. They will discuss in their journals how they think they did in the role plays. What
did they do well? What did they have trouble with? What would they like to improve? She may
ask learners to self-rate their performance on the role plays, using the four point scale. The next
day while learners are working on other assignments, she will share her marking sheet with
learners individually, so they can see her assessment of their performance.
Writing: Ann will explain the marking scale before learners complete the task. She will hand back
assignments with a completed marking sheet.
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A Classroom Example
Classroom-Based Assessment
Using the Information for Future Planning
Ann will use the information from the assessment tasks in this unit to plan future lessons. Based on what learners
were able to do well, what they had difficulties with and what they are interested in improving, she will plan new
teaching and learning activities.
At the end of the unit Ann will compile the information from these assessments in a Unit /Midterm report (see next
page). At midpoint in the fourteen week semester, she will meet with learners so they can see the competencies
they have demonstrated so far in the course. She will be able to discuss with each learner their progress to date,
and help them to set learning goals for the second half of the semester.
At the end of the course, Ann will meet with the other teacher who works with the same group of learners. Together
they will complete end of term reports and determine which learners have successfully demonstrated the competencies
at CLB Level 4.
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8
Unit / Mid-term Reporting Form
(See Appendix for template.)
Unit / Midterm Report
Name:
Date:
Unit Outcomes
Notes
• Understand: Benefits of volunteering;
roles and responsibilities.
• Participate with native speakers.
• Gain volunteer experience for a resumé.
CLB Speaking 4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
Social interaction:
Tasks:
Instructions:
Tasks: Volunteer role play
Suasion: Getting things done:
Tasks: Volunteer role play
Information:
Tasks: Retelling volunteer experience
CLB Listening 4
Notes
Social interaction:
Task:
Instructions:
Task:
Getting things done:
Task:
Information:
Task: Presentation by festival staff
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A Classroom Example
Classroom-Based Assessment
Unit / Midterm Report
CLB Writing 4
1
2
3
4
Notes
1
2
3
4
Notes
Social interaction:
Task:
Recording information:
Task:
Business/service messages:
Task: Complete application form at festival
Information: Describe a situation or experience
Task: Paragraph - Describe your experience
at the festival
CLB Reading 4
Social interaction texts:
Task:
Instructions:
Task:
Business/service texts:
Task: Read festival schedule and complete
retrieval chart
Information texts:
Task:
Strategies, Skills and Grammar
1= Unable to achieve yet 2= Needs help 3= Satisfactory benchmark achievement: pass 4= More than satisfactory achievement
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Helpful Readings
Alberta Assessment Consortium. (1997). A Framework for Student Assessment. (1997). Edmonton, AB: Alberta
Assessment Consortium. www.aac.ab.ca
This short handbook provides an excellent and easy to read overview of some of the key principles and processes
which form the current approach to classroom-based assessment. While the framework is written for the K-12
system, the information is very useful and applicable to an adult context.
Alberta Assessment Consortium. (2000). HOW TO. . . Develop and Use Performance Assessments in the
Classroom. Edmonton, AB: Alberta Assessment Consortium. www.aac.ab.ca
A well-written and practical resource describing processes for developing performance assessments. The handbook
includes a number of samples and templates.
Bachman, L.F., Palmer, A.S. (1996) Language Testing in Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
This academic text relates language testing practice to current views of communicative language teaching and
testing. It discusses the conceptual bases and process of test development and provides ten case studies. This is
an excellent resource for teachers interested in test development.
Bailey, K. (2000). Learning About Language Assessment: Dilemmas, Decisions, and Directions.
Heinle & Heinle.
This book provides an excellent overview of current thinking and practice in language assessment. Three strands
are woven throughout each chapter. Teachers' Voices provide practitioners' perspectives on a particular topic.
Frameworks discuss concepts and issues related to the topic and investigations suggest questions and tasks for
further exploration and reflection on the topic.
Brindley, G. (1995). Language Assessment in Action. Sydney, Australia: Macquarrie University.
This book is a collection of papers that discuss a number of initiatives and issues related to the assessment of
learners' language proficiency. It uses a case study approach and many of the issues and approaches that are
discussed in relation to the Australian Migrant Education Programs will be of interest and relevance to practitioners
interested in assessment related to the CLB.
Brown, J.D. (1998). New Ways of Classroom Assessment. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languages, Inc.
This is a practical and helpful volume full of teacher designed assessment activities that are well laid out and clearly
explained. Grouping of the activities into chapters such as Self-Assessment, Portfolios, Listening and Note-taking
make the activities easy to access.
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8
Classroom-Based Assessment
Canadian Association of Second Language Teachers, Inc.(1999). Formative Assessments: English as a Second
Language. Ottawa, ON: CASLT. http://caslt.org/research/assessment.
This is a very practical and helpful volume of assessment ideas with many suggestions for self and peer assessment.
While the book is intended for use with high school learners, the activities could easily be adapted for use with
adult learners.
Mitra, C. (1999). On Target! A Resource Book of Assessment Tasks Referenced to the Canadian Language
Benchmarks (Stage One and Stage Two). Calgary, AB: Bow Valley College.
Each resource book contains CLB-referenced assessment tasks in all competency areas for the skill areas of
reading, writing and listening/speaking. A very useful tool for placement or for assessment of specific competencies.
O’Malley,M., & Valdez Pierce, L. (1996). Authentic Assessment for English Language Learners. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
This book includes an introduction to and discussion of various aspects of authentic assessment. A variety of
excellent examples of different types of assessment strategies and evaluation tools are included throughout the
book and many of the samples can be photocopied.
Snow, M.A. (2000). Implementing the ESL Standards for Pre-K-12 Students Through Teacher Education
Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.
For an excellent overview of the changing trends in assessment see the chapter by Anne Katz, “Changing
Paradigms for Assessment.”
TESOL. (1998). Managing the Assessment Process: A Framework for Measuring Student Attainment of the
ESL Standards. TESOL Professional Papers #5. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languages, Inc.
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G l o s s a r y
GLOSSARY
Term
Definition
Activity
A single planned classroom undertaking which is directly related to language
teaching and learning. Each has its own objectives, content, working
procedure and criteria for success. An activity can be communicative and
can be focused on form and accuracy (skill-building) or function and fluency
(skill-using).
Analytic Scoring
The assignment of separate scores in designated categories on a
scoring rubric.
Anecdotal Record
Informal written notes on learner processes or products.
Assessment
A systematic approach for collecting information on student learning or
performance usually based on various sources of evidence.
Audio Dialogue Journals
Learners tape short (3-4 minute) "conversations" or responses (not from
written script). Teachers respond on tape.
Authentic Assessment
Procedures for evaluating student achievement or performance using
activities that represent classroom goals, curricula and instruction or reallife performance.
Authentic English
Refers to language that is not manipulated or contrived to be easily
understood. It is the language used daily by native speakers. It includes
idioms, hesitations, incomplete sentences, inferred meanings, cultural
appropriateness, etc.
Authentic Language Task
A language task that involves individuals in using language to communicate
a message and accomplish a real purpose in a particular situation.
Back Channel
The verbal and non-verbal devices used by an interlocutor to indicate that
s/he is involved in and following the conversation. Includes devices, such
as nods, uh huh's, grunts and utterances such as, Really! You're kidding!
I see, etc.
Checklist
A list to identify characteristics or behaviors that are present or not present.
Usually scored as yes/no ratings.
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Glossary
181
CLBA
Canadian Language Benchmarks Assessment is a national language assessment.
For more information contact the Centre for Language Training & Assessment.
Coherence
In discourse (text) following a logical sequence of development of ideas,
argument, exchanges.
Cohesion
Connection between elements of text achieved by grammatical reference within
and between clauses, by words which are semantically related and by organization
patterns such as classification, comparison, contrast, analogy, cause and effect.
Collocation
Words that regularly occur together. For example we generally say, interested
in, not interested about and had a discussion or held a discussion, not performed
a discussion.
Communicative Competence
The ability to communicate and understand messages as they are intended in
a particular situation.
Community Context
The community in which the language learner will live and use English. This
may be a geographical community - city, town or neighbourhood; or a workplace
community - factory, meat processing plant, daycare.
Compensatory Strategies
Strategies that are employed to express and interpret meaning in a second
language when there is inadequate knowledge of vocabulary or rules to govern
the exchange.
Conventions
Agreed upon characteristics or features related to a particular oral or written
genre used in a particular social situation.
Course
A series of modules / or units. Fits within a given time frame in a specific
program with a defined group of learners.
Criteria
Guidelines, rules, or principles by which student responses, products, or
performances are judged.
Curriculum
A generic framework on which courses for specific groups of learners can be
based. No specified time frame.
Diagnostic Assessment
An assessment tool or process that attempts to diagnose, or identify, a learner's
strengths and weaknesses, typically so that an effective and appropriate course
of instruction can be presented.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
Glossary
Discourse Competence
Discourse competence (also called textual competence) refers to the adherence
to rules and devices of cohesion and coherence that stage and sequence the
language functions and information in ways that allow expressions to combine
into meaningful sequences at the text and discourse level.
Enabling Tasks & Activities
These are skill-building teaching and learning activities that are designed to
develop skills and knowledge in order to perform real-world and authentic
language tasks. They focus on accuracy and form.
Evaluation
Interpretation of assessment data regarding the quality, value, or worth of some
response, product, or performance. Evaluations are usually based on multiple
sources of information.
Extended Discourse
A piece of oral or written text that extends beyond the sentence level.
Formative Assessment
Formative assessment is ongoing diagnostic assessment providing information
to guide instruction and improve student performance.
Genre
A particular class of oral or written text that is characterized by certain conventions
that are agreed upon by a particular speech community. Some examples of
oral genres include: a service transaction, a lecture, a debate, an oral story or
joke. Some examples of written genres include menus, newspaper article,
schedule, cheque, resume, essay, memo, etc.
Goals
Goals are broad general statements that describe the overall purpose of a
module, course or program.
Holistic Scoring
The assignment of a single score, based on specific criteria, to a student's
performance
Idioms
An idiom is an expression (group of words) that describes a situation using a
metaphor or similar non-literal use of language. Idioms are common expressions
that are known by native speakers but are not necessarily found in the dictionary.
For example: 'to look after someone' does not mean to view them as they walk
away. 'To run' a business is an idiom.
Information Gap
An oral language activity in which a student is rated on his or her success in
describing information that is kept from a partner, such as a picture, map, or
object.
Interactional Tasks
Two-way tasks involving transactional exchanges (e.g. at the doctor's, at the
professor's office, at a job interview), conversations, discussions, or debates.
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Glossary
183
Interlocutors
The people who are activity involved in a conversation (listeners and speakers).
Inter-Rater Reliability
The level of agreement attained between independent raters of student
performance. Often expressed as percentage of agreement or as the correlation
between the scores of two raters on the same group of students.
Intonation
The rise and fall of pitch in the voice, the change of speech rhythm. Intonation
is used to carry information over and above that which is expressed by the
words in the sentence.
Iterative
A computational procedure in which replication of a cycle of operations produces
results which approximate the desired result more and more closely.
L1
First language is the language in which a person first acquired communication
skill or the language in which a person communicates most effectively.
LEA
Language Experience Approach - this is a teaching technique that is often used
in teaching reading. Students offer their own words to tell a story and the
teacher writes them on a board or large flip chart. Students read exactly what
they have said.
Language Functions
A language function refers to the purpose of the utterance or unit of language
such as requesting, apologizing, and complaining.
Language Learning Strategies
Strategies that are employed to assist in the acquisition of a second language.
Language Learning Task
A task is a practical application and demonstration of language abilities in a
structured unit of communication, complete with a particular content of language
data, purpose, procedures to be carried on the language data, objectives and
defined successful completion outcomes.
Learner-Centred
Learner-centred refers to a program or course that structures all activities around
the needs and goals of the learners.
Learning Log
A form of self assessment in which students write journal entries summarizing
what they have learned or commenting on the strategies they used that were
successful in aiding their learning.
Lesson
A sequence of tasks and activities planned to enable learners to experience
and practice specific aspects of English and to gain understanding of specific
content. Activities are usually related by theme and cover a specific unit of
time.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
Glossary
LINC
Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada, a federally funded program
for Adult ESL learners.
Minimal Pairs
Pairs of words in which the only sound difference is the sound being practiced.
Examples: sit/seat, live/leave. These pairs are used for isolating and practicing
particular sounds.
Mnemonic Strategy Or Device
A technique to assist memory, such as associating a new vocabulary item to
an image in L1.
Module / Unit
A series of lessons-related thematically or functionally.
Monologic Tasks
One-way tasks involving presentations, (narration, description, comparison,
evaluation, justification, formulating conclusions); giving instructions, or leaving
messages.
Needs Assessment (NA)
A needs assessment is conducted before the lesson plans are developed. It is
imperative in Adult ESL that the students voice their needs for learning the
language. Many people identify basic needs, e.g. talking to store clerks, getting
a job, enrolling children in school, etc. The teacher then plans the classes around
the identified needs.
Orthography
Orthography refers to the written forms of the language (spelling, punctuation
and handwriting).
Performance Assessment
Assessment tasks that require students to construct a response, create a product,
or demonstrate applications of knowledge.
Portfolio
A collection of student work showing student reflection and progress or
achievement over time in one or more areas.
Portfolio Assessment
A selective collection of student work, teacher observations, and self assessment
that is used to show progress over time with regard to specific criteria.
Primary Trait Scoring
A type of scoring used to assess writing that focuses on a particular trait or
feature emphasized in instruction, such as idea development or language
structure.
Reading and Writing Strategies
Strategies used to assist in learning to read and write in another language.
Realia
Realia means real materials, i.e. materials that are not made specifically for
ESL students. Examples: library card forms, prescription labels, school notices,
hydro bills, telephone books, flyers, catalogues, recipes and traffic signs.
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Glossary
185
Real-World Learning Tasks
Tasks that require learners to approximate in class the sorts of behaviours
required beyond the classroom.
Reliability
The degree to which an assessment yields consistent results.
Retrieval Chart
A questionnaire or chart that has been designed to collect information that a
student must 'retrieve" (skim, scan, summarize, or synthesize) from another
source.
Role Play
This is a popular technique used to simulate real world communication. For
example, "Practice calling for an appointment, I will be the receptionist and
you are the patient".
Rubric
A measurement scale used to evaluate a student's performance. Rubrics consist
of a fixed scale and a list of characteristics that describe criteria at each score
point for a particular outcome.
Scaffolding
The systematic provision of varying degrees and types of teacher support and
intervention to learners as they carry out tasks depending on their level of
competence or familiarity with the language or the activity.
Scale
An evaluation tool that involves marking on a continuum. Two end points are
assigned a meaning and performance is rated in relation to the two extremes.
Self Assessment
Appraisal by a student of his or her own work or learning process.
Settle
Settle implies taking root in a new county. It has a very broad meaning that
includes finding work, establishing a residence, and being part of a community.
Sight Words
Words that can be recognized or read as a whole unit without sounding out
letter by letter or syllable by syllable.
Small Talk
Small talk is the pleasant inconsequential verbal exchange that Canadians
engage in at bus stops, in lineups and when meeting new people. Topics are
not personal and are often about weather and news. There are unwritten rules
about personal taboo subjects such as income level.
Sociocultural Competence
Sociocultural competence or sociolinguistic competence refers to the ability to
communicate in ways that are appropriate for the situation.
Speech Acts
Speech acts are chunks of language used to perform a function and may include
a set pattern for an exchange. A speech act may have a literal meaning or an
inferred meaning.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
Glossary
Spiralling
A teaching practice that involves recycling previously taught language items
in new topics or contexts. This practice reinforces learning and facilitates transfer
of knowledge to new contexts.
Stakeholders
Anyone or any group of people who have an interest in or who will be affected
by a particular enterprise.
Strategic Competence
Strategic competence refers to the ability to avoid or repair communication
breakdown. It can also refer to strategies employed to assist in learning.
Stress
The pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than the surrounding
words or syllables.
Summative Assessment
Culminating assessment for a unit or course providing a status report on mastery
or degree of proficiency according to identified learning outcomes.
Survival English
The English that is used to obtain goods and services for day to day living such
as buying food, taking a bus, getting medical attention, etc.
Syllabus
A description of the contents of a course of instruction and the order in which
they are to be taught
Task Analysis
A systematic breakdown of a task into small units in order to isolate teachable
items.
Text
A piece of spoken or written language. It may be only one word in length, such
a sign that reads, DANGER! or it may be a lengthy piece of extended discourse.
Text Retelling
A procedure for assessment of comprehension in which students listen to or
read a story or text and then retell the main ideas or selected details in their
own words.
Textual Competence
Textual competence (also called discourse competence) refers to the adherence
to rules and devices of cohesion and coherence that stage and sequence the
language functions and information in ways that allow expressions to combine
into meaningful sequences at the text and discourse level.
Think-Aloud
Students describe aloud the thinking processes they are using in reading or in
problem solving.
Validity
Refers to whether or not an assessment is an adequate measure of the curriculum
and the objectives it represents.
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.
R e f e r e n c e s
REFERENCES
Alberta Assessment Consortium. (1997). A Framework for Student Assessment. Edmonton, AB: Alberta
Assessment Consortium. www.aac.ab.ca.
Alberta Assessment Consortium. (2000). HOW TO...Develop and Use Performance Assessments in the
Classroom. Edmonton, AB: Alberta Assessment Consortium. www.aac.ab.ca.
Bachman, L.F. (1990). Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bachman, L.F. & Palmer, A. S. (1996). Language Testing in Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bailey, K. (2000). Learning About Language Assessment: Dilemmas, Decisions, and Directions. Boston,
MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the black box: raising standards through classroom assessment.
Phi Delta Kappan, October, 139-148.
Breen, M. (1989). Contemporary paradigms in syllabus design. Part I and Part II. Language Teaching 20
(2-3): 81-92, 157-174.
Breen, M., Candlin, C., Dam, L., & Gabrielsen, G. (1989). In R.K. Johnson, The Second Language Curriculum.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 111-135.
Breen, M. & Littlejohn, A. (2000). The significance of negotiation. In Breen, M. & Littlejohn, A. (Eds.). (2000).
Classroom Decision-Making: negotiation and process syllabuses in practice. pp. 5-38.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brindley, G. (1986). The Assessment of Second Language Proficiency: Issues and Approaches. Adelaide,
South Australia: National Curriculum Resource Centre.
Brindley, G. (1995). Language Assessment in Action. Sydney, Australia: Macquarie University.
Brown, H.D. (1994). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Brown J. D. (1995). The Elements of Language Curriculum: A Systematic Approach to Program
Development. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Brown, J. D. (1998). New Ways of Classroom Assessment. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers
of Other Languages, Inc.
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
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References
Brown, J. D. & Hudson, T. (1998). The alternatives in language assessment. TESOL Quarterly, 32(4),
653-675.
Burns, A., & Joyce, H. (1997). Focus on Speaking. Sydney, Australia: National Centre for English Language Teaching
and Research.
Burton, J. (Ed.). (1987). Implementing the Learner-Centred Curriculum. Australia: National Curriculum
Resource Centre, Adult Migrant Education Program Australia. 5th Floor, Renaissance Centre, 127 Rundle
Mall, Adelaide, South Australia 5000.
Canadian Association of Second Language Teachers, Inc., (1999). Formative Assessments: English as a Second
Language. Ottawa, ON: http://caslt.org/research
Canale, M. & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and
testing. Applied Linguistics 1:1-47
Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed.). (1991). Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Boston, MA: Heinle &
Heinle.
Celce-Murcia, M., Dörnyei, Z., & Thurrell, S. (1997a). Communicative competence: A pedagogically motivated
model with content specifications. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 6, 5-35.
Celce-Murcia, M., Dörnyei, Z., & Thurrell, S. (1997b). Direct approaches in L2 instruction: A turning point
in communicative language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 31 (1). 141-151.
Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. (2000). Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000. Centre for
Canadian Language Benchmarks. Ottawa, ON: 200 Elgin Street, Suite 803, Ottawa, ON. K2P 1L5.
www. language.ca
Citizenship and Immigration Canada. (1997). The Revised LINC Curriculum Guidelines 1997, based on
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From: LINC 4&5 Guidelines (1999). Toronto Catholic District School Board
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Guiding Questions for Curriculum Development
What are Some Guiding Questions for Curriculum Development?
❏ Who are the stakeholders who will be affected by the curriculum development - learners, teachers, funders,
programs and institutions?
• Have all the stakeholders been identified and included in the development process?
• What are their expectations? What do the stakeholders have in common?
❏ Do all stakeholders and participants have a common understanding of the CLB and their relationship to
the proposed curriculum? Has the development team had an opportunity to develop a common understanding
of the CLB document and its relationship to the proposed curriculum?
❏ What research is necessary prior to beginning the development of the curriculum? Are there key documents
that will provide direction to the project? What has been done in other places? How do existing curricula
relate to the proposed one?
❏ Who will have major responsibility for planning, developing and writing the curriculum? Do all participants
have a shared understanding of the learner groups / teacher groups/ programs - i.e. of the ultimate users of
the curriculum? What are the roles and responsibilities of the development team members? How will the
work be coordinated?
❏ What resources and support structures are available for curriculum development - for paying for adequate
release time for curriculum developers; for access to research information; for advisory groups and consultants
(travel?; per diem costs?; honoraria?), for consultation with ultimate users of the curriculum (focus groups /
pilot process); for revision time and costs.
❏ What resources are available for implementing the curriculum? Is there provision for in-service and professional
development for teachers and others who will be using the curriculum? Is there provision for selecting /
purchasing/ developing new appropriate resources? How will various forms of technology be incorporated
and developed and paid for?
❏ Will specialist consultants be required for specific aspects of the curriculum? What are their roles and
responsibilities?
❏ Who will own the 'rights' for curriculum documents and related materials?
❏ What is the time frame for curriculum development? Can the project be planned in stages?
❏ How will teachers and other stakeholders provide input and feedback during the process? How will the
experience of teachers and others be incorporated into the curriculum? How will a reference group be selected
that is representative of the user groups in general? At what stages in the project will this feedback
be sought?
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❏ How will information about the curriculum be disseminated? Will there be information sessions or bulletins
/ newsletters / requests for feedback / workshops/ at intervals?
❏ Will draft curriculum documents be piloted? How will the findings from pilot processes be incorporated into
the final document?
❏ What is the format for the publication? Who is responsible for proofreading / formatting/ printing and
distributing the final document?
❏ Will there be provision for curriculum renewal and revision at intervals - 3-5 years?
❏ What are the expectations of the institution, program, community?
Curriculum development begins with an examination and description of the community or institutional context
within which ESL programs will operate. These descriptions provide a basis for developing learning goals and
objectives and describe the communication context in which learners will be participating as they develop
English language skills.
• What is the range of program and community contexts for which the curriculum is being developed?
• Do the ESL programs bridge to community participation, employment / workplace, further study?
• What is the range of program time-frames?
• Are programs part-time, full time, drop-in?
• What reporting requirements are there - to learners, to funders, to institution?
• What partnerships are possible? (Employers, academic upgrading teachers, community organizations) How
will the curriculum take account of these partnerships? (Description of content; learning processes)
For example, if the curriculum is to be used on a provincial level, the starting point will be a description
of the provincial context - educational and employment opportunities for learners, provincial structures,
services and policies that affect learners and programs, etc.
If the curriculum is to be used in one major urban centre, develop a description of the opportunities
available in that area. If the curriculum is for one institution, develop a description of the major resources
available within that institution for learners.
• What consultations and needs analyses have been carried out to guide the curriculum developers?
• What are the characteristics of the learner group(s)?
• Age range, language learning goals, proficiency level range, background education and experiences.
• CLB Levels
General needs assessment activities lead to a description of the general groups of learners that the
curriculum is meant to address. Develop sample profiles of 'typical' learners. Learners may be generally
grouped according to learning experience. For example:
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• Learners with limited learning experiences in formal settings. They may have low levels of formal education,
low levels of literacy in first language.
• Learners with some learning strategies and/or resources. Have generally accessed secondary education
in home country and are literate in first language.
• Learners with a high level of learning resources and some post secondary education and / or technical
skills training. Literate in first language.
Learners may also be described in terms of their purposes for learning English. Learners may have an
employment focus, academic / upgrading focus, community participation focus or very specific
academic, employment or vocational focus
❏ How will continuity be maintained across stages and levels of the curriculum? Through reference to the CLB?
Through themes and topics? There are two kinds of continuity in planning:
• continuity between learning experiences in ESL programs in Canada and learners' previous experiences of
language learning;
• and continuity within a given ESL program.
❏ What learner determined goals and objectives will be reflected in the curriculum?
• How will English language learning goals be stated?
• What goals do the learners have beyond improving their English proficiency level? Will this be reflected
in the curriculum?
• How will goals and objectives be sequenced to relate to the CLB Stages of learners in our programs?
• How will the CLB competencies be reflected in the goals and objectives?
❏ What approaches to learning and teaching ESL are most appropriate for the learners, teachers and
organizational structure of the program(s)?
Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000:
A Guide to Implementation
.
.
A Guide to
Implementation
Available from:
Centre for Canadian Language
Language Benchmarks
Benchmarks
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Elgin Street
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