Louisiana State University
LSU Digital Commons
LSU Doctoral Dissertations
Graduate School
2016
Buying In and Selling Out: African-American
Ownership of Record Labels in the Twentieth
Century
Stuart Lucas Tully
Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College
Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_dissertations
Recommended Citation
Tully, Stuart Lucas, "Buying In and Selling Out: African-American Ownership of Record Labels in the Twentieth Century" (2016).
LSU Doctoral Dissertations. 3246.
http://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_dissertations/3246
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BUYINGINANDSELLINGOUT:
AFRICAN-AMERICANOWNERSHIPOFRECORDLABELS
INTHETWENTIETHCENTURY
ADissertation
SubmittedtotheGraduateFacultyofthe
LouisianaStateUniversityand
AgriculturalandMechanicalCollege
inpartialfulfillmentofthe
requirementsforthedegreeof
DoctorofPhilosophy
in
TheDepartmentofHistory
by
StuartTully
B.S.,MississippiCollege,2002
M.A.,LouisianaStateUniversity, 2009
May2016
ToWarren,
Thisoneisforyou
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CharlesShindoguidedthisprojectfrominceptiontocompletionandhis
directionhasbeenimmenselyimpactful.Hehasbeengracious,insightful,andabove
allencouragingofthisproject.Imustthankhimforhumoringmeduringallthe
seeminglyendlessvisitstohisofficethatsomehowalwaysturnedoutproductive
thankstohisadvice.Iwouldalsoliketothankmyothercommitteemembersfor
theirsupportincreatingthiswork.LouisianaStateUniversityhasbeenawonderful
environmentandIamgratefulformytimehere.
Onapersonalnote,Ihavetothankmyfamilyandfriendswhohavepassed
andexceededanypossibleexpectations.Tomyparents,whogavesupportinall
definitionsofthewordthroughoutmygraduateschoolcareer.Tomycolleaguesand
fellowAmericanists,whohaveprovidedcamaraderiebeyondmyimagination.But
aboveall,IhavetothankmywonderfulwifeCarole,whohasencouragedmorethan
anyotherindividual,aswellastoleratedmyattimessingle-mindednessduringthe
beginningofourlifetogether.Iloveyou,morethanwordscansay.
iii
TABLEOFCONTENTS
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………………………..iii
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….v
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………...1
ChapterOne:HarryPaceandBlackSwanRecords:1921-1923…...……………………….18
ChapterTwo:TheEconomicandCulturalDecisionsofHarryPace……………………….40
ChapterThree:BerryGordy’sMotown:1959-1988……………………………………………..79
ChapterFour:TheEconomicandCulturalDecisionsofBerryGordy…………………..109
ChapterFive:DefJam,RussellSimmons,andHipHop:1984-1999……………………..165
ChapterSix:TheEconomicandCulturalDecisionsofRussellSimmons………………230
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………….281
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………………….289
Vita………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….305
iv
ABSTRACT
Throughoutthetwentiethcentury,African-Americanownedrecordlabels
seeminglyservedasembodimentsofentrepreneurialism’scapacitytogenerate
socialupliftfortheraceaswellaswealth.However,anexaminationofBlackSwan
Records,Motown,andDefJamRecords,demonstrateshowthisassertionis
underminedbytheactionsoftheirowners.
HarryPacefoundedBlackSwanRecordsin1921notonlytoshowcaseblack
artists,butalsoprovetheAfrican-Americanaudiencewascapableofappreciating
classicalmusicandotherhighculture.However,facedwithfinancialpressures,Pace
expandedthegenresrecordedonBlackSwantoincludejazzandothergenres
deemed“low”culture,aswellasreleasedrecordsbywhiteartistsunderblack
names.
BerryGordy’srefusaltoallowhisMotownartiststotakeapublicstanceon
theCivilRightsMovementofthe1960scamefromhisbeliefthattheirparticipation
wouldbedetrimentaltothecompany’sprofitability.Gordy’sbeliefinsellingblack
respectabilitytothecommercialmainstreamformedthebasisofmuchofhis
decisionsinrunningMotown,andbecameitsultimatelegacy.
AlthoughRussellSimmonssoughttomarketblackrebellionunderthe
assumptionwhiteconsumerswouldfinditmoreauthentic,hisdecisionsmadeas
ownerofDefJamwasdemonstratedhowentrenchedblackmusichadbecome
withinmainstreamculture.Whenartistswenttoofarintheirpersonaofrebellion,
suchasmembersofPublicEnemy,Simmonswasquicktocastthemasideinorderto
preservethelabel’sviability.
v
Thethreeowner’sactionstoremaincommerciallysuccessfuldespite
seeminglyinoppositiontotheirstatedculturalandracialgoalsdemonstratethe
priorityofeconomicrealitiesinherentinconsumerculturetakingprecedenceover
idealisticefforts.Incommodifyingrace,theresultingmusicwasforemosta
commercialproduct,anddiminisheditsculturalvalue.Thisworkchallengesearlier
studiesofAfrican-Americanpopularmusicbyarguingthatthepositiveattributesof
presentingblackartiststoamainstreamaudiencewereweakenedbytheeconomic
considerationsofrunningabusinessandthedemandsofaconsumerculture.
vi
INTRODUCTION
OnAugust23,1900,agroupofAfrican-Americanprofessionalsfromacross
thecountrymetinBoston,Massachusettsforthefirstannualmeetingofthe
NationalNegroBusinessLeague.Overthecourseoftwodays,exhibitorsgave
presentationsonblack-ownedbusinessesincoalmining,potatofarming,
undertaking,floristry,andahostofotherdiverseindustries.1Inaddition,presenters
forecastedthebusinessoutlookforblackenterpriseacrossthenation.The
attendeesoftheannualmeetingcameatthebequestofBookerT.Washington,who
hadorganizedtheleague.Washingtonhadachievednationalnotorietyforhis
“AtlantaCompromise”speechdeliveredattheAtlantaCottonStatesand
InternationalExposition,fiveyearsbefore,inwhichheadvocatedformechanical
andagriculturalworkasthemethodbywhichAfrican-Americanscouldultimately
achievesocialequalitywithwhitepeople.Washingtonalsorecognizedthatblack
ownedbusinessesservedasanimportantmeansthroughwhichAfrican-Americans
coulddemonstratetheirvaluetotherestofAmerica.Washingtoninvitedallblack
businessmentojointheleague,whoseranksincludedlawyers,doctors,andsmall
businessownersaswellasfarmersandcraftsmen.TheLeagueformally
incorporatedinNewYorkCitythefollowingyearandeventuallygrewtoinclude
hundredsofindividualchaptersthroughoutthenation.
WashingtonwasnotaloneamongAfrican-Americanthinkersattheturnof
thecenturyemphasizingthenecessityofblack-ownedbusinessestogainequality.
EvenW.E.B.Dubois,whotypicallyopposedWashington,agreedthatblack-owned
1RecordsoftheNationalNegroBusinessLeague.BlackStudiesResearchSources.Microfilm.Bracey,
JohnandMeier,Augusteds.UniversityPublicationsofAmerica.5.
1
businessesshouldbeamajorhallmarkofanyplantoachievecivilrights.The
DeclarationofPrinciples,draftedbyDuboisandWilliamMonroeTrotterafterthe
inaugural1905meetingoftheNiagaraMovement,decriedtheSouth’sprejudicein
oppressingsmallbusinessenterpriseandimpedingadvancement.Thisrhetoricwas
continuedintheplatformadoptedbytheNationalNegroCommitteein1909.The
Committee,whichwouldchangeitsnametotheNationalAssociationforthe
AdvancementofColoredPeoplethefollowingyear,similarlystatedthatthe
transitionofaprimarilyunskilledblacklaborforceintoskilledlaborwasakey
focus.ThestressonblackenterprisewasfeltthroughouttheAfrican-American
communitywithlaterorganizations,suchasMarcusGarvey’sUnitedNegro
ImprovementAssociation,continuingthisemphasisonblackownershipof
businessesthroughouttheearlypartofthetwentiethcentury.
Encouragingblackentrepreneurialismasatentpoleforalargerpushfor
greaterCivilRightscontinuedthroughoutthetwentiethcentury.Asblack
entrepreneursgainedmorefinancialsuccessandnotoriety,itwasbelievedthat
theirindividualachievementswouldtranslateintoincreasedequalityfortherestof
therace.OrganizationssuchastheNationalNegroBusinessLeagueperpetuatedthis
idea.TheLeague,whichchangeditsnametotheNationalBusinessLeaguein1967,
stillexists,withgoalsvirtuallyidenticaltothosesetdownbyWashingtonin1900.
Itswebsitestatesitsvisionisto“EmpowerandUplifttheBlackCommunitythrough
BusinessandEconomicDevelopment”anditsmissionis“toCreateWealthinandfor
theBlackcommunity”2ThecontinuedexistenceoftheLeaguedemonstratesthe
2“NationalBusinessLeagueVision”.Retrieved11/12/16.http://nblgw.org/the-nbl-s-vision
2
pervasivenessofthisideathroughtheyears.Thisbeliefthattheeconomicgrowthof
blackentrepreneurialismwouldcorrelatewithanincreasedsocialelevationforthe
wholeoftheracebecameprevalentinAfrican-Americansocietythroughoutthe
twentiethcentury,andimpactthedevelopmentofseveralbusinesses.
Theburgeoningrecordingindustryseemedanideallaboratorytotestthe
potencyofblackentrepreneurialismforfourmainreasons.First,themediumasa
wholewasstillrelativelynew.AlthoughThomasEdisonhadfirstintroduced
electronicrecordingswithhis1877inventionofthephonograph,othercompanies
suchasColumbiaandVictorcameupwiththeirownimitations.Atthetimeofthe
firstmeetingoftheNationalNegroBusinessLeaguein1900,thesecompanies
comprisedthe“BigThree”ofrecordingdevicesandheldmostofthepatentsand
nationaldistributionovertherecordbusiness.ThisresultedinEdison,Columbia,
andVictorholdingavirtualmonopolyonrecordedmusic.Thisoligarchicalcontrol
stooduntilthemid-1910s,whenaseriesofsuccessfullawsuitsandpatent
expirationsallowedfornewrecordlabelstobeformed.
Secondly,althoughtherecordindustrywasnewlyexpanded,thebusinessof
sellingmusichadalreadyproventobelucrative.Manufacturersofprintedmusic
andmusicalinstrumentshadgrownimmenselyinthebeginningofthetwentieth
century.BytheendofWorldWarI,Americanmusicindustrieshadproducedmore
than$335millioningoods.3Eagercustomerspurchasedpianos,sheetmusic,and
othermusicalmerchandiseindroves,andmusicalrecordingswereposedto
3DavidSuisman.“Co-WorkersintheKingdomofCulture:BlackSwanRecordsandthePolitical
EconomyofAfricanAmericanMusic.”TheJournalofAmericanHistoryVol.90,No.4(Mar.,2004),
1296.
3
continuethistrend.Althoughestablishedmusicianswereatfirsthesitanttorecord,
fearingthepoorsoundqualityoftherecordingswouldmisrepresenttheirskill,
theircautiousnesswanedinlightofthefameandfortuneachievedbythosewhodid
record.
Thirdly,thestrikingdownoftheolddominanceofthe“BigThree”through
lawsuitsandpatentexpirationsalsomadeitmuchcheaperforentrepreneursto
enterintotherecordbusiness.Buddingmusicimpresariosnolongerhadtocreate
theirownrecordingprocessormediuminordertocreaterecords.Instead,they
couldutilizethetechnologyalreadydeveloped,whichwasnowavailableafter
decadesofEdison,Columbia,andVictor’scontrol.Thereducedcostofenteringinto
therecordbusinessbenefittedaspiringblackbusinesspersons,whotypicallyhad
lessmethodsofobtainingpreliminarycapital.Althoughthecostofcreatinganew
recordingprocesshadbeenprohibitivelyhigh,itsnewfoundavailabilityallowed
blackentrepreneursaccessintoafieldpreviouslyunattainable.
Finally,recordedsongsandtheirperformersbecamebonafidecultural
phenomenon,impactingAmericanpopcultureagreatdeal.Recordingmusicians
becamecelebrities,andtheirimagegeneratedthroughtheconsumermedium
becametheirdominantportrayal.Whileliveperformanceshadpreviouslybeen
viewedastheoverridingproofofmusicianship,recordedmusicbegantotake
precedence.Throughthesuccessfulsaleofrecords,African-Americanscouldnot
onlygeneratefinancialbenefit,butalsocreatepositiveimagesofblackpeoplein
Americansociety.Althoughpreviousdepictionsofblackmusicianshadperpetuated
ideasofracialinferiority,thedevelopmentofanewmediumallowedforthechance
4
toreplacetheoldstereotypeswithdepictionsthatbetterreflectedthepositive
attributesoftherace.Throughthesuccessfulsaleofrecords,African-Americans
couldnotonlygeneratefinancialbenefit,butalsocreateaffirmativeimagesofblack
peopleinAmericansociety.Becauseofitsnewness,lucrativeness,relative
cheapness,andcapacityforcontributingbotheconomicallyandculturally,the
flourishingrecordbusinessseemedperfectforblackentrepreneurialism.
ThisdissertationseekstoexaminetheimpactofthisbeliefonAfricanAmericanownedrecordlabelswithnationaldistributionthroughoutthetwentieth
century,andwhetherornottheyfulfilledtheexpectationpromisedbyproponents
ofblackentrepreneurialism.Itcombineselementsofbiography,economichistory,
African-Americanhistory,socialhistory,culturalhistory,andmusichistoryinorder
tobestilluminatethelivesoftheseentrepreneurs,thecompaniestheyled,andtheir
impactuponsocietyasawhole.African-Americanownedrecordlabelsarethefocus
ofinquirybecausetheytendedtobethemostvisibleofblackbusinessesandoften
themostfinanciallysuccessful.Inparticular,thisstudyfocusesonthreerecord
labelsandtheirowners.ThefirstisBlackSwanRecords,startedin1920byHarry
Pace,aprotégéofDubois.PacewasthefirstAfrican-Americantoownarecordlabel
withnationaldistribution,andeventhoughBlackSwanultimatelyhadonlyavery
shortexistence,itsfailureaffectedthemannerbywhichsubsequentlabelswould
marketthemselves.BerryGordy’sMotownRecords,formedin1959,becamethe
largestandmostlucrativeofallblack-ownedbusinessesinthe1960s,andhasbeen
heldupastheexemplarforthepotencyofblackentrepreneurialism.Motownwould
cometodominatepopularmusicforallracesinthe1960sandcreatedalegacyof
5
purveyingsanitizedimagesofblacknessforamainstreamaudience.Inthe1980s,
DefJamRecords,co-foundedbyRussellSimmons,supplantedMotownasthelargest
black-ownedrecordlabel,andbecamesynonymouswithHip-Hopculture.DefJam
embodiedabrashdepictionofrebellion,yetstillespousedthesameidealsofracial
upliftthrougheconomicsuccess.Theserecordlabelsallhadnational(and
international)distribution,whichallowedforthelargestnumberofconsumersto
listentotheirwaresandthereforetohavethemostimpactuponmainstream
depictionsofblackculture.Inaddition,cateringtoanationalmarketmeantthe
productsandtheirimageshadtohaveuniversalappeal,asopposedtosatisfying
regionalorlocaltastes.
TherehavebeennumerousstudiesofAfrican-Americanbusinessownersand
entrepreneurialismwithintheblackcommunity.Thefirstin-depthstudiesofthe
phenomenonweresociologicalworkswrittenbyDuboisinthelatenineteenthcentury.Hisfirst,1898’sSomeEffortsofAmericanNegroesforTheirOwnSocial
Betterment,focusedprimarilyonschools,churches,andcharitableorganizations,
butalsoincludedbusinessesasorganizationsfoundedbyAfrican-Americansto
providesocialuplift.4Dubois’definitionof“business”wasquitefluid,however,
includingclergy,educators,andclubmembersasembodimentsofbusinesssuccess.
AlthoughDubois’criteriaforwhatconstitutedabusinesswasinitiallybroad,hewas
particularinthecorrelationbetweenthebusiness’successandtheoverallwell
4W.E.B.DuBois,ed.,SomeEffortsofAmericanNegroesforTheirOwnSocial
Betterment.ReportofanInvestigationundertheDirectionofAtlanta
University;TogetherwiththeProceedingsoftheThirdConferencefortheStudy
oftheNegroProblems,heldatAtlantaUniversity,May25-26,1898(Atlanta,
Ga.,1898);accessed3/26/16http://docsouth.unc.edu/church/
DuBoisau/menu.html.
6
beingoftherace.DuboisstronglyadvisedAfrican-Americansinterestedinstartinga
businesstobandtogetherintocooperatives,believingthatthecommunalismwould
bestbenefittheraceasawhole.Dubois’beliefsmanifestedthroughoutmuchofthe
developmentoftheconceptofblackentrepreneurialism.Inshort,black
entrepreneurialismwasnotonlytheformationofabusinessbyablackindividualto
makeaprofit,butalsotheadditionalexpectationthattheprofitabilityofthis
businessshouldinturnelevatethecollectiveprospectsoftherace.Itisthis
definitionof“blackentrepreneurialism”thatwillbeusedinthisdissertation,not
simplytheeconomicmodelofblackownershipofabusiness,buttheadditional
socialexpectationforsaidbusinessthroughouttheblackcommunity.Althoughthis
ideaevolvedthroughoutthetwentiethcentury,thesupposedcorrelationbetween
personalincomeandcollectiveupliftpersisted.
Subsequentstudiespromotethesameideaofcollectiveracialupliftthrough
individualeconomicsuccess.Forinstance,JohnSibleyButler’s1991work
EntrepreneurshipandSelf-HelpAmongBlackAmericans:AReconsiderationofRace
andEconomicsutilizesstatisticsandasociologicalstudytoexaminewhysomany
black-ownedsmallbusinessesfailed,beforeprescribingmethodsbywhichAfricanAmericanscouldself-improveinordertochangethesefailuresintheconclusion.5
Suchprescriptiverhetoriciscommoninmostotherstudiesofblack
entrepreneurialism.PreviousstudiesofAfrican-Americanownedrecordlabelshave
tendedtofocussolelyuponasinglelabelandnotuponthedevelopmentofthe
businessmodelovertime.Likewise,asidefromencyclopedicarticlesandtimelines
5JohnSibleyButler.EntrepreneurshipandSelf-HelpAmongBlackAmericans:AReconsiderationof
RaceandEconomics.(Albany,NY:SUNYPress,1991)
7
ontheprogressofblackbusinessexecutives,Pace,Gordy,andSimmonshavenot
beenpreviouslystudiedcollectivelyandcomparedasatrio.Tobefair,therehave
beennumerousinstancesuponwhichSimmonshasbeenlikenedtoGordy,but
Pace’sinclusionasanotherfigureforcomparisonhashithertonotoccurred.
Thisdissertationwillexaminetheseownersasthedrivingforcebehindtheir
enterprisesandtheprimarydecisionmakersforthebusiness.Itisdividedinto
threesections,eachwithtwochapters.Thefirstchapterisachronological
examinationofthelifeoftheindividualentrepreneuraswellastheirrecordlabel,
whilethesecondisanexaminationoftheowner’seconomicandculturaldecisions
madeinrunningthelabel.HarryPaceandBlackSwanRecordsarethefocusofthe
firstsection.PacestartedBlackSwanRecordswiththeidealisticgoalof
demonstratinghowAfrican-Americanpurchasingpowercouldsupportarecord
labelthatsolelyemployedblackpersons.Inaddition,Pacebelievedblack
customers’enjoymentofcertain“high-culture”genres,likeoperaandreligious
music,woulddemonstratetothewhitemainstreamthatblackpeoplewerecapable
ofappreciatingsuchmusicandwouldultimatelyleadtoacceptanceandequality.
However,despitehisloftygoals,Pacedeliberatelyreleasedrecordsofwhiteartists
preformingunderblackpseudonyms.ThequestionastowhyPacewouldwillingly
undertakesuchanactionsocontrarytothelabel’sstatedobjectivesframesthe
studyofBlackSwan,aswellasPacehimself.
Ofthethreeentitiescoveredinthisdissertation,HarryPaceandhisBlack
SwanRecordshaveattractedbyfartheleastamountofpreviousscholarship.
Partially,thisisbecausetoBlackSwan’srelativeobscurityincomparisontothe
8
recordlabelsthatcamedecadeslater,whichtendedtohavemorenotorietyand
financialsuccess.Still,Pacehasbeenviewedasembodyingearlyblack
entrepreneurialismandasaclosediscipleofDuBois.AlthoughBlackSwanRecords
onlylastedafewyears,ittendstodominateinvestigationsonPace,whohadamuch
lengthiercareerasaninsuranceexecutivethanhedidatsellingrecords.
Additionally,Pace’sbusinesspracticeswithragtimecomposerW.C.Handyusually
resultinPacebeingportrayedinadimlightinstudiesonHandy.Pacealsohasbeen
portrayednegativelyforhisdecisionto“pass”forwhitelateinlife.
TwoworksprovidethebestintroductiontoBlackSwanandHarryPace,its
owner.Thefirstisa2004articleintheJournalofAmericanHistorybyDavid
Suisman,entitled“Co-WorkersintheKingdomofCulture:BlackSwanRecordsand
thePoliticalEconomyofAfricanAmericanMusic.”6Largeselectionsofthearticle
becameachapter,alsoaboutPaceandBlackSwan,inSuisman’s2012bookSelling
Sounds:TheCommericalRevolutioninAmericanMusic.7Suismangenerallyfocuses
ontheradicalismofPace’sdesignsforBlackSwan,believingPacewasanidealist
whosoughttochangetheperceptionofAfricanAmericanculturethroughthe
successofhislabel’sproductionsofoperaticariasandother“high”culturegenres.
AlthoughSuismanmakesmentionofPace’spracticeofreleasingwhiteartistsonthe
labelunderassumedblacknames,hedoesnotdwellonitorfindithypocriticalto
theidealisticgoalsofPace.Indeed,hefindstheaction“demonstratedthe
6DavidSuisman.“Co-WorkersintheKingdomofCulture:BlackSwanRecordsandthePolitical
EconomyofAfricanAmericanMusic.”TheJournalofAmericanHistoryVol.90,No.4(Mar.,2004),
1295-1324
7DavidSuisman.SellingSounds:TheCommericalRevolutioninAmericanMusic.(Cambridge,MA:
HarvardUniversityPress,2012)
9
speciousnessofracialboundariesinmusic.”8Inaddition,Suismanmakesmentionof
Pace’srelationshipwithW.E.B.Duboisbutdoesnotextensivelydelveintotheir
decades-longcorrespondenceasasourcetounderstandPace’smotivations.
ThesecondmajorpieceofscholarshiponBlackSwanRecordsisBlackSwan:
TheRecordLabeloftheHarlemRenaissancewrittenprimarilybyheadwriterHelge
ThygesenwithassistancebyMarkBerresfordandRussShor.9The1996workis
highlightedbyanextensivecatalogofallofBlackSwan’sreleases,aswellasthose
donebyOlympicRecords,awhitelabelacquiredbyPaceshortlybeforeBlack
Swan’sultimatedemise.Inaddition,thebookrepublishesseveraladvertisements
forBlackSwanRecords,originallyprintedintheChicagoDefenderandtheNAACP’s
TheCrisis.Despiteholdingawealthofrawinformation,theauthorsofBlackSwan:
TheRecordLabeloftheHarlemRenaissancegivelittlecontextfortheirdata.Asparse
biographicalsummaryofPace’slifeisgiven,andthebookdoesnotgointoPace’s
racialandculturalaspirationsforstartingthelabel.
ThesecondsectionofthisdissertationiscenteredonBerryGordyand
MotownRecords.FoundeddecadesafterBlackSwan’sdemise,MotownRecords
foundlucrativesuccessinsellingGordy’svisionofblackrespectabilitytoa
mainstreamaudience.Gordyinitiallyhadatight-fistedcontroloverhisartists’
publicpersonaandtheirmusic,andpurposefullygroomedthemastobeas
inoffensiveaspossibleinordertomaintainhisvisionofwhathebelievedwouldbe
8Suisman.“Co-WorkersintheKingdomofCulture”1320.
9HelgeThygesen,,MarkBerresford,andRussShor.BlackSwan:theRecordLabeloftheHarlem
Renaissance:AHistoryandCatalogueListingincludingOlympicRecordsandAssociatedLabels.
(Nottingham:VJMPublications,1996)
10
mostprofitable.DespiteexistingconcurrentlywiththeCivilRightsMovementofthe
1960s,Gordyremainedambivalenttowardsthemovementandrefusedtoallowhis
performerstopublicallysupportsuchefforts.EventhoughMotownhadaworking
relationshipwithDr.MartinLutherKing,Jr.,suchanassociationdidnotequatewith
awillingnessofGordy’stofullyembracethemovement.Delvingintotherationale
behindGordy’sposition,aswellasthemannerbywhichheframedthepublic
perceptionofMotownasabusinessanditsartists,demonstratesGordy’szealin
maintainingtheappearanceofrespectability.
UnlikehispredecessoratBlackSwan,BerryGordyandhisMotownRecords
haveawealthofinformationavailable.Gordy’spenchantforpublicityhasresulted
inscadsofinterviews,magazinepieces,newspaperarticles,andotherformsof
mediaforscholarstoutilize.MostworkonMotownhasfocusedprimarilyonthe
musicitself,andgivestheartistsagreatdealofagencyandcreativecontrolinterms
oftheirstanceontheCivilRightsMovement.Gordyisalmostuniversallydepictedas
havinganextremelevelofcontroloverhisartists’musicandpublicpersona,yethis
powerdoesnottranslateintotheiropinionsonCivilRights.Somehavegonesofar
astosuggestGordywasactivelyparticipatingintheCivilRightsMovementthrough
Motownandhisartists,andusedhisinfluenceoverpopculturetosubvertwhite
imagesofblackpeople.ThisviewismostforciblyarguedinSuzanneE.Smith’s2001
bookDancingintheStreet:MotownandtheCulturalPoliticsofDetroit.10ForSmith,
GordywasacloseallyoftheCivilRightsMovementandactedasanotherfront
throughwhichAfricanAmericanmusiciansandofficestaffcouldchangepublic
10SuzanneSmith.DancingintheStreets:MotownandtheCulturalPoliticsofDetroit.(Cambridge,MA:
HarvardUniversityPress,2009)
11
perceptionoftherace.ShefindsGordy’spublicambivalencetowardsthemovement
atacticmaskinghisgenuineadherenceinordertoappearlessthreateningtothe
whiteconsumerbase.
OutsideofhiscomplexstanceontheCivilRightsissue,Gordyhasbeen
viewedasanexecutivewhowieldedagreatdealofcontroloverhisartists.Scholars
tendtoviewthislevelofcontrolaseitherexemplaryorabysmal.Forinstance,inhis
1986workWhereDidOurLoveGo?:TheRiseandFalloftheMotownSound,Nelson
GeorgepraisesGordy’sdominanceoverthelabelandhighlightsitastheprimary
reasonbehindthelabel’ssuccess.11GeorgeconcludesGordy’srelinquishingpower
overMotowncausedofthelossofthelabel’spreviousmystique,leavingitlittle
differentthananyothermusiclabel.GeraldPosnerislesscomplementaryinhis
2005releaseMotown:Music,Money,Sex,andPower.PosnerfindsMotown’ssuccess
wasoftentimesimpededbyGordy’sbusinessineptitudeandpettinesstowardshis
artists.12ForPosner,Gordy’sauthorityoverMotown’sartistscamefromaplaceof
inferiority:heoftendepictsGordyasthreatenedbybeingsurroundedbymore
talentedandcompetentpersons.AlthoughallstudiesofMotownrecognizethe
financialsuccessandculturalimpactofthelabel,theydifferonwhetherGordy
playedasignificantroleorwasthebeneficiaryoftalentsopalpablethatevenhe
couldnotmismanageit.
ThefinalsectionofthedissertationisonRussellSimmons,DefJamRecords,
andtheartistshemanaged.UnlikeGordy,Simmonssoughttosellrebelliontothe
11NelsonGeorge.WhereDidOurLoveGo?:TheRise&FalloftheMotownSound,(London:Omnibus,
1986)
12GeraldPosner.Motown:Music,Money,Sex,andPower.(NewYork:RandomHouse,2005)
12
mainstreamaudienceandbelievedwhiteconsumerswouldfindblackrebellion,as
presentedbytheartistshemanaged,tobethemostauthentic.Throughhis
ownershipofDefJamRecords,aswellastheartistsmanagedbyhiscompanyRush
Management,Simmons’intensedevotiontocapitalismframesnearlyeveryelement
ofhispublicpersonaandcreativeendeavors.However,thecentralityofmaking
moneyisnotcontrarytoSimmons’artisticintegrity,butratherdemonstratesthe
pervasivemannerbywhichAmericancapitalismultimatelydominatesoverissues
ofrace,class,andgeography.Onceracialidentityiscommodified,theresulting
productbecomeslikeanyotheravailableonthemarketplace,andanyaspirationsof
collectiveupliftareoverridden.Still,baseduponSimmons’attemptstomarkethis
artiststothemainstream,aswellastheracialmake-upofDefJam’skeystaffers,
questionsariseastowhetherDefJamcouldtrulybeconsidereda“black”record
label.TheambiguousnessofDefJam’sracialidentity,coupledwithSimmons’own
adherencetocontinualselling,demonstratehowengrainedmusicperformedby
blackartistsonrecordlabelsownedbyblackexecutiveshavebecomeinAmerican
consumerculture.
Althoughmaintainingahighpublicprofile,therehavebeenrelativelyfew
studiesonRussellSimmonsorDefJamRecords.Thisisnottosayeitherentityis
ignoredinthescholarship,buttheyarerarelytheprimarytargetsofinvestigation.
Instead,mostscholarshipfocusesontherapperssignedtoDefJamandgivesthema
greatdealofagencyovertheirlyricsandpersona,withthelabelandRussell
Simmonsdepictedsimplyasthemeansbywhichrappersgetontheair.Raplyrics
andtheimageryofmusicvideoshavesimilarlybeenstudiedextensively,primarily
13
fortheireffectonlistenersandthesocietyatlarge,butrapexecutivesandlabelsare
similarlydownplayedintheircentralityoftheproductionofsuchmaterials.For
instance,inMargaretHunter’s“ShakeIt,Baby,ShakeIt:ConsumptionandtheNew
GenderRelationinHip-Hop,”Hunterdelvesintothecorrelationbetweenan
increaseofsexualimageryinrapvideoswiththegrowthofcommercial
partnershipsbetweenrappersandglobalcorporations.13AlthoughHuntermentions
numerousrappersandtheirendorsementdealswithvariouscompanies,shedoes
notincludethelabeltowhomtherapperwassignedasprivytoanyofthe
negotiations.ForHunter,andmanyotherscholars,rappersfunctionasindependent
entities,abletomakeeconomicdecisionsontheirownwithnooversightorcontrol
fromlabelexecutivesorotherbusinessconcerns.
IntheinstanceswhereSimmonsissingledoutforexamination,writerstend
totakeaverydimviewofhim.Ta-NehisiCoates’2003article“Compa$$ionate
Capitali$m”embodiesmuchofthecriticismleveledatSimmons.14Coatesdepicts
Simmonsasduplicitous,evenhawkinghisownenergydrinkatarallyostensiblyfor
voterregistration.Coatesdoesnotfindthisincidenttobeanisolatedone,butso
ingrainedintoSimmons’characterthatitevenseepsintoSimmons’ordinary
speakingpattern.“Hiscadenceisroughandabrupt;”Coateswrites,“wordsissue
fromhimwiththegraceandeleganceofanavalanche.Butit'shiscandor,evenhis
fondnessforprofanity,thatallowshimtospinyou,evenifheisn'ttryingto.”15
13MargaretHunter.“ShakeIt,Baby,ShakeIt:ConsumptionandtheNewGenderRelationinHipHop.”SociologicalPerspectivesVol.54,No.1(Spring2011),p.15-36
14Ta-NehisiCoates.“Compa$$ionateCaptiali$m”TheVillageVoice.December30,2003.Retreived
10/13/15.http://www.villagevoice.com/news/compa-ionate-capitali-m-6397553
14
AlthoughCoatesdoesnotdisparageSimmonsforhisbusinessdealings,hedoubts
Simmons’mergerofcommercialismandpoliticswouldultimatelyresultinany
lastingchangeoutsideofanincreaseinSimmons’ownpersonalnotorietyand
wealth.CoatesisnotuniqueinhissummationofSimmons,withmostotherstudies
concludingthatSimmons’intensecapitalisticstreakoverwhelmsanyofhisother
ventures.
Asalabel,DefJamhasprovedtobeanintriguingtopicforavarietyof
scholars.Ofallthebookswrittenaboutthelabel,StacyGueraseva’s2005workDef
JamInc.:RussellSimmons,RickRubin,andtheExtraordinaryStoryoftheWorld'sMost
InfluentialHip-HopLabelhasbeenthemostextensivelookatDefJam.16Gueraseva
doesanadmirablejobindepictingthefoundingofthelabel,aswellastheearlylife
ofitsco-founders,SimmonsandRickRubin.However,Guerasevaplacesan
inordinateamountofemphasisontheartiststhemselves,holdingtheytypically
operatedoutsideofanyrealboundarieswhenitcametotheirmusicandlyrics.In
addition,Guerasevagivesagreatdealofimportancetoartists,suchasThirdBass,
whowereotherwisenotnoteworthyorfinanciallysignificanttotheoverallsuccess
ofthelabel.AlthoughDefJamInc.isanexhaustivestudy,itsemphasisontheartists
overtheexecutivesfailstotakeintoaccounttheamountofpowerSimmonsactually
wielded.
15Ibid.
16StacyGueraseva.DefJam,Inc.:RussellSimmons,RickRubin,andtheExtraordinaryStoryofthe
World'sMostInfluentialHip-HopLabel.(NewYork:OneWorld/Ballantine,2005)
15
DespitethepersistenceoftheidealismoftheNationalNegroBusiness
Leaguesinceitsfoundation,itremainsthatpromotingblackentrepreneurialism
doesnotcorrelatewithupliftfortheAfrican-Americancommunityasawhole.As
demonstratedbytheserecordexecutivesandtheirlabels,thesuccessofthe
individualdoesnotnecessarilyequatetocollectivebenefits.Inaddition,theselabels
pushasideracialidentityandidealsofupliftinfavoroftheeconomicrealitiesof
keepingabusinesssolvent.Whenraceiscommodifiedasanelementofconsumer
culture,iteventuallybecomessubservienttofinancialconcerns.Anyattemptsto
maintainaself-imposedracialseparationinthemarketplaceareessentially
detrimentalsincetheycanturnawaypotentialcustomers.Assuch,theseblackownedrecordlabelsultimatelybecameindistinguishablefromanyotherlabel,and
demonstratethefutilityofbelievingracialupliftcancomethroughaconsumer
enterprise.Thisisnottosaythatsucheffortsarefoolhardy,aspersonaleconomic
gaincanbeadmirable,butsuchindividualsuccesswillnotcorrespondtoasimilar
elevationofawholerace.
Despitenotachievingthestatedgoalofcollectiveeconomicupliftforthe
blackcommunity,theserecordexecutiveswerenotfailures.Theirenterprisesdid
reapbenefitsforAfrican-Americans.Asidefromthefinancialgainsandexposureof
theindividualperformers,thenotorietygeneratedbytheserecordlabelsraisedthe
collectiveprofileofAfrican-Americans.Likewise,thesuccessillustratedthe
inclusionofblackAmericancultureintothemainstreamAmericanconsumer
culture.Furthermore,theselabelsexemplifiedhowblackculturealsoappropriated
Americanconsumercultureaswell.Thesuccessofblack-ownedrecordlabelsdoes
16
notjustdemonstratehowthepredominantlywhitemainstreamacceptedAfricanAmericanideas,butalsohowmembersoftheblackcommunitywerewillingto
adopttheeconomicandculturalexpectationsofAmericanpopularculture.The
studyofBlackSwan,Motown,andDefJamdoesnotjustprovideinsightonthe
mannerbywhichAfrican-Americansframedtheirattemptstoachieveequality,but
alsohowblackculturebecameacceptedwithinmainstreamconsumerculture.By
lookingattheexecutivesbehindtheartists,menwhohadagreatdealofcontrol
overthemusicandimageoftheirlabels,amoreaccuratepictureofblackartistry
emerges.Blackmusicianssignedtoblack-ownedrecordlabelswerenotgivenfull
autonomy,rathertheyhadtoyieldtotheeconomicandculturalconsiderationsof
thelabelowners.ItwastheseconsiderationsthatshapedthedecisionsofHarry
Pace,BerryGordy,andRussellSimmons,andhavehadanimmenseimpactonthe
depictionofAfrican-Americansnotonlyinthemusicbusiness,butinsocietyasa
whole.Inshort,bybuyingintoAmericanconsumerculture,theseentrepreneurshad
tosellouttheirculturalaspirationsfortherace.
17
CHAPTERONE:HARRYPACEANDBLACKSWANRECORDS:1921-1923
“DON’TBEDECEIVED!”theadvertisementwarned,“BLACKSWANRECORDS
AretheOnlyExclusiveColoredRecordsandAreMadebyaColoredCompany.”The
ad,whichappearedintheJuly15,1922issueoftheChicagoDefender,wastypical
forBlackSwan’sadvertisements.Ithighlightednotonlythelabel’sblack
management,butalsotheplethoraofblackartistsworkingforthecompany,
includingEthelWaters,adiscoveryofBlackSwanandthelabel’sbiggeststar.
Althoughwhiterecordlabelsemployedblackmusicians,BlackSwantoutedits
commitmentastheonlyblack-ownedrecordcompanytobringhighqualityand
high-classrecordsperformedbyblackmusiciansforablackaudience.
Ironically,despitetheirwarningtoreadersnottobedeceivedbyother
recordlabels,BlackSwanitselfwasdeceptiveinitsad.Amongtherecordslistedas
partofBlackSwan’sAugust1922releasesis“HoneyRose”alongwithitsB-side
“Mandy‘NMe”preformedbyMamieJones.Yet,suchanartistdidnotexist.“Mamie
Jones”wasactuallywhitesingerAileenStanley,whounderherownnamealso
recordedforwhiterecordlabels.Thedeceptionofpassingoffwhiteartistsasblack
intheadvertisementdidnotendwithMamieJones.“FredSmith’sSociety
Orchestra”wasactuallytheall-whiteLindsayMcPhail’sJazzBand.1Even“Ethel
Waters’JazzMasters”wasacoverfortwowhitegroups:thePalaceTrioandVanEps
Quartette.
AttherootofthisdeceptionwasHarryH.Pace,ownerofBlackSwanrecords,
responsibleforthecompany’sracialattitude,andthepublicpersonaoftherecord
1DavidSuisman.“Co-WorkersintheKingdomofCulture:BlackSwanRecordsandthePolitical
EconomyofAfricanAmericanMusic”JournalofAmericanHistory,March2004.1320.
18
label.AlthoughPacefoundedBlackSwanrecordswiththeintentionofelevating
blacksociety,itishisexperienceasabusinessmanandthechoiceshemadeinorder
tosucceedeconomicallythatilluminatetherationalebehindthe“black-face”
deception.
HarryHebertPacewasbornonJanuary6,1884inCovington,Georgia.
Showinganaptitudeforacademics,PacefinishedprimaryschoolinCovingtonat
agetwelvebeforemovingontoAtlantaUniversity,wherehegraduatedas
valedictorianatagenineteenin1903.2Whileincollege,Paceservedasaprinter’s
apprenticeandbecameadeptatwriting,aswellasthepublishingbusiness.Itwasat
AtlantaUniversitythathemetW.E.B.Dubois,amostfortuitouspersonal
relationshipthatwouldaidhimgreatlythroughouthiscareer.Duboiswasoneof
Pace’steachersattheuniversityandwouldremainapresencethroughoutPace’s
life,bothasmentorandbusinesspartner.Inaddition,thetwomenhadafriendly
regularcorrespondencelastingseveraldecades.
Followinggraduation,PaceworkedasateacherattheHainesInstitutein
Augusta,GeorgiabeforemovingtoMemphisin1904toaidinthelaunchofaliterary
magazine,TheMoonIllustratedWeekly,forW.E.B.Dubois.3Theweeklymagazine
wassimilarinformandcontenttoDubois’andtheNAACP’slaterTheCrisis,
containingarticlesofinterestforaliterateandupwardlymobileAfricanAmerican
audience.4AccordingtoalettertoPace,Duboisfeltquitepositiveabouttheliterary
2TheBulletinofAtlantaUniversity,1903no.138,1.HBCULibraryAlliance.
http://contentdm.auctr.edu/cdm/ref/collection/rwwl/id/1271.Accessed4/7/14.
3CaryDWintz&PaulFinkelman,eds.EncyclopediaoftheHarlemRenaissance,Volume2.(London:
Taylor&FrancisBooks,2004)946-947.
19
enterprise,believingTheMooncouldbecomeprofitableforallpartiesinvolvedas
wellasbecomingawell-respectedjournalwithanationalreach.5UnderDubois’
urging,PacecametoMemphisinordertobeclosertoEdSimon,thepublisherwho
wastoserveasthefinancierofthisventure.
AlthoughDuboishadhighaspirationsforthemagazine,TheMoonIllustrated
Weeklyultimatelyfailed,publishingonlythirty-fourissuesfromDecember1905to
earlyAugust1906.6Likewise,themagazinehadalowcirculation,withbetween250
and500subscribers.DespiteDubois’goalofTheMoonachievingnationalreach,it
wassoldonlyinMemphisandAtlanta.7
TheMoon’swoeswerecompoundedbyaconflictbetweenitstwomain
officers,PaceandSimon.Followingthefailureofthemagazine,Simonwroteto
Duboisplacingtheblameonthemagazine’sdemisesolelyonPace.Simonfoundthat
althoughDuboissentPacetoworkpragmaticallyonraisingthemagazine’s
circulation,“duringthewholetime,heneverspentawholeweekoutsideofthis
office.Thewholethingwastop-heavy.Therewassomuchbrainanddignityinthe
businessthatnoonecouldaskforasubscriber.”8AlthoughSimonbelievedsalvaging
4JohnN.Ingham&LynneB.Feldman.African-AmericanBusinessLeaders:aBiographicalDictionary.
(Westport,Conn:GreenwoodPress,1994)502.
5W.E.B.(WilliamEdwardBurghardt)DuBois,1868-1963.LetterfromW.E.B.DuBoistoH.H.
Pace,ca.April3,1904.W.E.B.DuBoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversity
Archives,UniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries.Theentiretyofthearchiveisavailableon
microfilmaswellasthroughtheUniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries’website:
http://www.library.umass.edu/spcoll/dubois/.
6UniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries.Duboisopedia.
http://www.library.umass.edu/spcoll/duboisopedia/doku.php?id=about:moon_illustrated_weekly
accessed4/14/14.
7CarolynWedin.EncyclopediaofAfricanAmericanHistory1896toPresent.s.v.“MoonIllustrated
Weekly”(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2009)373-374.
20
theMooncouldresultinfinancialsuccess,suchsuccesswasonlyobtainableby
eliminatingPacefromtheenterprise.Werethatnottooccur,Simonwishedfor
DuboisandPacetobuyouthisshareofthebusiness.9ToDubois,Pacedefended
himselfagainstSimon’saccusations,stating:“Iworkednightanddayuntilwornout
fromlossofsleep,overwork,andlackofnourishmentduetomytwomealsaday.I
discontinuedTheMoonfromsheerphysicalexhaustion.”10AlthoughPacenever
deniedhewastheindividualthatceasedthepublicationofTheMoon,hefinds
Simon’sneglectofthemagazinewasthereasonbehinditsfailure.11Althoughboth
PaceandSimondeferredtoDuboisasmediatorandsoughtDuboisasanallyinthe
disagreement,Duboispreferredtotakeamoreneutralapproach.12Ultimately,the
threepartiesdissolvedthepartnershipin1907.13
AfterthefailureoftheMoonIllustratedWeekly,PacemovedtoJeffersonCity,
Missouriin1906,whereheacceptedapositionattheLincolnInstitute,ablack
8Ed.L.Simon&Co..LetterfromEd.L.Simon&Co.toW.E.B.DuBois,December22,1906.W.E.B.
DuBoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversityArchives,UniversityofMassachusetts
AmherstLibraries.Theentiretyofthearchiveisavailableonmicrofilmaswellasthroughthe
UniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries’website:
http://www.library.umass.edu/spcoll/dubois/.
9Ed.L.Simon&Co..LetterfromEd.L.Simon&Co.toW.E.B.DuBois,January30,1907.W.E.B.Du
BoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversityArchives,UniversityofMassachusetts
AmherstLibraries.
10HarryPace.1884-1943.LetterfromH.H.PacetoW.E.B.DuBois,February13,1907.W.E.B.Du
BoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversityArchives,UniversityofMassachusetts
AmherstLibraries.
11Ibid.
12W.E.B.(WilliamEdwardBurghardt)DuBois,1868-1963.LetterfromW.E.B.DuBoistoEd.L.
Simon&Co.,February4,1907.W.E.B.DuBoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversity
Archives,UniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries.
13W.E.B.(WilliamEdwardBurghardt)DuBois,1868-1963.LetterfromW.E.B.DuBoistoEd.L.
Simon&Co.,March11,1907.W.E.B.DuBoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversity
Archives,UniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries.
21
college,asprofessorofLatinandGreek.Pacestayedatthecollegeforoneyear
beforeSolventSavingsBank,ablackbankinMemphis,offeredhimajobascashier.
BeforethebankwouldgivePacethepositionhowever,hehadtosecurea$10,000
bond.14OnthethirdofNovember,1907,Pacewrotetohismentor,distraughtabout
thelackofavailabilityofsuchasum:“Ihavemetwiththewhitesuretycompanies
andhavebeenmetwithacourteousrefusalbecauseIamaNegro.…Ihaveno
wealthyrelationsandIamalmostatmyrope’send.”15Makingapromptresponse
threedayslater,DuboissuggestedafewwealthyindividualswhomPacecould
approachforassistance.Duboisalsoadvisedtheuseofnortherncompaniesand
fraternalorganizationsinordertosecureaid.16DespiteDubois’suggestions,Pace
wasunabletosecuretheentirebondbythebeginningof1908.FortunatelyforPace,
inlateJanuary1908,hewasabletosecurethefullbondwiththeNationalSurety
Company,awhitecompany,albeitwithapremiuminexcessofwhatwasgivento
whitecustomersinasimilarsituation.17
Pace’stimeascashierforSolventSavingswasprofitableforboththebank
andhimself.DuringPace’sfiveyearsatthebank,theassetsofSolventSavingsgrew
14AlthoughPacedoesnotdetailtoDuboisintheircorrespondencethenatureofthebond,itwas
morethanlikelysomeformofafidelitybond.
15HarryPace,1884-1943.LetterfromH.H.PacetoW.E.B.DuBois,November3,1907.W.E.B.Du
BoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversityArchives,UniversityofMassachusetts
AmherstLibraries.
16W.E.B.(WilliamEdwardBurghardt)DuBois,1868-1963.LetterfromW.E.B.DuBoistoH.H.
Pace,November6,1907.W.E.B.DuBoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversity
Archives,UniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries.
17HarryPace,1884-1943.LetterfromH.H.PacetoW.E.B.DuBois,January28,1908.W.E.B.Du
BoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversityArchives,UniversityofMassachusetts
AmherstLibraries.
22
from$50,000to$600,000.18Inadditiontohisworkatthebank,Pacehonedhis
abilitiesassingerandlyricist.Pace’sburgeoninginterestinmusicwascementedby
afortuitousrelationshiphemadeatthebank.Themusician,composer,and
bandleaderW.C.HandywasacustomerofthebankandtookalikingtoPace.Handy
wouldlaterdescribePaceas“ahandsomeyoungmanofstrikingpersonalityand
definitemusicalleanings”whohad“writtensomefirst-ratesonglyricsandwasin
demandasasolovocalistatchurchprogramsandSundaynightconcerts,”19Thetwo
begancollaboratingin1907andpublishedtheirfirstsongtogether“IntheCotton
FieldsofOldDixie”thesameyear.20Thesong,publishedbytheCincinnatifirmof
GeorgeJaberg,markedthebeginningofPaceandHandy’spartnership.Thetwo
continuedtowritesongstogether,beforein1912becomingbusinesspartners
publishingsheetmusicasthePace&HandyMusicCompany.Thisenterprisewasto
beapart-timejobforPace,ashekepthispositionatSolventSavings.Inadditionto
publishingsheetmusictogether,PacebecameHandy’sbusinessmanager,taking
chargeofthemusician’sbookingandfinances.
Thefirsthitforthenewcompanywasaptlynamed“MemphisBlues,”
releasedin1912.WrittenbyHandy,thesonglaunchedthemusicianintonational
notorietyandbecamethecompany’sgreatestsuccess.Handyfollowed“Memphis
Blues”bycomposing“JogoBlues”and“TheGirlYouNeverMet”in1913and“St.
18JessieCarneySmith,ed.EncyclopediaofAfricanAmericanBusiness,Volume1,s.v.“HarryH.Pace”,
(Westport,CT:GreenwoodPress,2006)631.
19W.CHandy,andArnaBontemps.FatheroftheBlues,AnAutobiography.(NewYork:TheMacmillan
Co.1941)125.
20PeterMuir,LongLostBlues:PopularBluesinAmerica,1850-1920.(Champaign,Il:Unversityof
IllinoisPress,2010)111.
23
LouisBlues”in1914.21InadditiontoHandy’sowncompositions,thecompany
publishedthesongsofothermusicians,typicallyotherbluesnumbers,butalso
diversifiedintoothergenres,suchasballadsandnoveltysongs.AsidefromPaceand
Handythemselves,thecompanyemployedothermusiciansandofficestaffincluding
composerWilliamGrantStillastheheadarranger,J.RussellRobinsonasthe
businessmanager,andDanielHaynesasthechiefbookkeeper.22Bythetimethe
companyrelocatedtoNewYorkCityin1918,ThePace&HandyMusicCompany
hadbetweenfifteenandtwentyemployees,includingmusicianFletcherHenderson,
whojoinedthecompanyintheSpringof1920aspianist,songplugger,and
demonstrator,andoverfortysongsinitscatalog,availableassheetmusicfor
orchestraandsinglepiano,aswellaspianorolls.23
TheburgeoningsuccessofthePace&HandyMusicCompanywasnotenough
forPacetodevotehimselffulltimetotheenterprise.Inthespringof1912,Paceleft
SolventSavingsBankfollowingthedeathofRobertR.Church,thebank’sownerand
president.24PacethenreceivedajobofferfromDubois.Despitethefailureofthe
MoonIllustratedWeekly,DuboisofferedhisformerpupilapositionwithDubois’
newestliteraryendeavor,TheCrisis.DuboiswrotetoPaceonApril3,1912,“Itwill
21Smith,EncyclopediaofAfricanAmericanBusiness,Volume1,s.v.“HarryH.Pace”,632.
22DavidDavis&IvoDeeLoo.“BlackSwanRecords-1921-1924:FromSwankySwantoaDeadDuck”
May2002,OpenUniversityoftheNetherlands.2.
<http://www.ou.nl/Docs/Faculteiten/MW/MW%20Working%20Papers/GR03-04.pdf>Accessed
4/15/14.
23“AdvertismentinTheCrusader”Pace&HandyMusicCo.[Incorporated];[TheleadingColored
musicpublishers];GaietyTheatrebuilding,1547Broadway,NewYork.NewYorkPublic
Library,SchomburgCenterforResearchinBlackCulture/Manuscripts,ArchivesandRareBooks
Division.<http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/id?1232439>Accessed4/15/14.
24Smith,EncyclopediaofAfricanAmericanBusiness,Volume1,s.v.“HarryH.Pace”,632.
24
behardwork,butIbelieveitwillintheendbeanenterpriseofgigantic
proportions,”Duboisthenlistedthemagazine’sincomeforitsfirst5months.From
November1911throughMarch1912,themagazinemonthlyincomegrewfrom
$803.44to$1305.61.Inaddition,Duboisestimatedregularmonthlyexpensestobe
around$1065.25DuboisofferedPacethepositionofeither‘businessmanager’or
‘travellingrepresentative’atasalaryof$100permonthplustravelexpenses.Pace’s
job“forthefirstoneortwoyears…(wasto)raisecirculationoftheCrisisfrom
20,000to100,000bytravellingoverthecountry.”26MostfortuitousforPace,after
servingtwoyearsontheroad,Duboisoffered,“…youmightcomeintotheofficeand
takegeneralchargeofthebusinessthusrelievingmyself.”27AlthoughPacenever
acceptedthepositionattheCrisis,Dubois’generousofferdemonstratesthehigh
esteeminwhichheheldPace,aswellasastrongfaithinhisstudent’sabilities.
Insteadofworkingwithhismentorordevotinghimselffullytohisbusiness
withHandy,Paceinsteadchoseapositionassecretary-treasurerwithStandardLife
InsuranceCompanyinAtlanta.28OncebackinAtlanta,Pacebecamehighlyinvolved
inthecity’sblackcommunity.In1916,followingadecisionbytheAtlantaschool
boardtoeliminatetheseventhgradeinblackschoolsinordertohavemoremoney
25W.E.B.(WilliamEdwardBurghardt)DuBois,1868-1963.LetterfromW.E.B.DuBoistoHarry
Pace,April3,1912.W.E.B.DuBoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversityArchives,
UniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries.
26Ibid.
27Ibid.
28AlthoughthereisnoexactdateforPace’sleavingofMemphisforAtlanta,W.C.Handymentionedin
hisautobiographythatPaceleftforhisnewjobshortlyafterfoundingPace&HandyMusiccompany.
GoingbyHandy’sreckoning,theyearwouldhaveeitherbeenlate1912orearly1913.Judgingby
Handy,Pacedidnotseemtoointerestedinmusicasafulltimeprofession,preferringtherelative
securityandlucrativenatureoffinanceandinsurance.Handy.FatheroftheBlues.125.
25
forwhiteschools,PacewasamongotherprominentAtlantaAfrican-Americanswho
persuadedtheboardtodroptheplan.Paceservedasthefirstpresidentofthecity’s
NAACPchapter,withWalterWhiteasitssecretary.29ItwasinAtlantain1917that
PacemarriedEthylndeBibb,withwhomhewouldlaterhavetwochildren.Also
duringhistimeinAtlanta,PacekeptuphiscorrespondencewithDubois,seekinghis
mentor’saidincreatingacooperativestoreforemployeesofStandardLife.30Pace’s
interestinstartinganemployeestoreatStandardLifeinGeorgiaendedwhenhe
movedtoNewYorkCityin1920.PacerelocatedtobeclosertoHandy,whomhehad
sentayearpriortostartrecordinginNewYorkstudios.Pace’sroleinthemusic
businesshadbecomelucrativeenoughforhimtopursueitfull-time.31However,
shortlyafterarrivinginNewYorkCityin1920,seeminglytodedicatehimselffully
tohisworkwithHandy,Pacedissolvedthepartnershipandbeganworkonan
individualenterprise,thePacePhonographCompany.
InPace’stellingastowhyhecreatedtherecordcompany,hewasupsetby
whiterecordcompaniespurchasingtherightstojazzandbluessongsandthen
recordingthemwithwhiteartists.Pacewritesthatitwashisjobaspresidentof
Pace&Handyto“contactallphonographcompaniessothatourownnumbersmight
berecordedfromtimetotime.Iranupagainstacolorlinethatwasverysevere.…I
29WalterWhitewouldlaterbecometheexecutivesecretaryforthenationalNAACP.
30StandardLifeInsuranceCompany.LetterfromStandardLifeInsuranceCompanytoW.E.B.Du
Bois,February27,1918.W.E.B.DuBoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversity
Archives,UniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries
31PacewasnotfarfromhismentorinNewYorkCity.Indeed,aletterbetweenthetwoconcerning
theNAACP’spotentialsponsorshipofthePan-AfricanCongressnotesbothmennowhadaddresses
inNewYorkCity.LetterfromHarryH.PacetoW.E.B.DuBois,November5,1920.W.E.B.DuBois
Papers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversityArchives,UniversityofMassachusettsAmherst
Libraries
26
thereforedeterminedtoformmyowncompanyandmakesuchrecordingsasI
believedwouldsell.”32A1919advertisementforPace&HandyMusicCompany
supportsPace’spositionthatwhiterecordcompanieswerehesitanttoemployblack
musicians.TheadliststhephonographsavailablebasedonsongspublishedbyPace
&Handy.Oftheninerecordslisted,onlythreewererecordedbyblackartists:“Oh
Death,WhereisthySting”sungbyBertWilliamsforColumbiaRecords,aswellas
“StLouisBlues”and“OleMissRag”bytheNewOrleansJazzBandbyOkeh
Records.33VaudevillianwhiteartistssuchasArthurCollinsandErnestHare
recordedtherestofthesongslistedintheadvertisement.Inhavinghisownrecord
company,PacewantedtodemonstratethatAfrican-Americanswerecapableof
recording,producing,andfinanciallysupportingarecordlabelwithoutthe
involvementofwhitepeople.
PacesoughtoutDubois’adviceinstartingtherecordingcompany,and
Duboisfoundtheideacompelling.OnDecember22,1920,PacehopedtohaveanindepthconversationwithDuboisconcerninghisplansforaphonographcompany.34
AlthoughPacedidnothavealongtalkwithDubois,itwaslongenoughforDuboisto
suggestthename“BlackSwan”fortherecordlabel.Duboischosethenametohonor
singerElizabethTaylorGreenfield,whowasknownasthe“blackswan.”Even
thoughPacehadbeguntheprocessofincorporationunderthename“Pace
32RoiOttleyandWilliamWeatherby,TheNegroinNewYork,(DoobsFerry,NY:OceanaPublications,
1967).232
33“SomewonderfulrecordsfromthepublicationsofThePace&HandyMusicCo.,Inc.”NewYork
PublicLibrary,SchomburgCenterforResearchinBlackCulture/Manuscripts,ArchivesandRare
BooksDivision.<http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/id?1232453>Accessed4/15/13.
34PresumablyatanElkmeeting,ofwhichthetwomenwerelife-longmembers.
27
PhonographCorporation,PacewrotetoDuboisonDecember27,1920thatthe
namewouldnotinterferewithusing“…the‘BlackSwan’asatradenameandasa
designandtrademark.”35AsidefromgivingPacethenameforthecompany,Dubois
wantedtousehispositionwiththeNAACP,specificallyatTheCrisis,todrumup
supportfortherecordlabel.“Ilikeyoursuggestion,”PacewrotetoDubois,“of
beginningintheFebruaryCrisisofastrongeditorialondiscriminationagainst
coloredvoicesandasubsequentarticleon‘BlackSwan’recordsintheMarch
issue.”36Paceclearlyfelthismentor’sblessingfortheproductwasvital,sincehe
plannedthereleaseofthefirstslateofBlackSwanrecordstocoincidewiththe
Crisis’editorials.HeinformedDubois:“Ishallhopetohavethefirstrecordsready
fordistributionaroundMarch1standthiswouldfitexcellentlywiththatplan.”37
ThePacePhonographCompanywasincorporatedintheearlypartof1921
withaninitialcapitalstockof$30,000.Theoriginalboardofdirectorswas
comprisedofW.E.B.Dubois;JohnE.Nail,arealestateagentwhoownedmuchof
Harlem;Dr.MatthewV.Boutte,aphysician;ViolaBibb,thewifeofJosephBibb,a
prominentministerintheAfricanMethodistEpiscopalianchurch;andPace
himself.38PacedrewemployeesfromPace&Handytomakeuptheearlystaffof
BlackSwanRecords,withanotableexception:Handyhimself.Althoughthetwo
menhadanine-yearbusinessrelationship,PacedidnotseekHandy’sinclusionas
35LetterfromHarryH.PacetoW.E.B.DuBois,December27,1920.W.E.B.DuBoisPapers(MS
312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversityArchives,UniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries
36Ibid
37Ibid
38OttleyandWeatherby,TheNegroinNewYork,233.
28
eitherbusinesspartnerorartistfortherecordlabel.InHandy’stelling,Pace“had
disagreedwithsomeofmybusinessmethods,butnoharshwordswereinvolved.He
simplychosethistimetoseverconnectionswithourfirminorderthathemight
organizethePacePhonographCompany.…WithPacewentalargenumberofour
employees,personsespeciallytrainedfortherequirementsofourbusinessand
thereforehardtoreplace.”39Suchindividualsincluded:WilliamStillwhobecame
headarrangerforBlackSwan,andFletcherHenderson,whowaspromotedto
musicaldirectorforthenewlabel.Onthebusinessside,DanielHaynesbecamethe
company’ssecretaryaswellasnotarypubliconthefirm’strademark
registrations.40TheoriginalofficeforcealsoincludedA.H.Bibb(norelationtothe
ViolaBibbonthecompany’sboardofdirectors),awomannotpreviouslyaffiliated
withthePace&HandyMusicCompany.41Thelabelstartedoutsmall,housedinthe
basementofPace’shouseat257West138thStreet.42TherePacebegantheprocess
ofinvitingmusiciansandsingerstorecordonthelabel,aswellaslocatingsuitable
recordingfacilities.
AlthoughPacewasabletosecurerecordingstudiospaceforBlackSwan,
findingapressingfacilitytophysicallymanufacturetherecordsprovedmore
difficult.Pacedidnothavethefinancialresourcestopurchaseapressingplant
outright,andmostcompanieswhodidowntheirownpressingfacilitiesdidnot
39Handy.FatheroftheBlues.202.
40DavisandLoo,“BlackSwanRecords-1921-1924”.2.
41OttleyandWeatherbyTheNegroinNewYork,233.
42ArnoldShaw,BlackPopularMusicinAmerica:fromtheSpirituals,Minstrels,andRagtimetoSoul,
Disco,andHip-hop.(NewYork:SchirmerBooks,1986)10
29
wishtoleaseouttheirequipmenttoapotentialcompetitor.43Pacewasfinallyable
strikeadealinSpringof1921withtheWisconsinChairCo.ofPortWashington,WI,
whichhadrecentlyexpandedintoNewYorkforitsownrecordlabels:Paramount
andPuritan.44Inexchangeforacopyoftherecordings’masters,theWisconsinChair
Co.waswillingtopressBlackSwanRecordsattheirplantinMinnesota.Although
thedistancebetweenNewYorkandMinnesotaresultedinanextendeddelay
betweentherecordingandthereleaseoftherecords,Pacewasinitiallygratefulfor
thedealandbegantorecordthefirstslateofBlackSwanRecords.45
BlackSwanRecordsreleaseditsfirstthreerecordsinMayof1921.Thefirst
wasRevellaHughes’“AtDawning”withitsB-side,“ThankGodforaGarden.”The
recordwasdescribedas“Sopranowithviolin,cello,piano.”46Thesecondwas“For
AllEternity”and“DearLittleBoyOfMine”byCarrollClark,a“Baritone,violin
obligato.”47Thefinalrecordwasa“Bluesnovelty,Sopranowithorchestra”from
LittleKatieCrippen,“BlindManBlues,”and“Play‘EmForMama.”48Thisfirstslateof
recordswasfollowedbyfivemore,includinganotherspiritualbyCarrollClarkand
dancerecordsbyFletcherHenderson’sOrchestra.49
43Thygesen,Berresford,andShor.BlackSwan,6.
44Itwasnotunusualinthe1920sforfurniturecompanies,whoalreadybuiltphonographplayers,to
produceandmanufacturerecordsfortheirplayersaswell.
45OttleyandWeatherby.TheNegroinNewYork,233.
46TheCrisis,May1921,44.
47Ibid.
48Ibid.
49Thygesen,Berresford,andShor.BlackSwan.23-24.
30
Intheearlysummerof1921,Pacefoundhisbiggeststarwiththediscovery
ofEthelWaters,aBluessingeroriginallyfromChester,Pennsylvania,whosangin
clubsaroundNewYork.AlthoughaccountsdifferedastohowPacebecamefamiliar
withWatersandaskedhertorecordonthelabel,Waters’successonBlackSwan
wasclear.Herfirstrecord,“DownHomeBlues”anditsB-Side“OhDaddy,”was
incrediblyprofitableforBlackSwanandPace.Withinsixmonthsofitsreleasein
Julyof1921,Paceclaimedhehadsold500,000copiesoftherecord.50
WiththeboonprovidedbyWaters’success,BlackSwanRecordsexpandedas
acompany.Inthesummerof1921,Pacemoveditoutofhisbasementand
purchasedahousesolelyasanofficeforthelabelon2289SeventhAve.Thetoptwo
floorsofthethree-storyhousewereusedasoffices,withthebottomfloorusedasa
shippingroom.51Inadditiontonewofficespace,newemployeeswerehiredforthe
expandingbusiness,whichgrewtoaroundthirtyemployees,rangingfromshipping
clerksandofficestafftostudiomusiciansandsongdemonstrators.52AllofBlack
Swan’semployeeswereblack,inkeepingwiththeracialgoalsofthelabel.
BolsteredbythesuccessofEthelWaters,andseekingmorecustomersfor
BlackSwan’srecords,HarryPaceapprovedanationwidetourforthelabel’sartists
inthefallof1921.Called“theBlackSwanTroubadours,”thetourcontainedsinging,
dancing,andcomicskits.EthelWatersheadlinedthetour,accompaniedbyan
orchestraledbyFletcherHenderson.ThetourlastedfromOctober1921through
50OttleyandWeatherby.TheNegroinNewYork,233.
51Ibid.233.
52Ibid.234.
31
July1922andwasabigsuccessforthecompany.Travellingthroughtwenty-one
states,Pacewouldlaterboastthetour“…advertisedourrecordsineveryportionof
thecountryasfarwestasOklahomaandTexas.”53
Attheendof1921,financialrecordsshowedBlackSwanRecordshadstrong
salesfigures,totaling$101,358.08fortheyear.54Inspiteoftheimpressivenumber
however,thecostofmakingrecordswashighandcoupledwithBlackSwan’s
expenses,therecordlabelonlymadeaprofitof$10,856.78initsfirstcalendaryear.
Althoughtheprofitswereutilizedtorepaystockholdersandotherstartupcosts,
Pacewasoptimistic1922wouldbringaboutmoresalesforthecompany.Witha
solidstarinEthelWaters,andmoreregionsofthenationbecomingawareofBlack
SwanthroughtheTroubadours’tour,Pacecontinuedtheprocessofrecordingand
advertisingmorerecords.
AlthoughBlackSwanwasbrisklysellingrecords,Pacebecameincreasingly
frustratedinthedelayoforderscominginfromthepressingplantinPort
Washington,Wisconsin.55Pacesoughtoutfacilitiesclosertothelabel’sofficesin
NewYorkCity,butwasonceagaindeniedbythewhite-ownedbusinesses.Itis
duringthissearchthatPacebecameacquaintedwithJohnFletcher,awhiteman
whowasaformerexecutivefromtheOlympicDiscRecordCorporation,asubsidiary
oftheRemingtonPhonographCorporation.56WhentheRemingtonPhonograph
53Ibid,235.
54PacePhonographCorporation.PacePhonographCorporationfinancialstatement,April13,
1921.W.E.B.DuBoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversityArchives,Universityof
MassachusettsAmherstLibraries.
55Thygesen,Berresford,andShor.BlackSwan,10.
32
Companywentbankruptinearly1922,PaceandFletcherwentintobusiness
togetherastheFletcherRecordingCompany,Inc.andpurchasedOlympic’sfacility
onLongIsland,whichincludedarecordingstudioandapressingplant.Thefacility
wascapableofpressing6,000recordsaday,idealforBlackSwan’sgrowingsales.
ThedealwithRemingtonalsoincludedOlympic’strademarkandmastersofold
recordings.Withthedealcemented,PacemovedtheentiretyofBlackSwan’soffice,
shipping,andrecordingstafftothenewfacilityonLongIslandinMayof1922.
Althoughanexpensiveexpansion,Pacebelievedhavingallaspectsofrecordingand
manufacturingofBlackSwanunderoneroofwouldstreamlineproductionand
ultimatelybeacost-efficientmoveforthecompany.57AlthoughtheFletcher
RecordingCompanytechnicallyownedthefacility,Paceservedasvice-presidentof
thenewcompany,andBlackSwanwastheonlylabelthatrecordedandpressed
recordsatthecomplexinLongIsland.58Inaddition,Fletchertooknopartinthe
recordingorinceptionofBlackSwan’srecords,onlyoverseeingtherecords’
manufacture,akintothedealPacepreviouslyheldwiththeWisconsinChairCo.59
AlthoughPacehopedthepurchaseofarecordingandpressingplantwould
stimulatecontinuedgrowthforBlackSwan,thelaterhalfof1922brought
challengingtimesforthelabel.Whiledesignedasacost-savingmoveforthefuture,
56DavisandLoo“BlackSwanRecords”.5.
57Thygesen,Berresford,andShor.BlackSwan.10.
58DavisandLoo“BlackSwanRecords”6.
59Duboisviewedthemovefavorably,andaskedPacetoprovidephotographsofthenewfactoryfor
anupcomingissueofTheCrisis.PacePhonographCorporation.LetterfromPacePhonograph
CorporationtoW.E.B.DuBois,March25,1922.W.E.B.DuBoisPapers(MS312).Special
CollectionsandUniversityArchives,UniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries.
33
thefacility’spurchaseimmediatelyputastrainonBlackSwan’sfinances.Aslateas
Novemberof1922,Pacewasstilltryingtosecurecapitaltopayoffthepurchase’s
bond.60Inaddition,thesuccessoftheBlackSwanTroubadourstourbroughtEthel
WatersandFletcherHendersontotheattentionofwhiterecordlabels.Bymid1922,WatersandHendersonceasedrecordingexclusivelyonBlackSwan.61White
recordcompaniessigningblackmusiciansbecamemorecommoninlate1922,with
companiessuchasColumbia,Brunswick,andVictorreleasingtheirfirstbluesand
jazzrecordsbyblackartists.Bythebeginningof1923,thenumberofbluesartists
recordingonwhitelabelsoutnumberedthosesignedtoBlackSwanalmostfourto
one,whereastheyhadbeenroughlyequalsixmonthsprior.62
Facedwithrisingexpensesandanincreasinglycrowdedmarket,inthefallof
1922,PacebeganrereleasingsongsoriginallyrecordedonOlympicRecords,of
whichtheFletcherRecordingCompanyownedthemasters.However,inorderto
sustainBlackSwan’spersonaofonlyissuingrecordsbyblackmusicians,manyof
theoriginalartists’nameswerechangedinordertogivetheappearanceofbeing
black.Pacewasnostrangertothepractice,sinceNovemberof1921occasionally
issuingrecordsofmastersofwhiteartistsleasedfromotherrecordcompanies
underblacknames.63Inaddition,Pacehadpreviouslyrecordedwhiteartistsrecord
60PacePhonographCorporation.LetterfromPacePhonographCorporationtoW.E.B.DuBois,
November9,1922.W.E.B.DuBoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversityArchives,
UniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries
61Hendersonkepthispositionasmusicaldirectorforthelabel.DavisandLoo“BlackSwanRecords”
6.
62Suisman.“Co-WorkersintheKingdomofCulture”.1322.
34
underanassumedblackvoiceandissuedtherecordunderablackpseudonym,such
asthecasewithsopranoAileenStanleyrecordingastheblackalto‘MamieJones.’
ButthescaleinwhichPacerereleasedOlympic’sbackcatalogunderfalsenameshad
notpreviouslybeendone.Intime,asizablepercentageofBlackSwan’smusical
offeringswereactuallyrereleasesofrecordsrecordedbywhitemusiciansundera
blackalias.64
Thepractice,althoughseeminglyindefianceofthelabel’sstatedgoals,
initiallyaidedthecompany.Byearly1923,BlackSwanwassellingaround7,000
recordsaday.65However,thethreepressesattheLongIslandfactorywereonly
capableofmanufacturing6,000recordsperday.Fearingthelaginproduction
wouldcauseorderstobecancelled,Paceexpandedthebusinessevenfurtherby
orderingthreeadditionalcustommaderecordpresses.Althoughexpensive,Pace
believedthemachines,installedinJanuaryof1923,wouldpayforthemselveswith
theincreaseinproduction.66
UnfortunatelyforPace,thecompany’sexpansioncoincidedwithadisastrous
timefortherecordindustryasawhole.Theintroductionofradio,althoughstillin
63DavidSuisman,“BlackSwanRising.”Humanities,November/December2010|Volume31,Number
6.Accessedfromhttp://www.neh.gov/humanities/2010/novemberdecember/feature/black-swanrising.
64Inhis“BlackSwanRising”,DavidSuismanestimatesonethirdoftheentiretyofBlackSwan’s
catalogtoberereleasedofrecordsrecordedbywhiteartists.However,inBlackSwan:theRecord
LabeloftheHarlemRenaissance,thewritersestimatethisnumbertobeclosertoonefifth.Regardless
inthedifferenceinpercentage,bothareinagreementthepracticedidnotbecomecommonuntilthe
latefallof1922andlasteduntilthelabel’send.
65OttleyandWeatherbyTheNegroinNewYork,234.
66Aswiththefacility’sinitialpurchase,Duboissoughtphotographsofthenewpressingmachinesin
ordertoprovidegoodpublicityforthecompanyinTheCrisis.DuBois,W.E.B.(WilliamEdward
Burghardt),1868-1963.LetterfromW.E.B.DuBoistoHarryH.Pace,January20,1923.W.E.B.Du
BoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversityArchives,UniversityofMassachusetts
AmherstLibraries.
35
itsinfantstages,wasbeginningtoovertakephonographsinpopularity.The
expansionofradiocausedsalesofrecordstoplummetindustry-wide:Pacewould
laterremarkBlackSwanwentfromselling7,000recordsadayinearly1923to,in
thespringofthesameyear,selling“…onlyabout3,000recordsdailyandthenit
camedownto1,000,andourfactorywasclosedfortwoweeksatatime.”67Withthe
expansionofthefactorycomingshortlybeforeadramaticdecreaseinsales,Black
Swanwasirreversiblyindirefinancialstraits.InacircularletterdatedJuly25,
1923,PacedetailedtheincreasinglyominousoutlookforBlackSwanrecords
includingtheattemptsofotherlabelstostealitsartists,thedropinsales,andits
mountingdebts.Pacewasnotentirelydespondent,however,believingthatsales
wouldincreaseoncethesummerended.68
DespitePace’soptimism,suchareversalinfortunenevercame.BlackSwan
RecordsceasedreleasingrecordsandadvertisinginJulyof1923.Itofficiallywent
bankruptinDecemberof1923,withitsLongIslandfactorysoldatasheriff’ssaleto
aChicagofirmthatmaderecordsforSears&Roebuck.69Pacewasabletolease
BlackSwan’scatalogtoParamountRecordsinMayof1924,althoughthedealwas
neververyprofitableforeitherparty.70Despitetakingajobaspresidentofthe
NortheasternLifeInsuranceCompany,PacekeptBlackSwaninbusinesswith
67OttleyandWeatherby.TheNegroinNewYork,234.
68CircularletterfromPacePhonographCorporationtoW.E.B.DuBois,July25,1923.W.E.B.Du
BoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversityArchives,UniversityofMassachusetts
AmherstLibraries.
69OttleyandWeatherbyTheNegroinNewYork,234-235.
70PacehadinitiallywantedtoselltheentiretyofBlackSwan’scatalogtoParamount,buthadtoagree
toaleaseinsteadsinceParamountlackedcapitalduetothedownturntherecordindustryasawhole
duetoradio’sintroduction.Thygesen,Berresford,andShor.BlackSwan.12.
36
regularmeetingsofitsboardofdirectorsthroughthesummerof1926.71Pace
maintainedcontroloverthefirm’smasters,andhopedtherewouldeventuallybea
revivalofthebusiness,butsucharevivalnevercame.72
BlackSwanwasPace’sfinalforayintotheworldofmusic.Pacestayedas
presidentoftheNortheasternLifeuntil1930,whenhemovedtoChicagotoattend
lawschool.Followinghisgraduationfromlawschoolin1933,Paceestablishedthe
firmofBibb,Tyree,andPaceinChicago.There,heseemedrathercontentuntil
1942,whenblackemployeesaccusedhimoftryingtopassaswhite,whichtooka
psychologicaltollonPace.Hediedayearlaterin1943.
AsBlackSwanRecordsceasedpublishing,thepost-warboomofthe1920s
wasstillinfullswing,andtheHarlemRenaissancewasbeginningtoenteritspeak.
ArtistssuchasLangstonHughesandotherswouldcometoexemplifythewelleducated,cosmopolitanNegrothatBlackSwansoughttopromotethroughits
records.However,thissuccesswouldendwiththecomingoftheGreatDepression.
Theeconomicboomtimesofthepost-WorldWareraweregone,replacedbyan
overwhelmingeconomicdownturn.Blackindustrywasdamagedbythescaleofthe
Depression,causingadecreaseinblackentrepreneurialismthatwouldlastfor
throughthelate1940s.73Blackbankswerehitespeciallyhard,ofthe134formed
71LetterfromBlackSwanPhonographCompanytoW.E.B.DuBois,May20,1926.W.E.B.DuBois
Papers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversityArchives,UniversityofMassachusettsAmherst
Libraries.
72PacegivesnoexactdateastothefinalcessationofBlackSwanRecords,statingthecompanyfinally
endedwhenitspropertyonSeventhAvenuewasforeclosedonandthecompany’scharterwas
foreclosed.However,thescholarshipisinagreementPacewascompletelyoutofanysortofmusic
businessby1930.OttleyandWeatherbyTheNegroinNewYork,235.
37
between1888-1934,only12werestilloperatingin1938.74Asidefromthelossof
moneyforitsmembers,italsoremovedmuchoftheblackcapitalnecessaryforthe
financingofAfrican-Americanentrepreneurialactions.Thebanksthatdidsurvive
theDepressionweretypicallylarger,white,andnotaswillingtolendblackpersons
money.
Themusicbusinesshadsimilarlychanged.Theintroductionofradiohad
drivenmostofthesmallerlabelsoutofbusiness.Thosethatdidsurvivethe
Depressionandtheintroductionoftheradiowere,withoutexceptionlargeandhad
thecapacitytosignandpayartistsdisplacedfromthelossofsmallerlabelslike
BlackSwan.Blackmusicianswerestillrecordingduringthe1930sandseemedtobe
doingquitewell.Indeed,someofthebiggestnamesinjazz,suchasLouis
Armstrong,didnotbecomemajornamesuntilthe1930s.However,theseartists
recordedforwhitelabelsandmusicperformedbyblackartistreturnedtotheold
modeloflowcultureracerecords.NocompanytookupthemantleofBlackSwanin
ordertobringoperaariassungbyblacksingerstoblackconsumers.Theblack
music-listeningpublicdecidedtheywantedjazzandblues,andthewhiterecord
labelswerehappytoprovidesuchrecords.ThroughouttheDepressionandWorld
WarII,littlecouldbefoundinthewayofblack-ownedentertainmententerprises.
WhilepersonscertainlysoughttoescapethehardshipoftheDepressionthrough
thevicariousandrelativelycheapreleaseofmovies,music,andotherformsofpop
culture,thecompaniesproducingsuchwerelargeandwell-financed.Therewereno
73ManningMarable.HowCapitalismUnderdevelopedBlackAmerica:ProblemsinRace,Political
Economy,andSociety,(Boston,MA:SouthEndPress,1983)148.
74Ibid,148.
38
black-ownedentertainmentcompanieswithnationaldistributionformedduringthe
Depression.ThiswouldcontinuetobethecaseuntilaftertheSecondWorldWar.
39
CHAPTERTWO:THEECONOMIC AND CULTURALDECISIONSOFHARRYPACE
TheMayissueofTheCrisiscontainedadvertisementsannouncingthe
formationofBlackSwanRecords.Theissuecontainedtwofull-pagedadsforBlack
Swan.Thefirstledwiththeheadline:“BuyNewBlackSwanRecordsEveryMonth
andEncourageNegroSingers,MusiciansandComposers,”beforelistingtheaimsof
thecompany.1TheadmentionsthesortofmusictoberecordedonBlackSwan,“We
willrecordpopularsongsoftheday,dancemelodies,blues,highclassballads,
sacredsongs,Spiritualsandoperaticselectionsjustastheotherphonograph
companiesdo.”2Theadvertisementalsostatedthecompanywillaidtheblackrace
inspiteofdiscriminationbywhitelabels,“Wewillgiveopportunitiestoourown
singerssuchastheycangetfromnoothercompanies.Everyrecordyoubuymeans
encouragementtosomeNegrosingerandsomeNegromusiciantocontinuetheir
workanddeveloptheirtalent.”3Likewise,thisbenefitwouldnotbecontainedto
solelytheartistssince,“Everyrecordyoubuymeansemploymentalongnewlines
toalargenumberofourtalentedpeople,inadditiontoclerks,stenographersand
others.”4Theadvertisementcloseswith“BuyBLACKSWANRECORDSandyouwill
helppreservethebestvoicesoftherace,besidesgettingmusicwhichtheracewants
butothercompaniesdonotrecord,”beforestatinginbold:“BLACKSWAN
1TheCrisis,May1921,41.
2Ibid.
3Ibid.
4Ibid.
40
RECORDSaretheonlyrecordsusingexclusivelyNegrovoicesandNegro
Musicians.”5
BlackSwanRecordsproducedrecordsinmanygenres,butithighlightedits
opera,spiritual,andclassicalofferingsashigh-culturerecordsthatexemplified
BlackSwan’ssupremeculturalaspirations.Asdemonstratedthroughtheir
advertisements,BlackSwanclaimedtheirblacksingersandinstrumentalistswere
thepeerofanywhiteperformers.Inaddition,BlackSwansoughttodemonstrate
howblackconsumers,whomadeupthelabel’sclientele,werecapableofpurchasing
andenjoyingsuchgenres,indefianceofmainstreamdepictionsofAfricanAmericansthatheldotherwise.Thisreflectsaconflictwithintheblackcommunity
duringthistimeregardingtheproperroleofAfrican-AmericansinAmerican
culture,andhowmiddleandupperclasspersonssoughttodistinguishthemselves
fromthelowerclass.However,thisconflictwasvirtuallyignoredbyawhite
mainstreamconsumerculturethatviewedtheblackraceasawhole,notmaking
distinctionsofclass. ThroughBlackSwanRecords,HarryPacebelievedthegrowingeducated,
urban,blackmiddleclasscoulddemonstratetheirworthtowhiteAmericaby
showingtheirappreciationforcertaingenresofartandentertainment,particularly
music.Pace’sopeningannouncementofthefoundingofBlackSwanintheChicago
Defenderwassimilarlydemonstrativeoftheseideals.Theadvertisementidentified
BlackSwanasthe“OnlycompanyusingRacialArtistsinrecordinghighclasssong
5Ibid.
41
records.ThiscompanymadetheonlyGrandOperarecordsevermadebyNegros.”6
ThestatedpurposeofBlackSwanwastodemonstratethatblackpersonswerenot
onlycapableofcreatinghighculture,suchasspiritualsandoperaarias,buttheyhad
thepurchasingpowertokeepthecompanyprofitablebyproducingsuchrecords.
PacereiteratesthisfinancialangleintheChicagoDefenderannouncement:“[Black
Swanisthe]OnlybonafideRacialcompanymakingtalkingmachinerecords.All
stockholdersarecolored,allartistsarecolored,allemployeesarecolored.”7
AlthoughgenressuchasbluesandjazzwouldbeincludedontheBlackSwan
repertoireofreleases,theywerenothighlightedintheseinitialadvertisements,
whichappealedtoamorecosmopolitanandrefinedtaste.
Pace’sbeliefintheneedtorectifythenegativestereotypesofAfrican
Americansperpetuatedbythewhitemainstreamwassimilarlyheldbyhismentor
Dubois.Inparticular,W.E.B.DuboisusedhispositionaseditorofTheCrisisto
elaborateonhisfeelingsonthenecessityofBlackSwanRecords,aswellasbuildup
anassociationbetweenthephrase‘blackswan’withracialprideandtalent.Ina
seriesofeditorialsinTheCrisispennedinordertoleaduptoannouncementof
BlackSwanRecords,Duboismadeacaseagainstwhiterecordlabelsdiscriminating
againstblackartists.“Wehavegoodauthority,”hewroteintheFebruary1921issue,
“forstatingthat65%ofthephonographrecordsmadefortheSoutherntradebya
well-knowncompanyaresoldtocoloredpeople.Nevertheless,thiscompanyonly
employsonecoloredartistregularlyandonlyoccasionallyacoloredorchestraor
6ArnoldShaw,BlackPopularMusicinAmerica:fromtheSpirituals,Minstrels,andRagtimetoSoul,
Disco,andHip-hop.(NewYork:SchirmerBooks,1986).102
7Ibid,102.
42
quartet.”8Hecontinueshiscomplaintagainstthisunnamedcompany,“Allthese
musiciansareconfinedstrictlytoacertainclassofmusicandonnoaccountarethey
allowedtoattemptanythingelse,nomatterwhattheirgiftsorabilities”fittinginto
theideablackartistswerecapableofhighart,butweresquelchedbywhite
oppression.9DuboishighlightedRolandHayesastheparticulartargetofthissortof
discrimination.AlthoughRolandwasclassicallytrainedandfoundacclaimin
Europeasanoperasinger,whiterecordlabelsrefusedtohirehimunlessheagreed
tosing“comicdarkysongs.”10ThisangeredDuboissincewhitemenwithinferior
voicesandtrainingtoHayeswereallowedtosingallgenresofmusic,including
ridiculingNegrofolkmusic.Duboisbecameimpassionedashenearedtheendofhis
editorial:“Undersuchdiscriminationthereisbutonesolution.Wehavealready
throughoutthelanddevelopedaNegroaudiencetoappreciateandpayadozenor
soNegroartists.…Wemustnowdevelopabusinessorganizationtopreserveand
recordourbestvoices…torevealthebestmusicnotonlyoftheirownracebutofall
racesandages.”11Almostasanafterthought,Duboisclosedwithabriefsentence
statingsucharecordlabelwasbeingformed.Duboisneglectedtomentionhis
intimateknowledgeofthecompany’sfounding,aswellashisbeingamajorelement
initsinception.Instead,Duboiswroteasanoutsideobserver,frustratedbythe
injusticetowardsblackartistsandhopingforthesituationtoberectified,but
overlookedanyindicationhewaspartofsolutionthathesuggested.
8W.E.B.Dubois,“OpinionofW.E.B.Dubois,”TheCrisis,February1921,152.
9Ibid.
10Ibid.
11Ibid.
43
ThefollowingissuesofTheCrisisinthespringof1921keptreadersawareof
thenewrecordlabel,aswellasthephrase‘blackswan.’TheMarchissuecontained
anarticledetailingthelifeofsingerElizabethTaylorGreenfield,whowasknownas
the‘BlackSwan.’ThearticlehighlightedGreenfield’sclassicaltrainingandmusical
skill,butnotedshewasheldbackbecauseofherrace.Wereitnotforthis
discrimination,thearticleheld,sheeasilywouldhavebeenheraldedasoneofthe
greatestsingersofhergeneration.12Onceagain,seeminglyasanafterthought,the
articlementionsPace’supcomingrecordlabel,notingitwouldbecalled“BlackSwan
Records.”13TheAprilissueofTheCrisiskeptupthetrendofkeepingthephrase
‘blackswan’linkedtobeautyandracialpride,thistimewithafairytaleofthesame
name.Inthetale,whichtakesplaceinRussia,thetitularBlackSwanisabeautiful
youngwomanwhohasthemagicalabilitytotransformintoablackswan.Although
mulattoandcapableofpassingforotherraces,racialprideprohibitedherfrom
doingso.14TheMayissueofTheCrisiswasthemostsaturatedwiththephrase‘black
swan,’andtoutedtheinvolvementofpeopleofcolorinhighculturemusic.The
coveroftheissueisapictureofChevalierdeSaint-Georges,aneighteenth-century
violinvirtuosoandconductorofAfricanancestry.Theissuealsocontainsashort
biographyofdeSaint-George,highlightinghissuccessinEuropedespitebeingthe
Caribbean-bornsonofablackslaveandaFrenchplanter.15Theconclusionofthe
‘BlackSwan’fairytalefollowsthearticleonSaint-George,whereintheheroineis
12“TheBlackSwan”,TheCrisis,March1921,213.
13Ibid.
14MariaMoravsky“TheBlackSwan”TheCrisis,April1921,259.
15JessieFauset,“Saint-George,ChevalierofFrance”,TheCrisis,May1921,10.
44
praisedforherbeautyandskillasasinger,beforetransformingintoaswanand
flyingaway.16
JudgingbytheeffortDuboisputintoensuringmaterialinTheCrisiswould
correspondwiththeinitialslateofBlackSwanRecords,aswellashavingavested
interestinthecompany,itisclearDuboisagreedwithPaceonthenecessityforthe
company.LikePace,DuboisbelievedAfricanAmericanswerecapableofhighculturework,butwerebeingsquelchedbywhiterecordlabels,andothercultural
distributorsandpromoters,whodesiredstereotypicalofferings.Bychangingthe
depictionofblacknessfromnegativetooneoftalentandracialpride,bothPaceand
Duboisbelievedagreateracceptanceofblacksingersandartistscouldoccur,
ultimatelyleadingintotheirinclusionintoAmericanmainstreamculture.Black
SwanwouldaidintheadvancementoftheNegroracethroughculturallyedifying
music.Inadditiontoprovidingculturalbenefits,thefinancialsuccessoftherecord
labelwouldprovideemploymentandimprovementfornotjustmusicians,butoffice
staffandsalespersonsaswell.Inall,thebenefitsofBlackSwanweretobemanifold,
andDuboissupportedPacewhole-heartedlyinhisendeavor.
PaceandDuboiswerenotaloneinthisbeliefamongtheblackcommunity.
Theideaofupliftbringingabouttheacceptanceamongthewhitemainstreamfor
theentiretyofAfrican-Americansthroughindividualculturalachievementwas
prevalentinthe1920s.Musicwasseenasaparticularlypotentmeansthrough
whichblackadvancementcouldbeachieved,butonlythroughcertaingenres.
Althoughjazzmighthavebeenpopular,manyblackintellectualsvieweditas
16MariaMoravsky“TheBlackSwan”TheCrisis,May1921,17.
45
detrimentaltotherace.Instead,theyarguedgenresthatappealedtorefinedand
educatedpersonsshouldbehighlightedintheAfricanAmericancommunityin
ordertobringabouttheelevationoftherace.A1927editorialinTheLouisiana
Weekly,aNewOrleans-basedblacknewspaper,verbalizedthisideal,“Thelovefor
musicisuniversal.Musicisfacinating[sic]eventoPagans.Weneedmoremusicin
ourhomes,notjazzandnonsense,notmusicofthekindthatviolatesgoodtasteand
roughensthefeelings;butmusicsacredanddivine,pureandcultured,pleasingto
peopleofeducationandrefinement.”17Althoughtherewasdivisiononwhatgenres
fitthesecriteria,therewasconsensusthattheblackspiritualhadexceptional
artisticmeritandcouldbeutilizedtoleadtothewidespreadacceptanceofAfricanAmericans.18However,thespiritualwouldhavetotransitionfromfolkarttohigh
culturethrougharefiningprocess,whichwouldultimatelyresultintheinclusionof
blackpersonsasacceptedandequalmembersofAmericansociety.
DavePeyton,amusicianandperformerinChicago,embodiedthisbeliefin
thetransformativepowerofmusic,assumingitwaswithincertaingenres.His
column“TheMusicBunch,”whichraninTheChicagoDefenderfrom1925to1929,
wasprimarilyfortheworkingmusiciansofChicago,informingthemofgigopenings
tobehadinthecity’srestaurantsandclubs.Peytonalsousedthecolumnexpound
uponhisbeliefsaboutpropermusicalgenres.InhisMay8,1926column,entitled
“TheInfluenceofMusic,”Peytondetailedwhichgenresofmusichedeemed
17LouisianaWeekly,August6,1927.4.
18Duboisinparticularbelievedblackspiritualswerethegenrebestcapableofconveyingtheblack
experience.Thefinalchapterinhis1903bookTheSoulsofBlackFolkisdevotedthegenreandits
merits.
46
beneficialandenriching,namely“nationalmusic,”“folkloremusic,”and“spirituals.”
Hebelievedthesegenres“carrieswithitaspirittofascinate,toinvigorate,tomake
onehappy.”19Peyton’spraiseforthesegenreswasmatchedbyhisdistainforjazz,
whichhelabeled,“crude,barbaric,vulgar,suggestive…”andfoundit“degrading,
appealingonlytotheanimalemotionsofthedancerswhoaresusceptibletoits
charms.”20AlthoughPeytonrecognizedmanyclassically-trainedmusicianstookJazz
gigsoutofnecessity,hebelievedthegenrewasafad,andencouragedmusiciansto
keepuptheirstudiesinanticipationthatmoreacceptablegenreswillcomeback
intofashion.21
UnlikePeyton,J.A.Robertsbelievedjazzmusichadstayingpower,butthe
genreneededtoberefinedinorderforittoreachitsutmostpotential.Inhisessay
“JazzatHome,”publishedin1925,RobertscelebratedJazz’sNegroorigins,aswell
asrankingit“withthemovieandthedollarasaforemostexponentofmodern
Americanism.”22AlthoughRobertsrecognizedjazz’sorigins,hefoundwhite
organizations,suchthebandsofPaulWhitemanandVincentLopez,were
“…demonstratingthefinerpossibilitiesofjazzmusic.”23Robertsbelievedjazzcould
19DavePeyton.“TheMusicalBunch:TheInfluenceofMusic,”TheChicagoDefender(National
edition),May8,1926,6.ProQuestHistoricalNewspapers:ChicagoDefender(1910-1975).<accessed
5/7/14>.
20Ibid.
21DavePeyton.“TheMusicalBunch:TheHarlemSymphonyOrchestra,TheRace’sPride,”The
ChicagoDefender(Nationaledition),November21,1925,6.ProQuestHistoricalNewspapers:Chicago
Defender(1910-1975).<accessed5/7/14>.
22J.A.Roberts.“JazzatHome”TheNewNegro:VoicesoftheHarlemRenaissance.(NewYork:
Touchstone,1999)216.
23Ibid.
47
aidinremovingartificialnessinAmericansociety,butonlyifitspractitioners,both
blackandwhite,elevateditfromitslowerclassoriginsinto“noblerchannels.”24
Inall,theprevailingconsensusamongblackintellectualsandmusiciansof
the1920swasthatmusicwasapowerfultoolwhichcoulddemonstratethe
advancementofthegrowingeducated,urban,blackmiddleclasstowhitesociety.
GoodmusicianshipcouldbethevehiclethroughwhichanewdepictionofAfrican
Americanscouldbepresented,oneofracialpride,achievement,andintellect.Even
thoughtheyrecognizedthepopularityofJazzandracerecords,theseindividuals
believedtheraceasawholewouldbebestservedthroughanappreciationand
supportofacceptablemusic.
ThisdistinguishingofAfrican-Americansbyclasswasnotfoundinthe
majorityofracerecords,whichwereputoutbywhiterecordcompaniesinthe
1920s.Blackmusicianswhoweresignedtowhitelabelsprimarilyputoutrecords
thatreinforcedamonolithicdepictionofAfrican-Americansasprimarilyruraland
Southern,aswellaslower-class.Theserecordcompaniesmadenoconcessionstoan
educatedblackaudience,insteadportrayingAfrican-Americansinstockracial
stereotypes.Althoughtheserecordswerenotdeemedsociallyedifyingbyblack
commentatorsofthe1920s,therecordswerethemostpopular,andbecamethe
prevalentdepictionofmusicperformedbyblackartistsinAmericansociety.Onthe
occasionswhereanAfrican-Americanachievedacclaimforahighculturegenre,
suchasRolandHayes’skillasanoperatictenor,asmentionedbyDuboisinhis
editorialinTheCrisis,whiteAmericanrecordlabelswereonlyinterestedintheir
24Ibid,223.
48
performingsongsreinforcingthesestereotypes.Furthermore,thesecompaniesdid
notviewtheirracerecordsasanavenuethroughwhichAfricanAmericanscould
earnrespectabilityfromthelargermainstreamculture.Whiterecordlabelswere
notconcernedwithracialuplift,insteadtheyfocusedsolelyonmakingprofitable
recordsbasedupontheconsumingpublic’stastes.
HarryPacewasalsointerestedinmakingprofitablerecords,butunlikethe
whiterecordlabels,headditionallydesiredtosoundtoactionracialupliftand
eventualequalitythroughhisrecords.Inparticular,hesoughttocultivatean
associationbetweenBlackSwanandaportrayalofAfricanAmericansthatequated
blacknesswithbeauty,esteem,andthecapacityforhighclass.Thisportrayalwas
moststronglydemonstratedintheadvertisementsforBlackSwanRecordsthat
appearedintheblackpress.25Throughtheadvertisements,PacedepictedBlack
SwanRecordsasaforceforpositivechangeintheAfrican-Americancommunity,as
wellasalegitimatelyblackcompany.
TheracialelementofBlackSwan’sadvertisementswasmuchmore
pronouncedthanPace’searlieradsforthePace&MusicCompany.Inparticular,
unlikeBlackSwan,Pace&HandydidnotadvertiseprimarilytoanAfrican-American
audience.Assuch,theadvertisementsdidnotflaunttheracialmeritsofthesongs,
butrathertheirpopularity.Becauseofthisfocusonpopularity,theadsconcentrated
onPace&Handy’smostsuccessfulofferings,namelytheBlues.Forinstance,an
advertisementfrom1918touts,“ourpopularmusiccanbeheardineveryshow
25ThebulkofBlackSwan’sadvertisementsappearedinoneofthreetitles:TheChicagoDefender,The
Crisis,andTheNewYorkAge.EachoneoftheseinstitutionsfitintoPace’sperceptionofblack
respectabilitysincetheycateredtoanurban,educated,andupwardlymobileaudience.
49
placeonBroadway,andourBLUESarebeingsungandplayedtheworldover.”26In
addition,thesameadvertisementclaimed“RingtailBlues”tobe“themostpopular
BLUESinHarlem.”27UnlikethelaterBlackSwanads,theseadvertisementsmadeno
efforttoassurethereaderofthecompany’sblacklegitimacy,orhowpurchasingits
sheetmusicwouldbenefittherace.Instead,theadsnotedstatedPace&Handywas
“theLeadingColoredPublisher”andaffirmed“THEYAREACREDITTOTHEIR
RACE.”28AlthoughthePace&HandyMusicCompanywascomprisedmainlyof
African-Americans,theirblacknesswasnotasellingpointforthecompany,except
topromoteadegreeofauthenticityforthemusic,andthereforenothighlightedin
theadvertisements.Likewise,althoughthecompanysoughttobeasfinancially
prosperousaspossible,theadvertisementsdidnotlinkthesuccessofPace&Handy
withthewideradvancementofAfricanAmericans.
TheadvertisementsforBlackSwanRecordsfellintotwobasictemplates.
Onetemplatewasdescriptive,acataloglistingofitsnewestreleases.Thefirstadof
thisnatureappearedintheMay1921issueofTheCrisis,wherethelabelannounced
itsfirstthreeofferings.Theartistandsongs’titleswerementioned,aswellasabrief
descriptionoftherecord.Theadvertisementalsonamedthepriceforeachrecord
(onedollar),aswellasanaddresstocontactiftheirlocaldealerdidnotsupply
BlackSwanRecords.Althoughshortandinformativeinnature,itstilliteratedthe
26“BeautifulMusicfortheHomefromtheLeadingColoredPublishers;ThePace&HandyMusicCo.,
Inc.”NewYorkPublicLibrary,SchomburgCenterforResearchinBlackCulture/Manuscripts,
ArchivesandRareBooksDivision.<http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/id?1232458>Accessed
4/15/14.
27Ibid.
28Ibid.
50
company’semphasisongenuineblackness.Forinstance,theMay1921adinThe
CrisisdeclaredinboldthatBlackSwanrecordswere,“THEONLYRECORDSUSING
EXCLUSIVELYNEGROVOICESandMUSICIANS.”29Thisstyleofadwasregularly
utilizedthroughoutBlackSwan’sexistence,listingthenewestreleasesofthemonth
aswellasremindingreadersofBlackSwan’sgenuineblackness.
Thesecondtemplatewaseditorialandtooktheformofanopinionpiece,
whichwasmorevocalinitsracialviewsanddesireforblackelevation.These
editorials,typicallycreditedtoPace,expoundeduponissuesaffectingtheblack
community,andhowvaluableBlackSwanRecordsweretosustainingpositive
advancementsforAfrican-Americans.Aprimeexampleofthissortofadappearedin
theDecember1921issueofTheCrisis.Itbegins“EverySchoolChildshouldbeable
tohearourownhighclasscoloredsingersandmusiciansonthePhonograph,”
beforelaunchingintoaexplanationofBlackSwan’sapplicablenessforeducation.30
ThisadwasalsoforwardinassuringthereaderinBlackSwan’squalityand
legitimacyasablackcompany,“EveryBLACKSWANRECORDisaGoodRecordand
ismadebycoloredpeople.BLACKSWANRECORDSaretheonlyrecordsmadeby
ColoredPeople,andisnotaJimCrowannextoawhiteconcern.”31Theadendsby
listingsomeoftheartistssignedtoBlackSwan,suchasEthelWaters,to
demonstratetheamountofblacktalentavailablethroughthelabel.Pacealso
utilizedthisstyleofadvertisementtochallengetheveracityofthereader’sracial
29Ibid.
30TheCrisis,December1921,92.
31Ibid.
51
convictions.TheadvertisementfromtheJuly1923issueofTheCrisisdemonstrates
thisprinciple.Init,Paceaskedthereader,“DoYouBelongtoThatClassofMen
Whofeelittheirdutytosupporteveryworthwhileraceenterpriseandwhospare
noeffortsinfurtheringtheirprogress,OrtoThatClasswhosayinpublicthatitis
thedutyofeveryNegrotolendhissupportand,inprivate,patronizetheotherrace
inpreferencetotheirownregardlessofthemeritofthecoloredman’sproduct?”32It
closesbyinformingthepublicthat“RealRacePeopleArebuyingBlackSwan
Recordsfortheyhavefoundthemsuperiortotherecordsmadebythewhite
companies.”33WhilePacerecognizedthatmostrecorddealersdidnotbelievethere
tobeademandforclassicalartistsamongtheblackrecord-buyingpublic,otherads
urgedconsumerstodefythisexpectation.AnadfromtheJanuary1923issueofThe
Crisispressedreaders:“GotoyourRecordDealerandaskfortheBetterClassof
RecordsbyColoredArtists.IfthereisaDemandhewillkeepThem.”34Althoughthis
styleofadvertisementwasnotutilizedasfrequentlyasthecatalogofnewreleases,
itwasstillusedregularlyduringthelabel’slifetime.Throughtheseads,Pacelinked
BlackSwanRecordswithracialadvancement,aswellasinsinuatingthatnot
purchasingrecordsfromthecompanywasakintonotbeinggenuinelysupportiveof
therace.
Astimewenton,Pacebegantoutilizetheeditorialadvertisementtemplate
foranotherpurpose.WiththeearlysuccessofBlackSwanrecords,morewhite
32TheCrisis,July1923,140.
33Ibid.
34TheCrisis,January1923,137.
52
labelsbeganreleasingrecordsfromblackartistsinattempttotapintothecolored
market.Facingalossinmarketshare,BlackSwan’sadvertisementsbegannotonly
totoutthemeritsoftherecordcompanyforAfrican-Americanprogress,butalsoto
discreditotherrecordcompaniesfortheirattemptsfor“passingforcolored.”Anad
appearingintheDecember1922issueofTheCrisisinformedthereaderofthe
popularityofcateringtoblackbuyersbywhiterecordlabels,beforelistingwhatare
deemedafewegregiousexamples.Itends,“Don’tbedeceived.Werepeat:theonly
genuinecoloredrecordisBLACKSWAN.”35AlthoughPacerecognizedmoreblack
musicianswerebeingemployedandrecordingrecordsthroughtheexpansionof
whiterecordlabels,hebelievedtheabundanceofAfrican-Americanmusiciansalone
wouldnotcauseracialupliftandequalityfortheentireblackcommunity.Rather,
blackmusicianswerepartofalargerequation.Ablackmusiciancreatingarecord
alonewouldnothavenearlythepositiveimpactfortheraceasawholeunlessitwas
producedbyarecordcompanythathadblackowners,manufacturedusingblack
labor,andsoldusingblacksalesagents.Thislinkbetweeneconomicsuccessand
racialpromotionwasseenthroughoutPace’scareer,andwasmostkeenlyfeltat
BlackSwan.
Pace’sbeliefintheabilityofblackeconomicsuccesstobringaboutracial
advancementwasalsoheldbyhismentorDubois,whowasparticularlyenamored
ofcreatingablackeconomyseparatefromthemainstreamAmericaneconomyin
ordertocircumventthefinancialdiscriminationandpovertyprevalentamong
African-Americans.Duboisgaveapracticaldemonstrationofthisprincipleina1912
35TheCrisis,December1922,91.
53
articleontheblackpopulationofDurham,NorthCarolina.Inthearticle,Dubois
detailshowtheAfrican-AmericansofDurhamwereabletoovercomebiasthrough
thedevelopmentofa"groupeconomy,"whichhedefinedas“…theclosedcircleof
socialintercourse,teachingandpreaching,buyingandselling,employingandhiring,
andevenmanufacturing,which,becauseitisconfinedchieflytoNegroes,escapes
thenoticeofthewhiteworld.”36AlthoughDuboisrecognizedtheblackpopulationof
Durhamdidnotliveinautopia,hefoundtheirfinancialindependenceledtobetter
racerelationswithDurham’swhiteresidents,who“encouragedthebesttypeof
blackmanbyactiveaidandpassivetolerance.”37Duboisfoundhavingblack
versionsofbusinesseswouldleadtoblackindependenceandbetterracerelations
forthenationasawhole.Inaddition,duringthelate1910’s/early1920’s,Dubois
wasaproponentforcollectivism.AfterPacewroteDuboisin1918askingforadvice
instartingacollectivestoreforemployeesofStandardLife,Duboissoughthis
formerstudent’saidtoholdaconferenceoncooperationinordertoexplainits
benefitstotheblackcommunity.38LikePace,Duboisbelievedindividualeconomic
gainsforblackentrepreneurswerenottrulybeneficialtotheraceasawholeunless
theirfinancialsuccesswassharedwiththeblackcommunity.AlthoughDubois
neverdirectlycommentedonBlackSwan’sadvertisementsduringhis
36W.E.B.Dubois.“TheUpbuildingofBlackDurham.TheSuccessoftheNegroesandtheirValuetoa
TolerantandHelpfulSouthernCity”W.E.B.DuBois:SelectionsfromHisWritings.Courier
Corporation,2013,133.
37Ibid137.
38W.E.B.(WilliamEdwardBurghardt)DuBois.1868-1963.LetterfromW.E.B.DuBoistoHarry
H.Pace,March6,1918.W.E.B.DuBoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversity
Archives,UniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries.
54
correspondencewithPace,DuboiswaswillingtohavethelabelrunadsinTheCrisis
withoutinitialpayment.39
MarcusGarveyalsoadvocatedamessageofracialprideandeconomicunity
inthe1920s.Garvey,animmigranttotheUnitedStatesfromJamaica,cameto
embodyPan-AfricanismandBlackNationalismintheearlytwentiethcentury.Like
PaceandDubois,GarveybelievedAfrican-Americanracialupliftwasacollective
concernandcouldbeachievedthroughalinkbetweeneconomicindependenceand
morepositiveculturalportrayals.AkintoPace’sadmonishingblackreadersto
supportBlackSwanRecordsinordertobenefitallAfrican-Americans,Garvey’s
UnitedNegroImprovementAssociation’sadvertisementslikewisebeckonedtheir
readerstosupporttheirracebypatronizingblack-ownedindustries.Inaddition,
Garvey’sadslinkedthefinancialsuccessofthesecompanieswithracial
respectabilityasawhole:“Ifyouexpecttheracetoberespectedgenerally…thenyou
mustsupporttheenterpriseswehavealreadystarted.”40Althoughthetwomen
wouldlaterbecomebitterlyopposedtoeachother’sphilosophy,initiallyGarvey
agreedwithPace’sbeliefsaboutmusicandinvitedhimtogivealectureonthe
subjectatGarvey’sNewYorkLibertyHallinearly1922.41
39BlackSwan(Soundrecordinglabel).LetterfromBlackSwanPhonographCompanytoW.E.B.Du
Bois,December26,1924.W.E.B.DuBoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversity
Archives,UniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries.
40“NegroWorldAdvertisement”RobertA.Hill.TheMarcusGarveyandUniversalNegroImprovement
AssociationPapers:1September1921-2September1922.(Berkley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,
1985)756.
41TedVincent“TheSocialContextofBlackSwanRecords”.WriteMeaFewofYourLines:ABlues
Reader,StevenTracyed.(Amherst,MA:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,1999)376.
55
Theadvertisementsforracerecordsputoutbywhiterecordcompanieswere
notbyandlargeculturallyedifyingtotheblackrace,butratherdetrimentaltoracial
equality.Theseadvertisementsdidnotchallengetheblackreaderstopurchase
recordsinordertoaidintherace’sculturaluplift.Instead,theyreinforcedthelow
culturedepictionsPacesoughttochallengethroughBlackSwan.Anexampleofthis
sortofadappearedintheJune24,1922,issueofChicagoDefender.Okehrecords
announcedthereleaseofthe“LonesomeMommaBlues”withacaricatureof
‘Momma’whofittheMammystereotype,completewithhandkerchiefwrapped
aroundherheadandprominentlargelips.Thead’swritingisequallystereotypical:
“You’llalmostgetupandshoutwhenyouhearthattalking,wailing,moaning
saxophone.Ohboy![It]isthebesttoe-ticklersince“MuscleShoalBlues.”42Thead
concludedwithalistingofOkeh’snewestracerecords,allofwhichwerewithinthe
Bluesgenre.Okehwasnotaloneinthissortofadvertising.Anadvertisementfrom
AjaxRecordsfromtheOctober27,1924issueoftheDefender,containsmuchofthe
samestereotyping.Advertisingthe“CrapShootingBlues,”theillustrationisalarge
drawingofadicegamebetweentwoblackmalestock-caricaturesbeingbrokenup
bythepolice.Inaddition,theadliststhenewestJazzandBluesreleases,before
proclaimingAjaxtobe:“TheQualityRaceRecord.”43EventhoughtheChicago
DefenderwasbasedinaNortherncityanditsreadershipwasprimarilycomprised
ofeducatedmiddleandupper-classAfrican-Americans,thewhiterecordlabels’
advertisementsdidnotreflectthisdemographic.Instead,theadsdepicteda
42ChicagoDefender,June241922,6.
43ChicagoDefender,October271924,6.
56
monolithicblackracethatwasruralandlower-classinitscomposition,keeping
withthestereotypesoftheoldSouth.UnlikeBlackSwanads,whichappealedtothe
reader’sracialprideanddesireforupwardmobility,theadvertisementsputoutby
whitecompaniesportrayedAfrican-Americansaschanginglittlesincethetimeof
slavery.Theydidnotacknowledgeadvancementsmadebytheraceineducationand
class.AlthoughtheadswereostensiblymadeforanAfrican-Americanaudience,this
sortofdepictionreaffirmedoldstereotypesaboutblackness.
AkintoPace’sbeliefinthecapacityofcertaingenrestobestelevatetheblack
racetorespectability,helikewisesoughtthesamelevelofdecorumfromthe
musiciansandartistssignedtoBlackSwan.Paceexpectedhisperformerstoadhere
torespectablebehaviorandprofessionalismintheirmusicianship.Despitethe
musician’stalentortheirpotentialpopularity,Pacewouldnotworkwithamusician
onBlackSwaniftheydidnotfitintothisexpectation.AprimeexampleofPace’s
convictionswashisrefusaltosignBessieSmith.In1921,Smithmadeherfirst
demonstrationrecordingforPaceatBlackSwan’sstudio.Despitehertalent,Pace
didnotfeelthegrittinessofhersingingwouldfitintotherefinedimagehewas
hopingtocultivateforBlackSwan.Inaddition,hercoarsebehaviorduringthe
recordingsessionrepulsedPace,andherefusedtosignSmith.44BessieSmithwould
goontosignacontractwithColumbiainFebruaryof1923,andherfirstrecordfor
them,“DownheartedBlues,”soldover780,000copies.45Inaddition,shewould
44ThereisnoconsensusontheexactnatureofSmith’soffense.Butitismostcommonlytoldthat
Smithinterruptedherrecordingsessionwith“Holdon,boys.Letmespit,”beforeproceedingtodoso
inthestudio.MichelleR.Scott.BluesEmpressinBlackChattanooga:BessieSmithandtheEmerging
UrbanSouth,(Champlain,IL:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1998)132.
45Ibid.132.
57
becomeoneofthemostpopularrecordingartistsofthe1920s,knownasthe
‘EmpressofBlues.’AlthoughPacehadthechancetosignSmithbeforeColumbiaor
anyoftheotherrecordlabels,hedidnotdosoduetohispersonalconvictionsand
whathedeemedappropriatebehaviorforblackmusicians.Thissortofrefusalto
workwithmusiciansPacejudgedtolackasufficientworkethicwasalsopresent
duringhistimemanagingW.C.Handy.In1918,PaceurgedHandytofirehistouring
bandinMemphissincetheyweremoreinterestedindrinkingandcarousingon
BealeStreetthanrelocatingtoNewYorkCity.46EventhoughHandyhadtouredwith
themusiciansforseveralyears,HandyfollowedPace’sdirection.
Pacebelievedaneducatedandmusicallyliterateperformerwouldbest
representthecompany,aswellasthelargergoalofracialuplift.Indeed,Pace
broughtWilliamGrantStillandFletcherHenderson,thetwomusicianswhohadthe
mostinfluenceonBlackSwan’sartisticdirection,overtoBlackSwanfromthePace
&HandyMusicCompanybecauseoftheirmusicalbackground.Thesetwomusicians
bestrepresentPace’sgoalswithBlackSwan:althoughcapableofplayingpopular
genressuchastheBluesandJazz,theywereclassicallytrainedandaccomplished
enoughtoperformeliteclassicalmusicaswellastoanywhitemusician.
OriginallyfromWoodville,Mississippi,WilliamStillstudiedcompositionat
theOberlinConservatoryofMusicinOhio.AlthoughserviceinWorldWarI
interruptedhisstudies,andStillneverreceivedadegreefromtheinstitution,his
interestinclassicalmusicandcompositioncontinuedthroughouthiscareer.After
arrangingforW.C.Handy’sbandforseveralyears,Stillwashiredasheadarranger
46W.C.HandyandArnaBontemps.FatheroftheBlues,(NewYork:Macmillan,1941).176-177.
58
forthePace&HandyMusicCompany.StilltookthesamepositionwhenPace
openedBlackSwanin1920.DuringhistimeinNewYorkworkingforBlackSwan,
Stillcontinuedhisstudiesinsymphonicmusiccomposition,learningunderGeorge
WhitefieldChadwick,headoftheNewEnglandConservatoryofMusic,aswellasthe
FrenchModernistEdgardVarese.47Inadditiontocomposingandarrangingmusic,
Stillwasskilledasaninstrumentalist,particularlyontheviolin,cello,andoboe.At
BlackSwan,Stillwasprimarilyresponsibleforthearrangingandorchestrationof
themusictobepreformed.Althoughhedidnotrecordforthecompanyasoftenas
FletcherHenderson,Still’sskillsetasaninstrumentalistwasoccasionallyutilized.48
WhileStilldidmostofthelabel’sorchestration,itwasFletcherHenderson
whopreformedmostoftenonBlackSwan’srecords.Hendersonwasbornto
educatedmiddle-classparentsinCuthbert,Georgia.LikePace,Hendersonwasan
alumofAtlantaUniversity,wherehegraduatedin1920withadegreein
mathematicsandchemistry.Althoughskilledasapianist,Hendersoninitiallymoved
toNewYorkCitytobeginpost-graduateworkatColumbiaUniversity,aswellas
workasachemist.However,uponfindinghisracebarredhimfrommostjobsinthe
chemistryfield,HendersonfoundemploymentatthePace&Handymusiccompany
asasongplugger,promotingthecompany’smusicoutsideofitsoffices.49Shortly
47“WilliamGrantStill”TheEncyclopediaofArkansasHistory&Culture,
<http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=1775>.
Accessed4/19/14.
48Forinstance,FlorenceCole-Talbert’s"TheBellSong,"fromtheoperaLakmé,includesStillonoboe
aspartofitsorchestration.FlorenceCole-Talbert,“TheBellSong”,Lakmé,BlackSwan7103.
<http://www.journalofamericanhistory.org/teaching/2004_03/sources.html>Accessed3/1/14.
49JefferyMagee.TheUncrownedKingofSwing:FletcherHendersonandBigBandJazz:Fletcher
HendersonandBigBandJazz.(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2004),12
59
thereafter,Hendersonalsobecameapianistandsongdemonstratorforthe
company,workingin-house.WhenPaceleftthePace&HandyMusicCompanyto
startBlackSwan,HendersonfollowedPaceandwaspromotedtomusicaldirector
forthenewlabel.Asmusicaldirectorandbandleader,Hendersonappearedinthe
bulkofBlackSwan’srecordsasapianist,eitherinthesolopianobackingasingeror
aspartofalargergroupofbackgroundinstrumentalists.Asthelabelwenton,
Hendersonbecamebetterknownasanartistinhisownright,eventuallyissuing
recordsonthelabelbeginningintheSpringof1922,astheleaderofHenderson’s
DanceOrchestra.50HendersonalsoledtheorchestrathataccompaniedEthelWaters
andtheBlackSwanTroubadoursduringtheirtour.AlthoughHendersonwas
primarilyamusicianforBlackSwan,heoccasionallyarrangedmusicforthelabel.
OntheinstanceswhenHendersoncomposed,itwasmainlyintheSwing,Blues,and
Jazzgenres.
ThemusicrecordedbyBlackSwanalsofitintoPace’sexpectationof
respectability.Thelabel’sforaysintoOpera,Classicalpieces,Spirituals,andother
genresdeemed‘high-class’werehighlightedmostofteninBlackSwan’s
advertisements,andheraldedasequivalenttoanyrecordmadebywhiteartists.
Similarly,althoughBlackSwanrecordedgenressuchasJazz,Blues,anddance
numbersbecausetheywerepopularandindemand,Pacesoughttokeepgood
musicianshipandrefinementinthelabel’sartistsregardlessofthetypeofmusic
50Henderson’sfirstrecordonthelabelwas“Fancies”withitsB-side“MyOrientalRose”(BlackSwan
2022HelgeThygesen,,MarkBerresford,andRussShor.BlackSwan:theRecordLabeloftheHarlem
Renaissance:AHistoryandCatalogueListingincludingOlympicRecordsandAssociatedLabels.
(Nottingham:VJMPublications,1996)31.
60
played.Assuch,theJazznumbersrecordedbyBlackSwantendedtobemore
subduedandless“hot”thanwasprevalentbyartistsonwhiterecordlabels.Black
Swan’spopularmusicrecordsorstandards,Jazz,andBluesrecordswerehighly
orchestrated,containedaneventempothroughout,hadlimitedchangesinsound
dynamics,andcontainednoimprovisation.Theserecordsgenerallyutilizedthe
samesetofminimalinstrumentation:limitedpercussionandbass,withmostly
trumpets,trombones,clarinets,aswellasHendersononthepianomakingupthe
orchestration.Theoperaandspiritualrecordingshavemoredynamic
arrangements,utilizingmoreinstrumentsandmorecomplexinstrumentation,
presumablyinanattempttodemonstratethemusicians’abilityandtrainingtoplay
suchnumbers.ThisinsistenceonintricacywaspartofPace’slargermissionto
demonstratetheequivalencyofblackmusicianstotheirwhitecounterparts.ABlack
Swanrecord,regardlessofgenre,wastobeahigh-qualityrecordingandPace
soughttoinsurethisbymakingsuretheorchestrationsreflectedthesophistication
ofboththemusicbeingplayedandthemusiciansperforming.
PacewasnotaloneamongmembersoftheBlackcommunityduringthe
1920sindesiringtrainingandrefinementfromblackmusiciansandthemusicthey
played.In“JazzatHome,”J.A.Robertsarguedthatjazzmusichadthecapacityto
serveasacritiqueagainsttheennuiofmodernity,provideditwasperformedwith
traininganddiscipline.AlthoughRobertsacknowledgedthegenre’soriginsamong
lower-classblackpeople,hehelditwouldonlyreachitspotentialifitwererefined
bythemusicoftheupperclasses,aswellaswhitepeople.Robertsdidnotmention
BlackSwanorHarryPacebynameaspurveyorsofthispropersortofmusic,but
61
Robertsdidpraisesomeartistssignedbythelabelasexceptional.HelistedEthel
Watersamong,otherjazzmusicianshedeemedworthy,asan“inimitableartist,with
aninventive,improvisingskillthatdefiesimitation.”51Robertsalsocommended
FletcherHenderson,citingHenderson’sjazzmusicascontaining“noneofthe
vulgaritiesandcrueltiesofthelowlyoriginortheonlytooprevalentcheap
imitations.”52Robertsdidnotbelievejazzmusictobeafad,butunlessitsenergies
andcreativitywasnotdivertedintotheproperchannels,itwouldnotreachits
potentialandthereforenotassistintheelevationofAfrican-Americans,aswellas
aidinremovingartificialityinAmericansociety.53
DavePeytondidnothavesuchapositiveviewofjazzmusic,andinhis“The
MusicalBunch”articlesintheChicagoDefender,helamentedthegenre’spopularity,
aswellasthelowerclasstypeofmusicianwhobecameassociatedwithjazz.Inhis
July16,1927,column,entitled“WhatJazzhasDone,”Peytonlistedhisgrievances
againstthegenre.Althoughheacknowledgedmanymusicianshadmadegood
moneyplayingjazzmusic,itcameatthesacrificeoftheirartisticmerit.Peyton
claimedjazzforcedotherwiseproperlytrainedmusicianstouseincorrect
fingerings,whichovertimewouldleadtolosingthe“methodicalwayof
execution.”54Becauseoftheirnowmissingabilitytoplaystandardmusic,these
51J.A.Roberts.“JazzatHome”TheNewNegro:VoicesoftheHarlemRenaissance.(NewYork:
Touchstone,1999)221.
52Ibid,221.
53Ibid,223.
54DavePeyton.“TheMusicalBunch:WhatJazzhasDone”,TheChicagoDefender(Nationaledition),
July16,1927,6.ProQuestHistoricalNewspapers:ChicagoDefender(1910-1975).<accessed
5/7/14>.
62
musicianswouldbeunabletogetjobsoncewhatPeytondeemedas“realmusic”
wasonceagainindemand.Peytonalsobelievedjazzpanderedtothebaser
emotionsofitslistenersandwouldultimatelyleadto“shameanddestruction.”55He
heldthatjazzshould“…beeliminatedfromthepublicdancehallsandshouldbe
disqualifiedbythedecentelement.”56Ifjazzabsolutelyhadtobeperformed,Peyton
urgedhismusicianreaderstofollowhisexamplewithhisownorchestras,playing
thegenreonlyifrequestedbyapatronandrenderingit“shortandsweet.”57
AlthoughPeytondidnotmentionBlackSwanasanexampleofthepropersortof
jazz,itisclearhispreferencetokeepjazzmusicasquietandprofessionalas
possible,isakintothesubduedorchestrationsonthelabel’sjazzrecords.
Inordertocombatthemusicaldegradationbroughtaboutbyjazz,Peyton
admonishedhisreaderstopracticetheirinstrumentsandseekpropertraining.In
addition,headvisedmusicianstoarrivepunctuallyforengagementsandbehave
withdecorumwhileplayingforanaudience.Peytonhadadimviewofperformers
whoviolatedcontractsandwentagainstthemusicians’unionandadvised
musicianstostaywiththeirbandsandnotseekindividualgigs.Healsoscolded
musicianswhoplagiarized,andwarnedthepracticewouldresultinshowingone’s
selfaslackingincreativity.Aboveall,Peytonaskedhismusicianreaderstoact
professionally.Peytonconsideredmusicaseriousbusiness,andpressedhisreaders
55Ibid,6.
56Ibid,6.
57Ibid,6.
63
todosoinkind.Byactinginaprofessionalmanner,Peytonbelievedblackmusicians
could“…demandtherespectmusiciansofotherracesdo.”58
OnemusicianwhoPeytonbelievedembodiedtheseidealswasFletcher
Henderson.WhenanexclusivewhitehotelemployedHenderson’sorchestrafora
seriesofperformancesinChicagointhesummerof1927,Peytonpraisedthe
achievement,laudingtheorchestramembersas“perfectgentlemen,andthey
establishedthereputationalloverthecountry.”59Peytonalsourgedhisreadersto
followtheirexample,believingChicago-basedblackmusicianscouldfindsimilar
successinthecityiftheybehavedinamannerakintoHendersonandhisorchestra.
PeytonalsopraisedWilliamGrantStill,callingthecomposer,“oneofthemost
efficientmusiciansinthecountry.”60Inparticular,PeytonheldStill’sworkasa
positiveexampleofthebestattributesofAfrican-Americans:“notthecare-freetype,
buttheserious,thinkingoneswhoseektosolvetheirproblemsanddosolvethem
ultimatelythroughthemeansofferventprayer.”61
Althoughtheseblackthinkersrecognizedthepopularityof‘hot’jazzand
othermorerambunctiousgenresofmusic,theybelievedblackmusicianswouldbest
servetheracebynotemulatingthelifestylesuggestedbythestyles’rowdinessand
58DavePeyton,“TheMusicalBunch:ThingsinGeneral”,TheChicagoDefender(Nationaledition),
April7,1928,6.ProQuestHistoricalNewspapers:ChicagoDefender(1910-1975).<accessed
5/7/14>.
59DavePeyton,“TheMusicalBunch:ThingsinGeneral”,TheChicagoDefender(Nationaledition),
August6,1927,5.ProQuestHistoricalNewspapers:ChicagoDefender(1910-1975).<accessed
5/7/14>.
60DavePeyton,“TheMusicalBunch:ThingsinGeneral”,TheChicagoDefender(Nationaledition),
November13,1926,6.ProQuestHistoricalNewspapers:ChicagoDefender(1910-1975).<accessed
5/7/14>.
61Ibid,6.
64
carefreeattitude.Behavinginsuchawaywouldreinforcenegativestereotypesof
blackpersons,andcouldundermineadvancementstowardequalitymadebyother
African-Americans.Byactinginahigher-classmannerandmimickingthe
professionalismandmusicianshipofartistssuchasHendersonandStill,itwas
believedblackperformerscouldnotonlyaidintheupliftoftherace,butalsoinsure
personalfinancialsecurity.AlthoughPeytonandRobertsdisagreedonthelongtermviabilityofJazzmusic,bothwereinagreementthefuturewouldinevitability
requiremusicianstohavemusicalliteracyandtraininginordertohavesustained
employment.
Meanwhile,whiterecordcompaniesofthe1920sdidnotemphasizethe
musicianshipoftheirblackartists,nordidtheypurposefullyseektohire
accomplishedblackmusicianstoplayontheirracerecords.Inaddition,theyhad
littlequalmsaboutrecordingmusicthatcouldbeconceivedasdetrimentaltoblack
advancement.WhileBlackSwansoughttoprovideracialupliftwithitsrecords,
whitelabelsdidnotmakethissortofconsideration.Assuch,theserecordlabels
focusedonracerecords,whichweretypicallylowerclassintheircontentanddid
notprovidemuchinthewayofwhatblackthinkersconsideredupliftfortherace,
butwerepopularandprofitable.
MuchlikehischoiceofStillandHendersontoserveasthechiefmusiciansof
thecompany,HarryPacecomprisedhisboardofdirectorstofitintohisvisionof
African-Americanrespectability.Theinitialboardofdirectors,comprisedof:Pace,
Dubois,relatorJohnE.Nail;physicianDr.MatthewV.Boutte,andminister’swife
ViolaBibb,embodiedthesortofeducatedandupper-classlifestylePacewasseeking
65
tomarketinBlackSwanRecords.WhilesomemightdoubttheviabilityofBlack
Swan’sgoalofsellinghigh-classrecordstoablackaudience,thecompositionofthe
company’sboardofdirectorscouldbeseenasproofoftheexistenceofsuchasetof
cosmopolitanindividuals.Thisdesiretoseekoutprosperousandprestigious
individualswasreflectedinlatermembersofthecompany’sboard.By1923,the
boardincludedtheadditionsofDr.GodfreyNurse,aGuyanese-bornsurgeonwho
wouldlaterbecomethefirstblackelectorintheelectoralcollege;Dr.W.H.Willis,
whoservedasheadofWashingtonD.C.’smedicalassociation;andTrumanK.
Gibson,aninsuranceandbankingexecutive.62Althoughnoneofthemembersof
BlackSwan’sboardofdirectorshadexperienceorknowledgeofthemusicbusiness,
savePacehimself,eachofthemembershadfoundsuccessandrespectability
throughblackbusinessesandwithintheAfrican-Americancommunity.Pace
assembledaboardthatrepresentedaneducatedandaffluentblackupperclasswith
designsofrespectabilityandinclusionwiththemajoritywhiteAmericanculture.
Pace’srationaleinchoosinghisboardreflectedtheaspirationsofDuboisand
theNAACP.Inparticular,theboardmembersareexamplesofthe“TalentedTenth,”
thesmalleducatedsectionofAfrican-AmericanswhomDuboisbelievedwas
necessarytoserveasexemplarsforthebulkoftheblackpopulation.Duboissought
theseupper-classblackpersonstoserveas“leadersofthoughtandmissionariesof
cultureamongtheirpeople.”63Althoughseekingvocationaleducationwas
62TedVincent,“TheSocialContextofBlackSwanRecords”.WriteMeaFewofYourLines:ABlues
Reader,StevenC.Tracy(Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,1999)370.
63W.E.B.Dubois,“TheTalentedTenth”,TheNegroProblem:ASeriesofArticlesbyRepresentative
NegrosofTo-day,1903.<http://www.yale.edu/glc/archive/1148.htm>accessed3/14/14.
66
commendable,Duboisbelievedsuchaconcentrationwouldbeinvainwereitnot
coupledwithopportunitiesforhigheradvancement.Dubois’beliefwasalso
reflectedinthecompositionoftheNAACP,whichtendedtobeeducated,middleclass,andwithdesignsofupwardsocialmobility.Inaddition,theNAACPand
Duboistriedtoutilizetheirrespectabilitytodemonstratetowhitesocietywhythey
shouldbeincludedasequalmembersoftheAmericanpopulation.
MarcusGarveydidnotholdthemembersofBlackSwan’sboardandthesort
ofeliteAfrican-Americanstheyrepresentedinhighesteem.ForGarvey,thiskindof
blackindividualwasnotcommendable,butratherdetrimentaltotherace.Hefound
alltoooftentheirwealthcamefromthefleecingofpoorerblackpersons,orfrom
racialaccommodation.64GarveyhadasimilarlydimviewoftheNAACP,findingthe
organizationtooelitistandcallingit“TheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancement
ofCertainPeople.”
Thebehaviorofwhiterecordcompanieswhoproducedblackgenresduring
the1920sdoesnotreflectthedebatewithintheblackcommunity.AsidefromBlack
Swan,nootherrecordlabelhadblackboardmembers.Inaddition,whiterecord
labelsdidnotseektoappealtoablackaudiencebypointingoutblackexecutivesor
employeesworkingforthelabelasidefromtheartiststhemselves.Whitelabelsdid
notfeelaresponsibilitytomakedesignationsofclassthroughtheirracerecords,but
ratherproducedtherecordstheyfeltweremostmarketabletoAfrican-American
consumers.
64Vincent,“TheSocialContextofBlackSwanRecords”,376.
67
BlackSwan’sculturalaspirationswerecoupledwiththenecessitiesof
runningabusiness.UnlikethePace&HandyMusicCompany,BlackSwanwastobe
raciallyself-sufficientandnotdependuponwhitecustomersforitsfinancial
viability.Inordertocontinuetomakeaprofit,Pacewouldmakedecisionsthat
seeminglyrancontrarytothecompany’sracialgoals.Thesedecisionswouldput
Paceatoddswithnotonlyhiswhitecompetitors,butalsoblackpersons,primarily
MarcusGarvey,whohelddifferentviews.Thisconfrontationreflectedthelarger
debatewithintheblackcommunityonwhetherAfrican-Americansshouldseek
separationorassimilationwithinAmericansociety.
ThegenresrecordedbyBlackSwanchangedaccordingtomarkettrendsand
thepopularityofcertainartists.Fromthecompany’sinitialreleasesinMayof1921
toJuneof1922,BlackSwanreleased64records.Ofthe64,25wereofhigh-class
genres,suchasoperaticariasandspirituals;9wereBluesrecords,includingthose
ofEthelWaters;and30werelower-classrecords,includingdancenumbers,novelty
songs,andjazz.65DuringthesixmonthperiodfollowingtheendofEthelWatersand
BlackSwanTroubadours’tourinJuly1922toDecemberof1922,BlackSwan
released34records:16high-class;13Blues;and15lower-class.66Theyearof1923
saw72recordsreleasedonBlackSwan:7high-class;34Blues;and31lower-class.67
BlackSwandeclaredbankruptcyinDecemberof1923,andceasedputtingoutnew
records.
65Thygesen,Berresford,andShor.BlackSwan23-41.
66Ibid,42-47,58-68.
67Ibid.48-57,69-83.
68
Paceincreasedtheproductionofjazzanddancerecordswhentheyproved
themostpopular,despitethegenre’sdepictionaslowerclassbymanyAfricanAmericanelites,andbeingviewedasdetrimentaltotheracethroughthe
reinforcementofnegativestereotypes.Likewise,sincehigh-classgenresdidnot
proveaspopularwithconsumers,thenumberoftheserecordsproducedbyBlack
Swandecreased.ThesetrendsrancontrarytothestatedgoalsofBlackSwan,which
wastoutedasahigher-classenterprisethatwouldaidintheelevationoftheblack
race.EventhoughtheJazzandpopularnumbersreleasedonBlackSwanwere
overly-orchestratedinordertobestdemonstratetheskillandtrainingofits
musicians,ifPacehadseriousmoralandsocialqualmswiththegenre,hewouldnot
haveincludedthemamonghisrecordcompany’sreleases.However,sinceJazzand
dancerecordsweremorepopularwithhisblackaudience,andrecordsaleswere
neededtokeepthecompanyinbusiness,Pacekeptmakingmorerecordsinthese
populargenres,eventhoughtheywerenothisidealvehicleforracialuplift.
InhiscorrespondencewithPace,Duboisdidnotmentionthischangeinthe
typeofrecordsbeingreleasedbyBlackSwan,letalonecriticizethedecision,despite
DuboisbeliefintheimportanceofNegrospirituals.However,Duboisdidattemptto
persuadeartistswhoweremorerespectabletosignwithBlackSwan,including
internationallyacclaimedblacktenorRolandHayes.68Inaddition,Duboisroutinely
mentionedtherecordcompanyinhisspeeches,linkingtheachievementsofthe
68W.E.B.(WilliamEdwardBurghardt)DuBois,1868-1963.LetterfromW.E.B.DuBoistoRoland
Hayes,May27,1921.W.E.B.DuBoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversity
Archives,UniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries.
69
enterprisewithapositiveperceptionofAfrican-Americans.69Duboisdidnotharp
uponthetypeofmusicbeingproducedinthesespeeches,butratherfocusedonthe
importanceofthecompany’ssuccess.
LikeDubois,othersourcesofthetimestayedsilentaboutBlackSwan’sshift
towardslower-classgenres.MostmentionsofBlackSwanRecordsintheblack
mediatendedtofocusmoreonthecompany’sexistence,anditssolelyblack
personnel,andlessonthesortofmusicitproduced.WhenBlackSwanbeganto
reducethenumberofhigher-classrecordsitreleased,therewerenoeditorials
lamentingthereductionintheamountofoperaticariasbyAfrican-American
singers.Instead,likeDubois,mostobserversfocusedmoreonBlackSwan’sbeing,
ratherthanitsadherencetoitsinitialgoalsofracialupliftthroughpropergenres.
BlackSwanwasnottheonlycompanytoincreasetherecordingofjazz,
dance,andBluesgenres.Whitecompanies,whosawtheBlackSwan’searlysuccess,
begantoproducemorerecordsbyblackartists.Inaddition,musicianspreviously
signedtoBlackSwanwereluredtowhitelabelsbybetter-payingcontracts.While
whiterecordcompaniesincreasedthenumberofJazzandBluesrecords,theydid
notemulateBlackSwaninhiringblackmusicianstoperformhigher-classgenres,
suchasspiritualsorarias.BlackSwanprovedblackconsumerswerewillingto
purchasecertaintypesofrecords,andwhiterecordcompaniesmovedtosupply
musicbyblackartistsforthisgrowingdemographic.
69DavidL.Lewis.W.E.B.DuBois,1919-1963:TheFightforEqualityandtheAmericanCentury,
(London,UK.Macmillian,2000.)113.
70
Despitehisracialmotivationsforstartingthelabel,Pacewaswillingtoutilize
theabilitiesofwhiteindividualsfortheadvantageofBlackSwan.Thewhiteperson
withthemostdirectinvolvementinthecompany’sdevelopmentwasJohnFletcher,
theformerexecutiveofOlympicRecordswithwhomPaceenteredintoa
partnershiptoformtheFletcherRecordingCompany.FletcherRecordingCompany
technicallyownedtherecordingandpressingfactoryonLongIsland,althoughBlack
Swanwastheonlylabelproducingrecordsatthesite.Inaddition,Fletcher
appearedtohavenodirectimpactontherecordingofBlackSwan’srecords,but
onlytheirmanufacture.DespiteFletcher’slackofinfluenceonthesortofrecords
BlackSwancreated,however,hisbusinessrelationshipwithPacewasostensibly
contrarytothecompany’sclaimof“Allstockholdersarecolored,allartistsare
colored,allemployeesarecolored.”70
AswithPace’sdecisiontoincreasethenumberoflower-classgenresofmusic
beingreleased,whiledecreasinghigher-classgenres,therewaslittleinthewayof
condemnationofPace’spartnershipwithFletcher.Inhisprivatecorrespondence
withPace,DuboisdidnotvoicedisapprovalofPace’srelationshipwithFletcher,but
ratheraskedforaphotographofthenewfactorytoruninTheCrisisinorderto
generatepublicityforthecompany.71Likewise,Duboiswaswillingtoworkunder
whitesuperiorsattheNAACPinordertoachieveracialgoalsforAfrican-Americans.
LikemanyotherAfrican-Americansofthe1920s,DuboisandPacerecognizedthat
70ArnoldShaw,BlackPopularMusicinAmerica:fromtheSpirituals,Minstrels,andRagtimetoSoul,
Disco,andHip-hop.(NewYork:SchirmerBooks,1986)102
71W.E.B.(WilliamEdwardBurghardt)DuBois,1868-1963.LetterfromW.E.B.DuBoistoHarry
H.Pace,January31,1923.W.E.B.DuBoisPapers(MS312).SpecialCollectionsandUniversity
Archives,UniversityofMassachusettsAmherstLibraries.
71
affiliatingwithwhitepeoplewasanecessityattimesinordertobestservethe
interestsofblackpeople.AlthoughseeminglyoppositetoPace’sgoalofanentirely
blackrecordlabel,thepartnershipwithFletcherwasjustifiedinordertosecurethe
LongIslandfactory,whichinturnwouldleadtotheproductionofmoreBlackSwan
records.Likewise,althoughGarveyhadalowopinionofPaceandhisownershipof
BlackSwanrecords,GarveydidnotcriticizePaceforhispartnershipwithFletcher.
Indeed,Pace’spurchasingofapressingfactorybyadefunctwhitecompanywas
akintoGarvey’spurchasingshipsformerlyusedbywhitecompaniesforhis
shippingcompany,TheBlackStarLine.Inaddition,Garveyutilizedrelationships
withlike-mindedwhitegroups(eventheKuKluxKlan)inordertoadvancehis
messageofracialseparatism.
Asawhitemusicexecutivewillingtoworkwithablackcompanyduringthe
1920s,Fletcherappearedtobeararity.Thereisnoevidenceofanyotherwhite
recordcompanyorexecutiveseekingfinancialarrangementswithablackcompany
orindividualakintothepartnershipbetweenFletcherandPace.Althoughwhite
companiesbegantohireblackmusiciansandincreasedtheirrecordingofgenres
popularamongblackconsumersasthedecadeprogressed,theydidsowithout
seekingAfrican-Americanstofillrolesinthemanagementorleadershipofthe
labels.Formostwhiterecordlabels,partneringwithablackindividualinorderto
lendcredibilitytotheirreleaseswasanactiondeemedunnecessaryforprofitability.
Pace’sutilizationofwhiteindividualsforBlackSwanwasnotlimitedtohis
partnershipwithJohnFletcher.Morecontrarytothestatedgoalsofthelabelthana
partnershipwithawhite-ownedcompany,Pacereleasedrecordsoriginally
72
recordedbywhiteartistsunderblackpseudonyms.DespiteextollingBlackSwan’s
missionto“searchforand[develop]thebestsingersandmusiciansamongthe12
million(blackAmericans),”thelabelissuedrecordsbywhiteartists.72Thispractice
wasineffectasearlyasNovember1921,butdidnotbecomecommonpracticeuntil
afterthepurchaseofOlympicinthefallof1922.73ReissuingOlympic’sbackcatalog
onnewdiscsunderpseudonymswasacostsavingmeasureforthecompany.Since
Pacealreadyownedthemasterrecordings,nonewmusichadtoberecorded,and
thecompanycouldsaveoncosts,whichwaswelcomebecauseofitsexpansion.By
changingthenameoftheartisttoonethatgavetheappearanceofbeingAfricanAmerican,Pacecouldclaimadherencetothecompany’smissiontorecordonly
blacktalent.
Despitegoingagainstthestatedaimsofthecompany,Pace’sdecisionto
releaserecordsbywhiteartistsunderblackpseudonymswentunnoticedbyhis
contemporariesduringthelifeofBlackSwanRecords.KnowledgeofBlackSwan’s
practicewasnotcommonduringthe1920s,andtherewasnoreactionfromDubois,
Garvey,oranyoftheotherblackintellectualsofthetime.Inaddition,blackartists
signedtoBlackSwanweresimilarlyinthedarkregardingthereleaseofthese
records.EvenFletcherHenderson,whoheldahighpositionwithinthecompany,
wasunawareofthepractice.Regardless,Pace’sdecisionviolatedthespiritofracial
upliftthatheclaimedasthebasisofBlackSwan.AlthoughPacewaswillingto
72Vincent.“SocialContextofBlackSwanRecords”.367.
73DavidSuisman,“BlackSwanRising.”Humanities,November/December2010|Volume31,Number
6.Accessedfromhttp://www.neh.gov/humanities/2010/novemberdecember/feature/black-swanrising.
73
sacrificethecompany’sculturalintegrityintoordertoensurethecompany’s
continuedeconomicsustainability,itultimatelyfailedtokeepthelabelinbusiness.
Pace’sreleasingofwhiterecordsunderblacknameswasisolatedduringthe
1920s.Thereisnoevidencethatotherrecordlabelsengagedinthepracticeduring
theperiod.Whiterecordlabelshadnodesignsonracialuplift,andthereforedidnot
needtoparticipateinsuchanendeavor.Theselabelsissuedrecordsbyblackand
whiteartists,inavarietyofgenres,anddidnothavethesameculturalrestrictions
Paceimposedonhiscompany.AlthoughBlackSwancouldclaimtobetheoutletfor
authenticblackexpression,thewhiterecordcompanieswerebetterequippedto
shiprecordswithblackartiststoblacklisteners,anddosomoreinexpensively.
AlthoughPacehadsimilareconomicgoalstoMarcusGarvey-theyboth
championedblackentrepreneurialismandeconomicgrowthwithintheAfricanAmericancommunity-therewascontentionbetweenthetwomen.InJanuaryof
1923,Pacewaspartofagroupofeightblackbusinesspeoplewhocomposedaletter
totheAttorney-GeneraloftheUnitedStatespleadingforaction,ideallydeportation,
tobetakenagainstMarcusGarvey,whotheydeemeddangerousforthe
advancementofblacksinAmerica.TheletterlabeledGarveyasonewhohopedto
generateopenracialconflictandsoughttoprofitfrom“thegatheringstormofrace
prejudiceandsensetheimminentmenaceofthisinsidiousmovement,which
cancerlike,isgnawingattheveryvitalsofpeaceandsafety--ofcivicharmonyand
interracialconcord.”74Pace,andtheothersignersoftheletter,believedracial
74HarryPaceetal.WritingtotheU.S.Attorney-General--"GarveyMustGo".Accessedfrom
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/garvey/filmmore/ps_go.html.
74
harmonywasnotonlypossible,butwasbeingimpededbyGarveyandhisfollowers.
Thesignersoftheletterincluded:Pace;JohnE.Nail,real-estateagentwhoowned
muchofHarlem,andwasalsoonBlackSwan’sboard;RobertS.Abbott,publisherof
theChicagoDefender,inwhichBlackSwanregularlyadvertised;JuliaP.Coleman,
presidentofHair-Vimchemicalcompany,whichspecializedinblackhaircare
products;WilliamPickens,fieldsecretaryfortheNAACP;ChandlerOwen,copublisherofTheMessenger,aliterarymagazinewhereBlackSwanhad
advertisements;RobertW.Bagnall,directorofseveralbranchesoftheNAACP;and
GeorgeHarris,analdermanforNewYorkCityandeditoroftheNewYorkNews,
anothernewspaperinwhichBlackSwanadvertised.75Thesignersofthepetition
againstGarveyweremuchliketheoriginalboardofBlackSwaninthatthey
representedanew,educated,andaffluentblackupperclasswhocouldbest
assimilateintothewhitemajoritysociety.Althoughtheyrepresentedaspectrumof
blackachievementandaffluence,theywereunitedintheirdisdainforGarveyand
thesortofracerousingheembodied.
Inresponsetotheletter,Garveylashedoutagainstthesignersoftheletter,
callingthem“wickedNegroes”andaccusingthemofhatingtheirownrace.76Garvey
alsosingledouttheindividualsignersoftheletter,labelingPace,“abusiness
exploiterwhoendeavorstoappealtothepatriotismoftheracebysellingus
commoditiesatahigherratethanarechargedintheordinaryandopening
75Ibid.
76MarcusGarvey.ThePhilosophyandOpinionsofMarcusGarvey,Or,AfricafortheAfricans,Volume1.
(NewYork,NY:TheMajorityPress,1923)300.
75
markets.”77HeheldasimilarlydimviewofJohnE.Nail,whoGarveyheldas“areal
estatesharkwhodelights,undertheguiseofracepatriotism,toraisetherentof
poorcoloredpeopleevenbeyondthatofwhitelandlords.”78EvenJuliaP.Coleman
wascalled“ahairstraightenerandfacebleacher,whoseloyaltytotheraceistoget
theracetobedissatisfiedwithitself.”79AlthoughGarveydidnotdenythese
individualshadfoundfinancialsuccess,hebelievedthissuccesscameatthe
exploitationofpoorerblackpeople,aswellasthedetrimentoftheraceasawhole.
Inaddition,Garveyaccusedallthesignersofbeing“nearlyallOctoroonsand
Quadroons”and,withoneexception,ofhaving“marriedtoOctoroons.”80Becauseof
theirmixedraceheritage,Garveybelievedthesignersandtheirilkhatedtheir
blacknessandyearnedtolosetheirblackidentityandbecome“thelowestwhitesby
assimilationandmiscegenation.”81GarveyurgedAfrican-Americansnottofollow
themodelsetbythissortofmixedraceperson,believingitwouldonlyleadto
continuedexploitationandderogationbywhiteAmerica,sincetheydidnothavethe
bestinterestoftheraceatheart.82
HarryPaceandMarcusGarveysoughttoutilizeblackindustryfortwovery
differentpurposes.ForPace,itwastobethevehiclebywhichblackpeoplecould
77Ibid,307.
78Ibid,307.
79Ibid,307.
80TheexceptionwasChandlerOwen,whohadatonetimealmostmarriedawhitewoman,but
accordingtoGarvey,waspreventedfromdoingsobythecriticismoftheUNIA.Ibid,308.
81Ibid,311.
82Garvey’sdistainalsoextendedtoDubois,whohelabeled,“amonstrosity”duetoDubois’mixed
racialheritage,andaccusedDuboisofhating“theblackbloodinhisveins.”Ibid,310-311.
76
provetheirworthandultimatelybeacceptedintoAmericansocietyaswhole.For
BlackSwanRecords,Pacewantedtheartisticmeritandcommercialsuccessofthe
labeltoleadtotheinclusionofblackartistsandexecutivesintoacceptabilitybythe
upperclasses.Meanwhile,Garveysupportedblackbusinessesinsofarastheywould
helpblackpeoplebecomecompletelyself-reliantandeventuallyleadtototal
separationbetweentheraces.Garveydidnotsupportafutureofblackpeople
withinAmerica,butratherbelievedAmericansocietywastoocorruptandracially
biasedtoofferanythingtoblackpersons,whowouldbebestservedbyleavingthe
UnitedStatesentirely.Garveysoughtunityfortheblackrace,believingthe“Negro
raceshouldbeencouragedtogettogetherandformthemselvesintoahealthy
whole,ratherthanseekingtolosetheiridentitiesthroughmiscegenationandsocial
intercoursewiththewhiterace.”83Theultimategoaloftheirenterprise,inclusion
forPaceandseparationforGarvey,wasthefundamentaldifferencebetweenthe
twomen,anddemonstrateswhytheyweresovehementlyopposedtooneanother.
AlthoughPaceformedothercompaniesduringhiscareer,BlackSwanwas
hismostambitiousintermsoflinkingtogethereconomicandculturalaspirations.
Unlikehisforaysintoinsuranceandotherbusinesses,BlackSwanwaspurposefully
designedtodemonstratethatAfrican-Americanswerecapableofcreatinghigh
culture,suchasspiritualsandoperaarias,inadditiontohavingthepurchasing
powertosustainthecompanytoproducemoreculturedrecords.Inbalancing
desiresfortherecordcompanytoprovideracialupliftwiththerealitiesofkeepinga
83MarcusGarvey.“AimsandObjectsofMovementforSolutionofNegroProblem”,1924,
<http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/maai3/segregation/text1/marcusgarvey.pdf>Accessed
3/14/14.
77
companyfinanciallyinbusiness,HarryPaceexemplifiedsomeofthedebateinthe
1920samongAfricanAmericansabouttheirroleintheAmericansociety.The
tensionbetweenblackeconomicself-sufficiencyversusintegrationintothelarger
economyplayedoutinBlackSwan’sshortlife,aswellastheculturalissueof
maintaininganauthenticallyblackcompanywhilenotfallingintostereotypical
depictionsofrace.WhilePacehopedBlackSwanwouldultimatelybringabout
respectabilityforAfrican-Americansasawhole,therespectabilityPacesought
differedfromhiscontemporariesofthe1920s.Likewise,ineschewingsellingtothe
whitemainstream,PacehamperedBlackSwan’seconomicprospectsandultimately
causedthelabel’sdemise.SubsequentrecordlabelownerswouldnotmimicPace’
mistake.Insteadofsellinganimageofblackrespectabilitytosolelyblackaudience,
futureAfrican-Americanmusicentrepreneursfoundthatthewhitemainstreamwas
willingtobuydepictionsofblackculture,anddecidedtosupplythisdesire.
78
CHAPTERTHREE:BERRYGORDY’SMOTOWN:1959-1988
WiththecripplingeconomicrealitiesoftheDepression,manyAmericans
soughtoutmovies,music,andotherformsofentertainmentasadistractionor
therapeuticreleaseduringtheDepression.Whilemovietheatersexperiencedadrop
inattendanceattheonsetoftheDepression,droppingfromaveraging90million
customersaweekin1930tojust60milliontwoyearslater,by1935attendancehad
risento80million.1Likewise,technologicaladvancementscausedthepriceofa
radiotodroptoanaverageof$10bytheearlythirties.2Thisfallinpricemadethe
radiomoreavailabletolowerandworkingclassindividuals.Asaresult,radios
becamecommonplaceinhomesofallAmericans.Thesoaringpopularityoftheradio
wasdisastrousformanyrecordcompanies,likeHarryPace’sBlackSwanRecords,
andtheywereforcedtoshutdown.Becauseoftheeconomicdownturnandthe
attractivenessofradios,recordsalesdroppeddramaticallyduringtheGreat
Depression.Inthemid-1920s,Americanrecordlabelssoldaround100million
copiesayear,butintheearlyyearsoftheDepression,thenumberfellto6million.3
Still,somerecordlabelswereabletoadapttothechangingenvironmentandutilize
theradioasanavenuetopromotetheirartists.Amongtheartistswhobecame
popularduringtheDepressionwereblackmusicians,whobecamequitesuccessful
inatimeotherwiselimitedeconomically.LouisArmstrong,CountBasie,Duke
1RichardButsch,"AmericanMovieAudiencesofthe1930s".InternationalLaborandWorking-Class
History,No.59(2001),108.
2B.EricRhoads.APictorialHistoryofRadio'sFirst75Years.(WestPalmBeach:Streamline
Publishing,Inc.,1996)24.
3“TheGreatDepression”excerptedfrom“Jazz:AHistoryofAmerica’sMusic”
http://www.pbs.org/jazz/time/time_depression.htm.
79
Ellington,JellyRollMorton,CabCalloway,andFatsWallerwereamongthenumber
whoinitiallygainedtheirnationalnotorietyduringtheDepression.However,these
artistswererecordingforwhiterecordlabels,andtheirsuccessdidnotbenefitthe
largerblackcommunity.Althoughtheirmusicwaspopularwithblackaudiences,
theirsuccessprimarilybenefitedonlytheartiststhemselvesandthewhiterecord
labels.
AnotherrealmwhereAfrican-Americansweregainingnationalnotoriety
duringthiserawasthroughsports.Likeotherformsofentertainment,sportsgrew
inpopularityduringtheperiod,bolsteredbynewtechnologyandincreasedinterest
asadiversionfromtheDepression.Particularlypopularduringthe1930swas
boxing,inlargepartbecauseofhowwellthesportlentitselftoradiobroadcast.One
ofthemostcelebratedboxersoftheerawasJoeLouis,whobecametheWorld
HeavyweightChampionofboxingin1937andheldontothetitlethrough1949.
Louis’famemadehimanidolformanyintheblackcommunityandarolemodelfor
otherstoemulate.
PartofLouis’popularitywithintheblackcommunitywasthathis
backgroundwasprototypicaltomanyAfrican-Americansduringtheperiod.Louis
wasborninAlabamain1914tosharecroppers,butmovedtoDetroitin1926when
hisfamilysoughtbettereconomicopportunities.Louisstruggledthroughschool,but
wasveryadeptasapugilist.4Louisturnedproin1935andbeganhisriseupthe
heavyweightranks.Hissolelosspriortowinningthechampionshipbeltwasin
1936toGermanboxerMaxSchmelingbyaknockoutinthe12thround.Louiswon
4Louiswasfunctionallyilliterateformostofhisadultlife.
80
thechampionshipbeltfromJamesJ.Braddockthenextyear.ThehighpointofLouis’
careerwashisrematchagainstSchmelingin1938.Thematch,whichhadpolitical
andculturaldimensionsbecauseoftheloomingwarwithGermany,aswellasracial
tensionswithintheUnitedStates,washeavilypromotedandasourceofgreat
nationalinterest.Louiswonthematchtwominutesandfoursecondsintothefirst
round.Hewouldcontinuetoboxuntilhisretirementin1949,withaprofessional
recordof66-3,52ofthosewinsbyknockout.
LouisbecameamajorsportsfigureandasourceofprideintheAfricanAmericancommunity.Insidethering,Louiswasliterallybeatinghisopponentsand
demonstratinghowablackmancouldbestawhite.AuthorLangstonHugheswasa
fanofLouisanddescribedhowhisfightswereperceivedamongstAfricanAmericans:
“EachtimeJoeLouiswonafightinthosedepressionyears,evenbeforehe
becamechampion,thousandsofblackAmericansonrelieforW.P.A.,and
poor,wouldthrongoutintothestreetsallacrossthelandtomarchandcheer
andyellandcrybecauseofJoe’sone-mantriumphs.NooneelseintheUnited
StateshaseverhadsuchaneffectonNegroemotions–oronmine.Imarched
andcheeredandyelledandcried,too."5
LouiswasespeciallypopularinhisadoptedhometownofDetroit,wheretheboxer
wascelebratedandheraldedbythelargemigrantblackpopulation.Louis’
5LangstonHughes.TheCollectedWorksofLangstonHughes,Volume14,Autobiography:“IWonder
AsIWander.”EditedwithanIntroductionbyJosephMcLaren.(Columbia,MO:UniversityofMissouri
Press,2001)307.
81
popularitycausedotherstopursueboxing,includingayoungmanfromDetroit
namedBerryGordy.
LikeLouis,GordysharedatransientbackgroundakintomanyofDetroit’s
blackresidents.GordywasthesonofBerryGordy,Sr.andBerthaGordy,who
movedtoDetroitfromSandersville,Georgiain1922.TheelderGordywasrelatively
successfulinGeorgiaasaland-owningfarmer.However,whenhiswealthattracted
unwantedattentionfromthelocalchapteroftheKuKluxKlan,GordySr.movedto
Detroittoprovidewhathebelievedwouldbeasaferenvironmentforhischildren.6
UnlikemostofthemigrantstoDetroitduringtheGreatMigration,GordySr.didnot
workfortheautocompaniesandhadadecentamountofmoneytohisname,thanks
tothesaleofhisGeorgiafarm.Uponarrivinginthecity,GordySr.cateredtothe
city’sgrowingblackpopulation,preferringtoremaineconomicallyautonomous
fromtheautocompanies.Althoughheengagedinmanyenterprises,twoofhismost
successfulbusinesseswereasaplastererandagrocer.GordySr.learnedthetrade
ofplasteringwithinafewyearsofarrivinginDetroitandpushedhissonstofollow
suitinthetrade.7Inaddition,GordySr.establishedtheBookerT.Washington
grocerystoreinDetroit,anotherenterprisewhichhischildrenwerepressuredtobe
involved.Althoughstaunchlymiddleclass,theGordy’sidealizedthevirtuesof
manuallaborespousedbyBookerT.Washington.8Theyhopedtoinstillastrong
workethicandwillingnesstoworkunglamorousjobsintheireightchildren.
6NelsonGeorgeWhereDidOurLoveGo?:TheRise&FalloftheMotownSound,(London:Omnibus,
1986)5.
7PeterBenjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.(NewYork:GrovePress,1979)5.
8GeorgeWhereDidOurLoveGo?11.
82
Bornin1929,afterthefamilywasfirmlyestablishedinDetroit,BerryGordy
Jr.resistedthevirtueshisfatherhopedtoinstill.Apoorstudent,Gordysimilarlyhad
apoorworkethicinthefamily’sotherbusinesses.Gordy’sfatherattemptedtoset
himupasaplasterer,butGordyworkedsporadicallyandnevertooktoomuch
interestinhisjob.9WhatdidgrabGordy’sattentionwasboxingandJoeLouis’
success.Gordyshoweddevotiontohistimeintheboxinggymandbelievedhimself
capableofbecomingasaccomplishedanathleteasLouis.AsanamateurinDetroit,
GordybecamefriendswithanotherboxernamedJackieWilson.Thetwobecame
friendsdespitedifferencesinpersonality:Wilsonwascharismaticandloud,in
contrasttothemorereservedGordy,whowassoconvincedofhisabilities,thathe
droppedoutofschoolintheeleventhgradetopursueboxingfull-time.10
Gordy’scareerasaboxerwasrespectable,butultimatelyshortlivedandnot
aslucrativeashehoped.Asa128-poundfeatherweight,Gordyfoughtprimarilyin
Detroit,butalsotraveledaroundthecountryinordertocompete.Thehighpointof
Gordy’sboxingcareer,atleastonapersonallevel,wasonFriday,November19,
1948,whereGordyappearedonthesamecardashisidol.AtDetroit’sOlympia
Stadium,GordywonhismatchagainstCiroMontalzoviadecision,beforewatching
LouisbeatVernMitchellinthemainevent.11Gordy’sboxingcareerlasteduntil1950
andheretiredwithafinalrecordof12-3-2,with5winsviaknockout.12Asaboxer
ofmiddlingsuccess,GordydidnotfindthesamewealthandaccoladesasLouis.
9Ibid.12.
10Wilsonwouldnevergoprofessional,sincehehadadismalrecordasanamateurboxer.
11RichardBak.JoeLouis:TheGreatBlackHope.(Boston,MA:DeCapoPress,1998)175.
12BerryGordyFightRecord,http://boxrec.com/list_bouts.php?human_id=199464&cat=boxer
83
AlthoughGordy’sstintasaboxerwasofficiallyendedbythearmydraftinghimin
1950,itwasevidenthisskillsasapugilistwouldnotbefinanciallysustainable.
Gordy’sarmyserviceinKorea,likehistimeasaboxer,wassimilarly
unspectacular.Gordyhadnogreatloveforthemilitaryandservedwithout
distinction.Despiteservinginanintegratedunitoverseas,Gordysawnoreal
combatandvolunteeredtoserveaschaplain’sassistantinordertobetakenasfar
awayashecouldfromthefront.13AMotownexecutivewouldlaterremarkon
Gordy’sservice,“hewasn’tagreatmilitaryleaderorshoot-em-uptype,hadnoreal
kenforArmylife,anddidaslittleashecould.”14Afterhistermwasup,Gordywas
dischargedin1953andreturnedtoDetroit.15Shortlyafterhisreleasefromthe
army,Gordymarriedhisfirstwife,ThelmaColeman;theirfirstchild,HazelJoy,
followedin1954.Thatsameyear,Gordytookhisarmysavingsanddischargepay,
coupledwith$700borrowedfromhisfamily,andstartedarecordstore,the3-D
RecordMart.16Thestorespecializedinjazzmusic,whichwasGordy’sfavorite
genre.Gordyhadhighhopesfortheenterprise,butitwasultimatelyshort-lived.
The3-DRecordMartclosedwithinayear.Thestorewasunsuccessfulbecauseof
changesinmusicaltastes,withjazzmusicbecominglesspopularwiththeyounger
blackpopulationleadingtoasmallercustomerbaseofjazzfans.
13BerryGordy.ToBeLoved:TheMusic,theMagic,theMemoriesofMotown.(Collingdale,PA:Diane
PublishingCompany,1994)58.
14Benjaminson.TheStoryofMotown,10.
15ThenatureofGordy’sdischargeisunclear.Althoughheservedthestandardtwo-yearterm,
RaymonaGordySingleton(Gordy’ssecondwife)wouldlaterclaimhereceivedaSection8discharge
andinsinuatesGordyactedeithermentallyillorhomosexualinordertoqualify.Gordyneverrefuted
hisex-wife’sclaims,butneverpresentedhisactualdischargeinhisdefense.
16George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?16.
84
Theclosingofthe3-DRecordMartputGordyinatremendousfinancialbind.
Facedwithmountingdebtsfromtothestore’sfailure,Gordyalsohadagrowing
family.Gordy’ssecondandthirdchild,BerryVIandTerryJames,werebornin1955
and1956,respectively.Inaddition,thecouplehadmaritalproblems.Gordyand
Thelmafoughtoftenandwerefunctionallyseparatedafter1954,despite
reconciliationsthatlastedlongenoughfortheconceptionofanotherchild.17Faced
withsuchpressure,Gordyfeltlikehehadlittlechoicebuttotakeajobinthe
industryfromwhichhisfamilyhadprideditselfonremainingindependent:the
automobileindustry.In1955,GordybeganworkontheLincoln-Mercuryassembly
line.Althoughtheassemblylinewasconsistentwork,theamountofmoneyGordy
madewasnotparticularlygood.Gordyearned$79.88aweekfromhisfactoryjob,
buthisfamily’sweeklyexpenseswerearound$97.65.18Gordywasunabletomake
progressinpayingoffhisdebtsfromthefailureofthe3-DRecordMartandhis
psychesuffered;hefoundthelinemonotonousandsoul-crushingandslippedintoa
depressedstate.Inordertopassthetime,Gordybegancomposingpopsongsinhis
head.19Althoughnotmusicallyliterateandhavinglittleideaofmusicaltheory,
Gordy’sfelthisself-taughtmethodwaseffectiveandhadthepotentialtobecome
lucrative.Althoughstillworkingtheline,hebecameobsessedwiththeideaof
becomingasongwriter.
17Thecouplewouldultimatelydivorcein1959.
18Benjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.12.
19Smith,Suzanne.DancingintheStreets:MotownandtheCulturalPoliticsofDetroit.(Cambridge,MA:
HarvardUniversityPress,2009)14.
85
Likehewouldregularlydoduringhislife,Gordydrewuponhisfamily
connectionsinordertopursuehisgoalofbecomingasuccessfulsongwriter.Inthe
mid-1950s,AnnaandGwenGordy,twoofGordy’ssisters,operatedacigarettestand
attheFlameShowBar,aDetroitnightclubpopularwithblackaudiences.20Gordy
begantoattendnightlyinanattempttohustlehissongstotheartistswho
performedattheclub.Gordyhopedtoattracttheattentionofsomeofthenational
actsthatvisitedtheclub,particularlyBillieHolliday,buthadnosuccesswithhis
effortsatsellinghissongs.Still,Gordy’ssistersintroducedhimtoAlGreen,the
whiteowneroftheFlameShow,whoalsomanagedmusicalactsasasidebusiness.
AmongtheartistsmanagedbyGreenwasJackieWilson,whoGordyknewfromhis
boxingdays.LikeGordy,Wilsonhadalsohunguphisglovesandinsteadsought
successinmusic.WilsonwasinitiallyareplacementmemberoftheDoo-Wopgroup
“TheDominoes,”butwentsoloin1957.Drawinguponhispastrelationshipwith
Wilson,GordysuccessfullysoldWilsononeofhispopsongs,“ReetPetite,”andthe
songwasreleasedinAugustof1957.
Asasingle,“ReetPetite”wasamodestsuccess.ThesongitselfwascowrittenbyGordy,GwenGordyandRoquel“Billy”Davis,Wilson’scousin.DickJacobs
producedtherecord,whichwasreleasedonBrunswickRecords.Itpeakedat#62
ontheBillboardHot100inSeptemberof1957.Still,thesongwasenoughtogive
Wilson’ssolocareerastrongstart.Pleasedbythesong’ssuccess,Gordyasked
WilsonifhecouldwritemoresongsforWilson.WilsonobligedGordy’srequest.
Overthenexttwoyears,WilsonwouldrecordfivemoreofGordy’scompositions,all
20Benjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.13
86
ofwhichwereacollaborationbetweenGordy,Davis,andGwenGordy:“Lonely
Teardrops,”“That’sWhy(ILoveYouSo),”“ToBeLoved,”and“I’llBeSatisfied.”21In
addition,thetrio’ssuccessinwritingsongsforWilsoncaughttheattentionofother
blackartists.DavishadconnectionstoChicago’sChessRecords,andthelabel
utilizedthetrio’sservicesfortheirownartists,includingEttaJames.
Despitetheacclaimthatcamethroughsongwriting,Gordybecame
disillusionedwithnothavingcontroloverthefinalsoundoftherecordedsongand
decidedtoswitchtorecordproducing.Inaddition,Gordybegantobuildupa
portfolioofartists,forwhomhecouldwrite,produce,andmanage.Themost
notablememberofthisportfoliowasagroupcalled“TheMatadors,”whomGordy
metinlate1957aftertheirfailedauditionforBrunswickRecords.Thegroupwas
headedby17-yearoldWilliam“Smokey”Robinson.22Gordysawagreatdealof
potentialinthetalentandstagepresenceofRobinson,whowouldbecomeamajor
artisticandmanagerialmainstayatMotownfordecadestocome.Inaddition,
Robinsonwasalsoabuddingsongwriter,andGordysoughttoutilizeRobinson’s
skillssothathecouldfocusmoreonproduction.
AlthoughGordywouldclaimartisticreasonsforbranchingawayfrom
songwriting,economicconsiderationswerepressing.Gordy’snotorietyinsong
writingdidnottranslateintofinancialsuccess.HeandhiswifeThelmawerestillin
theprocessofdivorcing,andGordyhadtopayinformalalimonyandchildsupport
fortheirthreechildren.Gordyalsostillhaddebtsfromthefailed3-DRecordMart.
WhileGordywasindeedreceivingsongwritingroyaltychecksfromthesongshehad
21Ibid.13.
22George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?23.
87
writtenwithhissisterandDavis,themoneyhadtobesplitthree-ways.Gordy,tired
ofbeingbeholdentorecordcompaniesandtheirlowwages,decidedtosetouton
hisown.InJanuaryof1959,Gordyborrowed$800fromhisfamilyandstarted
TamlaRecords.23
ThefirstactsignedtoTamlaRecordswastheformerMatadors,whohad
changedtheirnametotheMiraclesatGordy’surging.Otheractsfollowed,including
TheTemptations,MarthaandtheVandellas,andTammiTerrell,mostdrawnfrom
neighborhoodsnearGordy’soffices.24Inaddition,mostofMotown’searly
administrativestaffwasmadeupofmembersoftheGordyfamily,particularlyhis
sistersEstherandLoucye,whosetupthebusinessoffices.EvenGordy’sfather
workedatthelabel,volunteeringhisservicesasamaintenanceworker.Gordyused
hisconnectionswithChessRecordstodistributerecordsforTamla.Primarily,
GordymadetheartisticdecisionsofTamla,butRobinsonhadagrowinginfluenceof
hisownwiththelabel’screativedepartment.GordymainlydrewuponDetroit’s
variousgigartiststomakeupthelabel’sstudiomusicians,andhetypicallypaidfar
underunionminimumsformusicians.Mostnevercomplainedofthelowwages,
sinceitwasregularworkandopportunitieswereotherwiselimitedinDetroit.25The
23Interestingly,Gordywasnotthefirstmemberofhisfamilytostartarecordlabel;ratheritwashis
sister,andwritingpartner,Gwen.Inlate1958,sheandBillyDavisdecidedtoformalabel,which
wouldbeknownasAnnaRecords(namedafterAnnaGordy).DavisusedhiscontactsatChicago’s
ChessRecordstodistributetherecords.TheduoinitiallysoughtGordytobePresidentoftheirlabel,
butGordyultimatelydecidedagainstitinordertoformhisownlabel.AnnaRecordswasultimately
absorbedbyMotownin1960,whichbroughtartistsintoMotowninitiallysignedbyAnna,including
DavidRuffin(whowouldlaterbetheleadsingeroftheTemptations)andMarvinGaye(whowasat
thetimeastudiodrummerhiredbytheAnnaRecords),aswellassongwriter-producerLamont
Dozier(whowouldbecomeapartoftheprolificHolland-Dozier-Hollandproductionteam).
24Benjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.19.
25Ibid.33.
88
firstsongreleasedontheTamlalabelwasMarvJohnson’s“CometoMe”inMayof
1959.TheDoo-woptrackwasco-writtenbyGordyandJohnson.Muchliketheearly
“ReetPetite,”“CometoMe”wasarespectablehitthatdrewnationalattentionfor
theupstartlabel,peakingat#30ontheBillboardHot100and#6ontheR&Bcharts.
However,inordertogetnationaldistributionfortherecord,Gordyhadtopartner
withUnitedArtistrecords.
ThebiggestearlyhitforGordyandhisyoungrecordlabelwastheearly1960
release“Money(That’sWhatIWant)”byBarrettStrong.26Co-writtenbyGordy,the
songwasreleasednationallyonhissister’sAnnaRecords,whohadthestronger
relationshipwithnationaldistributors.Thesongwasaspectacularhit,peakingat
#23ontheBillboardHot100and#2ontheR&Bcharts.27Thesuccessof“Money”
emboldenedGordy,whosoughttobringallaspectsofmusicproductionand
distributioninhouse.Gordyfiguredhecouldhavemorecontrolofthefinalproduct
andwouldreceivemoreoftheroyaltiesifhenolongerhadtoutilizeotherlabelsfor
nationaldistribution.ThisrefocusofthecompanyalsocorrespondedwithGordy’s
foundingofJobetePublishinginlate1959.28Havingacompanytopublishthesongs
hewroteforTamlaRecordsgaveGordymoreofacutoftherecordsales.In
addition,GordybegantheprocessofchangingthenameofTamlaRecordsto
26George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?26.
27Thesongwasalsocoveredseveraltimes,mostnotablybytheBeatlesin1963.Gordyencouraged
thecoverssinceitequaledmoreroyaltychecksforthelabelandhimself.
28Thename“Jobete”camefromGordy’sthreeeldestchildren:Joy,BerryIV,andTerry.
89
Motown,areferencetoDetroit’smonikerastheMotorCity,inearly1960,amove
thatwascompletedbymid-1960.29
Thefirstmajorsuccessforthisreorganizedcompanywas“ShopAround”by
theMiracles.WrittenbyRobinsonandGordy,thesongwouldbecomethelabel’s
first#1record,toppingtheR&Bcharts,aswellashitting#2ontheBillboardHot
100.“PleaseMr.Postman”bytheMarvettes,whichwouldtopbothcharts,followed
upthissuccess.30Bothsongswereproducedandreleasedfullyin-housebyGordy
andwerehugefinancialboonsforthecompany.
Nolongerhavingtogivecutsoftherecordsalestoothercompaniesmeant
Gordyreceivedmoreoftheprofits,andhedecidedtoreinvestinexpandingthe
businessinlate1961andearly1962.Inadditiontopre-establishedactsGordy
signedtoMotown,thepopularityoftherecordlabelbroughtinlocalartistsfrom
Detroitwhomightotherwisenothavegottenthechancetobeheardbyanational
audience.Inanattempttosavecosts,GordydecidedtomoveMotown’sbusiness
officeandrecordingfacilitiestoasinglehouseonDetroit’sWestGrandBoulevard,
locatedinamiddle-classblackneighborhood.Thehousewouldlaterbecomebetter
knownasMotown’siconicHitsville,USAStudios.Thehousebecameadrawfor
Detroit’syoungsingersandaspiringartists.AlthoughDetroitwasalargeurban
African-Americancenter,thenationalrecordlabelsunderserveditintermsof
29Althoughthelabelwasalmostexclusivelycalled“Motown”bythegeneralpublicandin-houseafter
1961,manyofitsrecordsweretechnicallyreleasedonthe“Tamla”imprintthrough1981.Foreaseof
understanding,theterm“Motown”willbeusedasacatch-allforthevariouslabelsandsubsidiaries
Gordyfounded.
30Benjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.171.
90
recruitmentandrecording.Therefore,Gordyhadalarge,relativelyuntouched,
talentpoolfromwhichtodrawuponforhisexpandingrecordlabel.
Asidefromartists,Gordyalsoaddedproducersandexecutiveswhowouldbe
importantinMotown’scontinuedsuccess.BrothersBrianandEddieHollandjoined
LamontDozier(whohadcomeovertoMotownwiththeabsorptionofAnna
Records)toformtheprolificHolland-Dozier-Hollandproductionteam,whowere
responsibleincreatingmanyhitsandcementingwhatwouldbecomeknownasthe
“MotownSound.”EddieHollandpreviouslyhadworkedoffandonwithGordysince
1958asanartist,buthadlimitedsuccessduetohiscripplingstagefright.His
brotherBrianworkedatMotownasastaffsongwriter,whosebiggestsuccessprior
toformingtheproductionteamwasco-composing“PleaseMr.Postman.”Withinthe
group,DozierandBrianHollandcomposedandproducedthesongs,whileEddie
Hollandwrotelyricsandarrangedvocals.From1962to1967,theywouldwriteand
produceseveralsongsforMotownartists,including25#1singles.31
Inordertoenhancethelabel’smarketabilitytothewhitemainstream,Gordy
madetwokeyhires.ThefirstwasBarneyAles,awhiteman,toserveasexecutive
vice-presidentforMotown.Gordyknewhavingawhitepersoninthelabelwould
aidinensuringthewhitenationaldistributorsandrecordsellerswouldpaythe
royaltiesandothermoniesowedtothecompany.32Inaddition,havingawhite
personinsuchahighofficewouldgivethelabelanairofrespectabilityandsecurity.
ThesecondsuchhirebyGordywasetiquettecoachMaxinePowellwhowasbrought
31GeorgeWhereDidOurLoveGo?41.
32Ibid.39.
91
ontomakeMotownartistspresentableandrespectabletowhiteaudiences.Artists
whosignedtothelabelhadtogothroughanetiquette‘boot-camp’thatfocusedon
themannerinwhichtheartiststalked,walked,gaveinterviews,dressed,andother
elementsoftheirpublicpersona.33
Evenwithseveralhitrecords,Motown’sfinancialsuccesswaslimitedduring
itsfirstthreeyearsofexistence.From1959to1962,Motownonlybroughtin
$100,000dollarsayearinsales,whichdidnotnetthecompanytoomuchinprofit.34
WhileMotownwasgainingnationalnotoriety,GordywantedtoexpandMotown’s
exposureanddecidedtosetupanationaltourforMotownartists.Thetour,which
beganin1962,wasquitelengthyandhadseveralstopsontheSouth’s“Chitlin’
Circuit.”35AlthoughMotownwaspopularinDetroitandtheNortheast,itstillhad
yettomakeinroadswiththelargeblackpopulationoftheSouth,aswellasother
regionsofthecountry.Theshowwassetupasarevue,withartistsandpositions
beingswappedinandoutaccordingtotheirpopularityorexperience.36Newacts
couldbeaddedwithshortnotice,sinceparticularstarswerenotbeingadvertised,
butratherthelabelasawhole.Thebrutalityofthetour’sschedule,intermsof
dates,gaveagreatdealofexposuretoMotown’sartists,andevenmadenewstars
outofpreviouslyunknownpeople.ThebestexampleofthisphenomenonwasStevie
33MargalitFox.“MaxinePowell,Motown’sMavenofStyle,Diesat98”NewYorkTimes.October16,
2013.http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/17/arts/music/maxine-powell-motowns-maven-of-styledies-at-98.html?_r=0
34Benjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.42.
35Theterm‘Chitlin’Circuit’referredtotheatersandothervenues,primarilyintheSouth,thatwere
deemedsafeandsuitableforAfrican-AmericanperformersinthetimeofJimCrow.
36GeorgeWhereDidOurLoveGo?42.
92
Wonder,whowasonly11yearsoldwhenhesignedtothelabel.Hisfirstsingle,
“Fingerprints:Part2,”wastherecordingofanimpromptupianosessionduringa
MotownRevueconcertinJune1962inChicago.37Thesongwasamassivesuccess,
toppingat#1onboththeBillboardHot100andR&Bcharts.
BaseduponthesuccessoftheMotownRevueconcerts,aswellasgrowing
publicawareness,MotownandGordyexperiencedyearsofunprecedented
profitabilitybeginningin1963.OthergroupsreplicatedthesuccessofStevie
WonderandcontinuedMotown’strendofhitsinglesamongmainstreamaudiences.
MarthaandtheVandella’s“HeatWave”wasasmashhitforthesummerof1963,
topping#4ontheBillboardcharts.Thegroupfollowedthesuccessof“HeatWave”
with“Quicksand”,whichpeakedat#8.SmokieRobinsonandtheMiracleshadtwo
top10songsduringtheyearwithboth“You’veReallyGotaHoldonMe”and
“Mickey’sMonkey”reaching#8.38Thesuccessoftheserecordsresultedinmassive
salesforMotown.Bytheendof1963,thecompanyhadgrossed$4.5millionin
sales.39NotonlydidthisincreaseinsalesgiveGordymorepersonalfameand
wealth,italsocorrespondedtothepublic’sperceptionofthelabelaswhole.
MotownbecameasymbolforblackDetroit,aswellasoneforblackrespectabilityin
themainstream.AsMotownbecamemoresynonymouswithblackrespectability,
Gordysoughtmoreventuresthatsupportedthisclaim.In1963,Motownreleasedits
firstspokenwordalbum:“TheGreatMarchtoFreedom,”arecordingofaDr.Martin
37JamesE.Perone.TheSoundofStevieWonder:HisWordsandMusic.(Westport,CT:Greenwood
PublishingGroup,2006)2.
38Benjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.171.
39Smith,DancingintheStreets.14.
93
LutherKing,Jr.’sspeechgivenonJune23,1963,inDetriot.40Therecordbegana
tenuous,butworking,relationshipbetweenthetwomen,althoughGordywas
baffledwhenKingwantedhisshareoftheprofitstogototheSouthernChristian
LeadershipCommittee,andnotkeptpersonally.
Withthesuccessof1963,Gordyaddedevenmorestaffersandartists.
AlthoughpublicallycommittedtoportrayingitselfasanAfrican-Americancompany,
Motownaddedmoreandmorewhiteexecutives,withblackworkerstypically
regulatedtolowerlevelsofemploymentunlesstheyweremembersoftheGordy
family.AlthoughGordytriedtojustifythepracticeastryingtokeepup
professionalism,membersofDetroit’sblackcommunitywerebeginningtomurmur
themovewasindicativeofGordynotbeingfullycommittedtotheplightofAfricanAmericans,accusationsthatwouldcontinuethroughouttheCivilRightsera.41
AssuccessfulasMotownwasin1963,1964wasanevenmoresuccessful
yearinelevatingthecompany’spublicperception,aswellasitsbottomline.Mary
Wellsscoreda#1hitwith“MyGuy”,andMarthaandtheVandellas“Dancinginthe
Street”chartedat#2onBillboard.42Thesummerof1964broughtGordyhispet
projectandartisticobsession,TheSupremes.Althoughtheacthadbeensignedto
Motownsince1961,theyhadnevermadeamajorimpact.43Thatchangedinthe
summerof1964,when“WhereDidOurLoveGo?”becameamonstersmashtopping
40Ibid,17.
41Benjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.114.
42Ibid.172.
43Priortothesummerof1964,thegroupwasoftencalledthe“No-hitSupremes”intheMotown
offices.
94
#1onBillboard.Seeminglyovernight,theSupremesgainednationalrecognitionand
becametheshowpieceofMotown.Thesuccessof“WhereDidOurLoveGo?”was
followedupthatsameyearbytwomore#1singles:“BabyLove”and“ComeSee
AboutMe.”Inaddition,TheSupremeswerethefirstMotowngrouptoappearonthe
EdSullivanshowonDecember27,1964.TheSullivanshowbecamearegularvenue
forMotownartistsandnotonlybroughtwidespreadexposuretotherecord
company,butGordyalsobelieveditsignaledagrowingintegrationofAfricanAmericansintomainstreamcultureandgreaterracialacceptance.AstheSupremes
weregainingmorepopularity,GordysingledoutsingerDianaRossasafocalpoint
forMotown’spublicity,aswellashisownpersonalinterest.GordytreatedRoss,
andtheSupremesbyproxy,verydifferentlythanhisotherartists.Priortohis
interestinRoss,songsatMotownweredivviedupgenerally,withdifferentartists
gettingthechancetoperformthesamesong,withthebestrecordingbeingreleased.
Thissenseofcompetitionresultedinhitrecordscomingfromavarietyofplaces,
andnooneartistsingledoutasneedingapush.ThiswasnotthecasewithRossand
theSupremes.44Intime,Gordywouldundercuthisownartistsinordertoensure
Ross’spotlight.ThisismostkeenlyfeltwithFlorenceBallard,afellowmemberof
theSupremeswithRoss.Ballardwasconsideredtohavethebestvoiceofthe
quartet,butwasoverweightanddeemednotasattractiveasRoss.BelievingBallard
tobeadistractionfromRoss,GordyeventuallyreplacedBallardin1967withouther
44RoynomaSingleton.Berry,Me,andMotown:TheUntoldStory.(NewYork:ContemporaryBooks,
1990)186
95
knowledge,dumbfoundingthesinger.Ballardtriedtohaveacareeroutsideof
Motown,butitnevertookoff.Shediedin1976ofsubstanceabuseproblems.45
Regardless,theSupremesheadlinedMotownin1965andbroughtfurther
success.Thegrouphadthree#1songsthatyear:“Stop!IntheNameofLove,”“Back
inMyArmsAgain,”and“IHearaSymphony.”46TwomalegroupssuppliedMotown’s
twoother#1softheyear,theTemptationswith“MyGirl”andtheFourTopswith“I
Can’tHelpMyself.”47Motown’ssuccessexpandedbeyondthetopsinglespot,with
15othersongschartingonBillboardstop#20fortheyear.Motownwasoneofthe
mostsuccessfulrecordcompaniesinAmerica,sellingmore45sthananyotherlabel
inthecountry.48Despitethesurgeofthe“BritishInvasion,”withthepopularityof
groupsliketheRollingStonesandBeatles,Motownremainedincrediblysuccessful.
DespitethesuccessofMotown,outsideofhisinterestinRoss,Gordywasless
andlessinvolvedintherunningofhisrecordlabel.Hebecamemoreisolatedand
reclusive,despitethefacthisrecordsweresellingverywellworldwide.By1966,
Gordyhadstoppedwritingsongsandhadturnedovermostoftheday-to-day
operationstoBarneyAles.49AlthoughSmokeyRobinsonbecamethemaincreative
forceinGordy’sabsence,itwasAlesandotherwhiteofficialswhomadethe
executivedecisionsforthecompany.AsCivilRightsbecamemoreofanational
issue,andalthoughGordywasseenasasymbolforblackentrepreneurialismand
45TheplightofBallard,Ross,andGordywasthebasisforthemusicalDreamgirls.
46Benjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.172.
47Ibid.
48Ibid.66.
49George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?141.
96
respectability,heprohibitedhisartistsfrompublicallysupportingtheissue.Gordy
triedincrediblyhardtokeephislabelnon-committalonCivilRights,andinstead,
focusedontheproductionandsellingofhitrecords.Gordywasinterestedin
promotingblackthoughtwhenhefeltitcouldbeprofitable,suchassigninganaging
LangstonHughestorecordanalbumofpoetry,yethestayedawayfromdiscussing
contemporaryissues.50Gordydidnotwanttomakeasocialstandwithhisrecords,
butratherkeepsellingthepopsongsthatwereinoffensivetothegeneralpublic.His
focuspaidoffin1966withfour#1s(“YouCan’tHurryLove”,“YouKeepMeHanging
On”,and“LoveisHereandNowYou’reGone”bytheSupremesand“ReachOutI’ll
BeThere”bytheFourTops),aswellasawhopping42othersongsthatmadethe
Billboardtop20.51
Gordy’sstanceonCivilRightswouldbeputtothetestafterthe1967Detroit
Riots.AlthoughtheRiotsdidnotdirectlyeffectthe“Hitsville,USA”studios,they
demonstratedDetroit’sblackpopulationwasnotasharmoniousandcontentasthe
imageMotown’srecordssoughttopromote.52Furthermore,theCivilRights
movementbecamemoremilitant,withleaderssuchasKingfallingoutoffavorwith
youngblackactivists,whoinsteadlookedtomoreconfrontationaltactics.Once
again,GordyhopedtokeepMotownnon-committalonCivilRights.Hepublicly
distancedhimselffromthemoreradicalCivilRightsprotestorsandinsteadsought
topreservetheimageofpublicamicableness.
50AlthoughGordyinkedthedealwithHughesin1963,theproductionlaggedindevelopmentand
wasultimatelysquashedbyHughesdeathin1967.Smith,DancingintheStreets.94.
51Benjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.172-174.
52Smith,DancingintheStreets.198.
97
Aspartofthisattempttokeepupthepersonaofpublicagreeablenessand
renewitscommitmenttothecityofDetroit,intheearlyspringof1968,Motown
movedfromitssuburbanHitsville,USAstudiostotheten-storyDonovanBuildingin
downtownDetroit.53Themovewaspartofanurbanrenewalplanforthecity,as
wellastheembodimentofapubliccommitmentmadebyGordytostayinthecity
despiteitsracialtensions.TheDetroitpressinitiallyhailedtheofficecomplex,
dubbed“MotownCenter,”asaboonforthecity.TheMichiganChroniclewrotethat
Motown’smovewould“playavitalroleintherebuildingofaNewDetroit”and“be
oneofthelargestbuildingshousingabusinessownedandoperatedbyNegrosin
thecountry.”54ManywithinMotowndidnotlikethemove,however,findingthe
newofficescoldandlackingthehomeywarmthoftheoldstudio.Inaddition,by
leavingbehindtheblackcommunityinfavorofawhitedominatedlandscape,the
movewasseenasacementingofMotown’scorporatestance.
AlthoughGordywasstillwaryofMotownbeingfullyassociatedwiththeCivil
Rightsmovement,1968alsocorrespondedwithGordy(andMotownbyextension)
aligningitselfwithnon-radicalgroupswithinthemovement.Despitebeinghesitant
tospeakoutinsupportofCivilRights,theassassinationofDr.KinginAprilof1968
stunnedGordy.Despitetheirdifferences,GordyadmiredKingandappreciatedtheir
workingrelationship.King’sdeathcausedGordytomakehismostovertlypolitical
gestureasownerofMotown,allowingMotownartiststoperformforafundraiser
fortheSouthernChristianLeadershipConferenceinMayofthesameyear.The
53GeorgeWhereDidOurLoveGo?149.
54Smith,DancingintheStreets.198.
98
concertraised$25,000fortheSCLC,andinappreciation,King’swidowpresented
Gordywithaplaqueacknowledginghissupport.55Inaddition,duetoGordy’s
influence,Motownparticipatedinthe“DetroitisHappening”campaignof1968.The
campaign,initiatedbyagrantfromtheU.S.DepartmentofHousingandUrban
DevelopmenttoDetroit’sYouthOpportunityProgram,soughttoprovide“goodjob
opportunities,educationalfacilitiesandaculturalcenter”forDetroit’syouth.56In
addition,theprogramhadthelargergoalofconvincingthepublicofDetroit’s
stabilityfollowingthe1967Riots.Motownwasshowcasedinthecommercialsfor
thecampaignasbeingproudofbeingfromDetroitandcommittedtothecity’s
future.Motownalsoproducedtwothemesongsfortheprogram.Thefirstwasa
revisionoftheSupreme’s“TheHappening”entitled“DetroitisHappening,”which
includedamonologuefromDetroitTigersoutfielderWillieHorton.Thesecondwas
anentirelynewsongwrittenbySmokeyRobinsoncalled“ICareAboutDetroit.”This
songcontainslyricsthataffirmGordy’smilquetoastandanti-radicalstanceonsocial
issues:“Yes,I'mproudtocallthiscitymyhometown/It'sbeengoodtoyouand
me/Let'slearntoliveandworkinharmony”and“There'ssomuchimportantwork
stilltobedone/Let'snotloseallthegainsthatwe'vewon.”57AlthoughtheCivil
Rightsmovementwasbecomingmoremilitant,Gordywasstaunchinstaying
acceptabletothemainstream.Motownhopedtobothappeaseitsbaseintheblack
communityandkeepitsfootholdwithinthewhitecorporateworld.
55Ibid.216
56SmokeyRobinsonandtheMiracles“ICareAboutDetroit”.MotownRecords.1968.
57Ibid.
99
During1968,thefirstcracksinMotown’ssuccessbegantoappear.Upset
overunfaircontractsandlowpay,despitebeingthedrivingcreativeforcebehind
thelabel’sbiggeststars,theHolland-Dozier-Hollandproductionteambecame
irreversiblydisgruntledwithGordyandMotown.Theteambegantoslowdown
theirpreviouslyprolificproduction.InAugustof1968,Motownsuedthetriofor$4
millionforbreechofcontractanddamagesfortheirlackofproductivity.In
response,HDHcounter-suedMotownfor$22millionforfraud,conspiracy,and
breachoffiduciaryrelationshipscommittedbythelabel.58Althoughthesuitwas
eventuallysettledoutofcourtwithanon-disclosureagreement,thedamagewas
donetoMotown’sfaçade.NolongerdidGordyhavetheappearanceoftotalcontrol
overhislabelandemployees.ThedepartureoftheHDHteamsetoffasmallexodus
ofotherartistsandproducersleavingthelabel,includingBrendaHollowayand
ChuckJohnson.However,despitebeingoutofGordy’scontrol,noneoftheartists
wholeftMotownwereassuccessfulwithoutthelabel’sbacking.ForGordy’sfaults,
themachinehehadbuiltatMotownwasproficientatmakingstarsandselling
records.Despitetheturmoil,Motownwasabletoscoretwo#1hitsin1968(“Love
Child”byTheSupremesand“IHearditThroughtheGrapevine”byMarvinGaye)as
wellas14othersongsthatmadeitabove#20ontheBillboardcharts.59
In1969,GordybecamemoredrawntoLosAngeles,despitehispublic
commitmenttoDetroit.HisinterestinLosAngeleswaspartiallyduetohis
obsessionwithmakingDianaRossthebiggeststarpossible.Inthelate1960s,Gordy
58George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?152.
59Benjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.174.
100
beganamovie-makingdepartmentatMotown,conceivedtofindastar-makingfilm
forRoss.HealsopurchasedamansioninBeverlyHills,whichwouldbeknownas
“MotownWest”toserveasthecompany’sbaseofoperationsinCalifornia,aswellas
hispersonalresidence.60OneofGordy’sfirstactsuponmovingtoMotownWestwas
tosendforafamilyofbrothersfromGary,Indiana.Thisgroupwouldbethelast
greatacttocomefromtheMotownmachine:theJackson5.Thegroup,presentedto
havebeen‘discovered’byDianaRoss,wouldhaveimmediatesuccessforthelabel,
withtheirfirstthreesingles(“IWantYouBack”,“ABC”and“TheLoveYouSave”)
hitting#1ontheBillboardHot100.61TheJackson5appealedtoGordy,andheonce
againbecameanactivememberofthecreativeprocessafteryearsofbecomingless
andlessinterestedinthemusicbusiness.AlthoughMotownwasstrugglingbackin
Detroit,theJackson5werehugelysuccessful,buttheirsuccessovershadowed
loomingissues.Nevertheless,Motownfinishedoutthedecadestrong,having20
songsplaceabove#20onBillboardwiththreenumberones.62
Gordywaseventuallyabletofindafilmhebelievedwouldbeastar-making
vehicleforRossinLadySingstheBlues,abiographicfilmonthelifeofBillie
Holiday.63Thefilmwasadisasterinthemaking,goingoverbudgetandplaguedby
thedivaattitudesofbothRossandGordy.Thefilmwasinitiallyajointproduction
60Singleton.Berry,Motown,andMe.198.
61GordybelievedhehadasurefirehitwiththeJacksonbrothersandthatlinkingthemwithRoss
wouldsimilarlyraiseherprofile.
62Benjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.174-175.
63HollidaywasoneoftheartistsGordytriedtohustletobuyhissongsattheFlameShowBarbackin
the50s.Byallaccounts,Gordywasinspiredbythesinger,andregrettedhewasneverabletosellher
oneofhissongs.
101
betweenParamountPicturesandMotown’snewfilmdivision.However,Gordy
clashedwithParamountexecutivesoftenandcausedthefilmingtodragon.
ProductionwasdelayedduetoRoss’pregnancyandbirthofherfirstchildinthe
summerof1971.64Eventually,GordyrepaidParamounttheirinitialinvestmentof
$1milliontogainbackcreativecontrolovertheproduction,butallowing
Paramounttodistributethefilm.Theproductionsoaredoveritsinitial$2million
dollarbudget,eventuallycosting$3.6milliontofilm,with$1.6millionofthe
productioncostspaidoutofGordy’sownpocket.65Still,oncethemoviewasfinally
releasedin1972,itwasquitewellreceived.Itgrossedalmost$20million
domesticallyandRosswaspraisedforherperformanceasHoliday.Rosseven
receivedanAcademyAwardnominationforbestactress.AlthoughRossdidnotwin,
despiteapricyandextensivecampaignfinancedbyGordy,itappearedasthough
shewasreceivingtheacclaimGordyhoped.ThesuccessofLadySingstheBlues
wouldstartastringofMotownfilms:Mahoganyin1975,TheBingoLongTraveling
All-StarsandMotorKingsin1976,andAlmostSummerandThankGodIt’sFridayin
1978.Noneofthesesubsequentfilmswerenearlyassuccessfulcriticallyor
financiallyasLadySingstheBlues.Motown’sforayintofilmsculminatedintheflop
TheWizin1978,anurbanretellingofTheWizardofOz.66AlthoughTheWizwas
64ThefatherofthischildisGordy.Thetwohadaclandestinerelationshipforyears,butitwaskept
verysecret,withmanyMotownemployeesbeingunaware.RossmarriedmusicexecutiveRobert
EllisSilbersteintwomonthsintoherpregnancy,withSilbersteinraisingthechildashisown.Itwas
notuntildecadeslaterthatGordy’spaternitybecamecommonknowledge.
65Benjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.119
66Notonlywasthe“TheWiz”thefinalMotownfilm,itwasalsocreditedforsingle-handedlyending
theBlaxploitationfilmgenre.
102
successfulonBroadway,thefilmproductionwasbloatedandcameinincredibly
overbudget.
ThesameyearLadySangtheBlueswasreleasedin1972,Gordyalsoofficially
movedMotown’sofficesfromDetroittoLosAngeles,cementingwhathadbecome
obviousforyears.AlthoughGordyclaimedDetroitashishomeitwasclearhis
interestwasinCalifornia.67EventhoughMotownhadsuccessfulactsintheformof
theJackson5andStevieWonder,itwasnolongerthehit-makingpowerhouseinthe
1970sithadbeeninthepreviousdecade.Inordertocombattheselaggingsales,the
labeltriedtoexpandoutsideofitstraditionalslateofartists,branchingintowhite
artists(RareEarth),blackcountrymusicians(CharliePride),andpsychedelicmusic
(TheFifthDimension).However,Motown’sdiversificationeffortswereneververy
successful.Whatdidbecomeasolidfinancialbaseforthecompanyduringthe1970s
wasitsreleaseof“classic”Motownhits.Althoughthegeneralpublicseemedcoldto
theirneweracts,therewasasolidmarketfortheiroldermusic.AsMotown
struggledinthe1970s,moreartistsleftorwereletgo,from100actssignedin1966
tojust51in1973.68EventheJackson5wouldleaveMotownin1975.69Themainact
thatdidnotleavethelabelwasStevieWonder,buthiscontractin1975gavehim
unprecedentedcreativecontroloverhisrecordingandthenumberofalbumshe
wouldcreate.ThedealalsopromisedWonderastaggering$13milliondollarsover
67GordyalsohadagrowinginterestinLasVegas.NotonlywereMotownArtistspreformingmoreat
casinos,Gordy(alwaysaprolificgambler)wasspendingmoretimeatthetablesaswell.
68Benjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.159
69TheonlyJacksonbrotherwhostayedwasJermaine.HehadmarriedGordy’sdaughterHazelinan
extremelylavishandcostlyceremonyin1973,andwasunabletoleavehisfather-in-law’scompany.
103
sevenyears,atthetimethehighestamountofmoneyeverpaidtoarecording
artist.70Motownhadnotpreviouslygiventhisamountofcontroltoanyartist,andit
signaledGordy’salmostcompletewithdrawalfromthemusicbusiness.
Despitethesesetbacks,allwasnotbleakforMotowninthe1970s.Although
theywerenottheculturalforcetheyhadbeeninthe60s,thecompanyremained
profitablethankstoartistslikeLionelRichieandtheCommodores,andreleasesof
oldersongsintheMotowncatalog.Likewise,themystiqueofMotownrecords
remainedduringthe1970s,withthecompanystillviewedamongmanywithinthe
blackcommunityasasourceofpride.However,asmusicaltrendschangedasthe
decadewenton,Motownrefusedtoadapt.Gordywashesitanttoembracediscoand
earlyhip-hopmusic,believingthegenreswouldnotsellwell.SalesforMotown
decreasedasMotownrecordsbecameviewedasold-fashionedandavoicefora
priorgeneration.MoredamagingforMotownwasthedepartureofitspresident,
BarneyAles,nearthecloseofthe1970s.71WithGordynolongerparticularly
involvedwiththedailyrunningofthelabel,Aleshadtakenupthebulkofthe
responsibilityassociatedwithitssuccess.Ales’departurealsocorrespondedwith
lessmarketingforMotownRecords,assalescontinuedtodecline.
Asbadasthecloseofthe1970swereforMotown,the1980swereworse.
Despiteitslaggingpopularity,Motownwasprofitableinthe70s.However,that
changedinthe80s.TheincreasingpopularityofrapmusiccaughtMotown
completelyoff-guard,andthelabelfurtherdeclinedinrelevanceandprofits.Itstill
70Ibid.163.
71George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?188.
104
hadsuccessfulacts,likeLionelRichie,RickJames,andtheDebargefamily,butitwas
notenoughtobolsterthelabelasawhole.Afternearly25yearsofrunningMotown,
Gordywasevenmorealoofandlessinvolvedwithitsmanagement.Regardlessof
thelabel’swoesandhisdecreasedconnectiontothecompany,Gordyplanneda
televisionspecialtocelebratethelabel’s25thanniversaryin1983.The“Motown
25”specialwasintendedtobeavictorylapforthecompany,remindingthe
audienceofMotown’spastglories,butalsohighlightitspresentpromise.72Gordy
hopedthespecialwouldrekindleMotown’ssalesandbringbackagoldenagelikein
theearly60s.However,thespecialwasmorelikeamuseumofactsnolongerwith
thelabelbecauseofeitherpersonalissueswithGordyortheartistgettingmore
moneyfromanotherlabel.Theartistwhogotthebiggestboostfromthespecialwas
notonecurrentlysignedtoMotown,MichaelJackson,whohadsignedtoEpic
Recordsyearsbefore.Hisperformanceof“BillieJean”wastoppedbythefirst
demonstrationofthe“moonwalk”dancestepthegeneralpublichadeverseen.None
oftheMotownartistshighlightedonthespecialgainedasmuchnotorietyas
Jackson.In1988,afteryearsofunprofitabilityforthelabel,Gordysoldhisstakein
Motownfor$61milliontotheMCAmusicgroup.73Gordyretainedtherightstothe
label’sbackcatalogandroyaltiesfromearlierreleases.SinceMotown’solder
releasesandrereleaseswerestillthemostpopular,Gordywassecureinasteady
cashstreaminadditiontohispaymentforthesale.
72Singleton,Berry,Motown,andMe.290.
73Smith,DancingintheStreets,254.
105
FollowinghisdeparturefromMotownin1988,Gordysurprisinglyremained
quiet.Heneverformedanotherlabel,nordidheeverreturntobeinganexecutiveat
Motown.Instead,Gordypreferredtoplaytheroleoftheelderstatesmanofblack
enterprise.Hewouldgiveinterviewsandoccasionallymakeappearanceshonoring
Motownanditspastglorydays.In2004,GordysoldhisfinalpieceinMotown’spast:
hisinterestintheJobetepublishingcompany,whichreceivedroyaltiesforMotown’s
pasthits,for$80milliontotheEMImusicgroup.74
Gordy’sdeparturefromMotowncorrespondedwithfurtherwoesforthe
label.Bythe1990s,Motownwasashellofitsformerglory.Althoughthelabelhada
fewpopularacts,suchasBoyzIIMen,theactswerenotasnumerous,popular,nor
asprofitableastheslateofhitmakersemployedbythelabel30yearsearlier.The
onlyartistremainingfromMotown’spinnaclewasStevieWonder.Motown’supper
managementwassimilarlytroubled.MCAbroughtinnumerouspeopletoserveas
presidentofMotownfollowingGordy’sdeparture,butnonesuceededinrevitalizing
thelabel.Becauseofthis,thestaffofMotownfelttheirnewownershipgroupwas
notproperlypromotingthelabelandin1991suedtobereleasedfromtheir
distributiondeal.Thesuitwaseventuallysettledtwoyearslater.In1994,Polygram
recordsboughtouttheentiretyofMotownforthesumof$301million.Polygram
broughtinAndreHarrelltoserveaspresidentofMotown.Harrellwasthefounder
ofUptownRecords,whichhadbecomeverysuccessfulwithintheR&Band
particularlyHip-Hopgenresinthelate1980s.ConsideringMotownhadhistorically
beenhesitanttoembracerapmusic,PolygrambelievedHarrellwasthemanwho
74GordyhadpreviouslysoldEMIahalf-stakeintheroyaltiesin1997for$132million.BrianGarrity,.
“EMINowFullOwnerOfJobete”Billboard;4/10/2004,Vol.116Issue15,p61
106
couldreverseMotown’sfortunes.InordertobecomepresidentofMotown,Harrell
wasgivena$30million5-yeardealwith$20milliongivenasasigningbonus.
However,HarrellwasfiredfromMotownonlytwoyearslaterin1997.Histenureat
Motownwastroubled,andhewasunabletobringthesamelevelofsuccessand
popularityamongsttheyoungaudiencehehadwithUptown.PolygramRecordsalso
hadfinancialwoesandwasboughtoutbySeagramrecords,withMotownbeing
absorbedintotheUniversalMusicGroupin1999.Itremainedasubsidiaryuntil
2005,whenitwasmergedwithUniversalRecordstoformUniversalMotown
Records.Thismergerlasteduntil2011,whenMotownwasreorganizedunderthe
IslandDefJamMusicGroupsubsidiaryoftheUniversalMusicgroup.However,there
wasachangein2014,whentheUniversalMusicgroupreorganizedonceagainand
madeMotownintoitsownseparateentity.
AlthoughseveraldifferentgroupshavepurchasedandownedMotownover
theyears,allhaveseenvalueintheMotownnameasabrand,aswellasthe
nostalgiathelabelbroughtaboutamonggeneralaudiences.Despitenotbeing
currentwiththepopulartrends,Gordy’smostenduringlegacyofMotownwasthe
imageofblackrespectabilityhehadcrafted.Gordywasabletobecomeamajor
successamongthewhitemainstreamconcurrentwiththeanxietyandoccasional
violenceoftheCivilRightsera.Duetohispurposefuleffortsincraftingaparticular
imageofhisartists,label,andhimself,Motownwasnotviewedinthesamelightas
otherblackorganizationsduringthe1960s,andbecameverysuccessfulbecauseof
thisdifference.Thispersonaofrespectabilityiswhycompanieswere,andarestill
willingtopayfortheprestigeoftheMotownnamedecadesafteritsheyday.The
107
primarilyvalueofMotownwasnotinitsartistsormusic,butratherintheimage
Gordyhadcraftedforhiscompanyanditsdepictioninthemainstream.
108
CHAPTERFOUR:THEECONOMICANDCULTURALDECISIONOFBERRYGORDY
Thefailureofthe3-DRecordMartchangedBerryGordy.Gordyinitially
believedthatsellingjazzmusic,hisfavoritegenre,wouldprovidehisgrowingfamily
withfinancialstability.Tastesinmusicchanged,however,andjazzfelloutoffavor
withcustomers.ThelossofthestoredemoralizedGordy,whowasforcedtotakean
jobattheLincoln-Mercuryassemblylineinordertomakeendsmeetforhis
growingfamily.Yetevenontheline,Gordystilldreamedoffindingsuccessinthe
musicbusiness.Despitediminishedprospectsandminimalfinancing,Gordyheld
fasttothebeliefhisnextmusicventurewouldbeasuccess,andhisdesireto
becomeaneconomicsuccessnomatterthegenreguidedhisdecisionmakingat
Motown.
BecauseofthelimitedfundsMotownhadatitsonsetascomparedtolarger
recordcompanies,Gordyhadtobesuretherecordshedidreleasewereprofitable
andhits.1Whilelargercompaniescouldreleaseseveralrecordsknowingthatthe
moneyearnedbyhitswouldoffsetthecostofunpopularsongs,Motowninitially
couldnotaffordevenasingleunsuccessfulrecord.ThereforeMotownreleased
fewerrecordsthanothercompanies,butthosereleasedtendedtobemorepolished
andhonedtoappealtoaswideofanaudienceaspossible.
Althoughbornoutofnecessity,therewereadvantagestoonlyreleasinga
smallnumberofrecords.Distributorscouldbemoreeasilyconvincedtopurchase
Motown’srecordsiftheywerefewinnumberandalwayssoldfairlywell.The
limitedandusuallysuccessfulreleasesgavebothMotownandtherecordsanairof
1ForGordy,a‘hit’wasinitiallydefinedbymakingthetop40ontheBillboardR&Bcharts,whichlater
grewtoBillboard’sPopchartsonceMotownhadcrossedoverintomainstreamappeal.
109
mystique.Likewise,producingafewerrecordscutdownonmanufacturing,
advertising,promotion,anddistributioncosts.Althoughmoretimeandeffortwas
spentonthefrontendtocreatethesehonedrecords,theirlowvolumecutdownon
thecostsinordertobringthemtothepublic.
Therewasahugeriskinmakingasmallamountofrecords,though.Evena
smallstringofunsuccessfulrecordscouldsinkthebusiness.Furthermore,ensuring
arecordwouldbeahitwasanimpossibleproposition.AtthetimeofMotown’s
inception,77percentofallalbumsand80percentofallsinglesdidnotmakeback
themoneyspenttocreatethem.2Motowncouldliterallynotaffordforanyofits
songstolosemoney.
Inordertoprotectthesolvencyofthecompany,Gordytookexcessivecontrol
overallaspectsoftheproductionofMotownsongs.Gordyberatedhissongwriting
teamtowriteonlyhitsandwasnotshyaboutexpressinghisdispleasurewiththeir
output,evenifhepersonallylikedtheindividual.Forinstance,thefirsthundred
songswrittenbySmokeyRobinsonwererejectedbyGordy,despiteRobinsonbeing
oneofGordy’sclosestfriendsandthesecond-highestrankingcreativeteammember
afterGordy.3Onceasongmadeittotherecordingstage,Gordywassimilarlyhardto
please.Hecalledfornumeroustakesofsongsandforcedmusicianstochange
minutedetailsinordercreatewhathedeemedthebestsound.Hewouldcallfor
severalremixesandre-masteringofrecords,changingminutedetailswiththe
treble,bass,andinstrumentallevels,despitenooneelsehavinganyproblemwith
2PeterBenjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.(NewYork:GrovePress,1979)23.
3Ibid.25.
110
theinitialproduct.Evenaftertheywerereleased,songswerenotsafefromGordy’s
tinkering.TheFourTops’“ICan’tHelpMyself”hadalreadydebutedontheBillboard
charts,whenGordyordereditredonewithanimprovedmixforlaterpressings.
ThecreationofMotown’srecordswasacollectiveeffort,withthedifferent
elementsofsongcreationoperatingautonomouslyofeachother.AtMotown,
songwritersinitiallypitchedsongstotheotherwritersandGordyinasemicompetitiveenvironment.Onceasongwasdeemedworthybytheotherwriters,
withGordyhavingthefinalsay,thesongwouldbetransitionedtoproduction.In
production,asimilarprocesswouldoccur,withdifferentproducersandartists
jockeyinginordertoclaimtherightstothesong.Afteranartistandproducerwere
attachedtothesong,itwouldgointothestudio.Duringtherecordingprocess,the
samesetofstudiomusicianswereused,musicianswhohadnobearingonthe
songwritingorperformingofthesong.Onceasongwasrecorded,itwassenttobe
manufactured,distributed,andsoldtothelisteningaudience.
Gordycalledthisprocessofmakingrecordsthe‘assemblyline’andclaimed
inspirationfromDetroit’sautomobilefactories.Thisdescriptionwaspartially
accurate.Motownemployeesdidtendtoworkinsegmenteddepartmentswithlittle
crossoverwhenitcametorecordcreation.Likewise,thesales,distribution,and
frontofficewereautonomousfromtherestofMotown.Thecomparisontoan
assemblyline,however,wasdisputablefortworeasons.First,Motownhada
combinationofcommunalandcompetitiveworkwhenitcametotheproductionof
records.AllMotownemployeeshadachancetovoteonarecordandstatetheir
beliefaswhetherornotitwouldbeahit.Likewise,iftwoartistsorproducers
111
wantedtorecordthesamesong,bothwereallowedtodoso,andtherecording
deemedsuperiorwouldbetheonereleased.Thesecondsubversionoftheassembly
linemonikeristhatGordyhadtheabilitytoasserthimselfatanypointofthesong
makingprocessandtakecompletecontrol.Gordycouldsingle-handedlyoverrule
anyvotetakenbyMotownemployees,aswellastakeasongawayfromanartistor
aproducer.AlthoughGordymightclaimhishitrecordscamefromautonomous
workerseachworkinguponaseparateelementofthesong,ultimatelyhisabilityto
overrideanyelementoftheprocesssubvertssuchclaims.Gordy’suseofthe
assemblylinemetaphoralsoimpliedallofthesongswhichcameoutofMotown
werehitrecords.SincenewrecordsweremadeusingthesameMotowntechnique
asprevioushits,GordyhopedthemystiqueofMotown’sassemblylinewouldassure
thecustomersthatallMotownreleaseswereofthesamequalityandworthyof
purchase.
Gordy’shands-onmanagerialstyleresultedinrecordsthatwerehighly
craftedandtheresultofnumeroustakes.Inaddition,Gordyfine-tunedminute
detailsinordertoensuretheresultingsongmethisstandards.Chiefamongst
Gordy’scriteriaforMotown’srecordswasthatthesongbeahit.Inordertobest
guaranteeahit,GordywasinsistenteverythingthatcameoutofMotownwasmassmarketable.Inordertoachievemass-marketability,thesongs’contentneededtobe
universalinitsmessage,usuallytothepointofbeingsaccharine.Themostcommon
subject,byfar,inMotown’sreleaseswasloveandromance.AlthoughMotown
artistsandproducersoftendesiredmoresubstanceintheirsongsasidefrom
stereotypicalyounglove,Gordywouldrefusetheirrequests.Gordybelievedthe
112
subjectofromancewasuniversalenoughtoappealtoamainstreamaudience.In
addition,thesyrupydepictionofromanceinMotown’ssongssuchas“MyGuy”,
“PrideandJoy”,and“TheOneWhoReallyLovesYou,”wassoinoffensiveinorderto
precludeitselffromprotestfromwhiteaudiences.
DespitetheprotestsofMotown’sartistsandproducers,Gordy’sinsistenceon
sappyromanticsongscontinuedbecauseitwasincrediblyeffective.Motown’ssongs
werealmostdevoidofraceorracialissuesintheirdepictionofyounglove.Despite
GordyhavingalargeresourceofuntappedblackvoicesinDetroit,hedecidednotto
includetheiruniqueexperiencesinordertoincreasetheirmarketability.Atno
pointinMotown’slovesongsdidtheymentionrace,growingupina
lower/working-classexistence,orevenlivinginDetroit’surbanenvironment,even
thoughthosethreecharacteristicsappliedtonearlyeveryoneinvolvedinthe
creativeprocess.ThisomissionwastheresultofGordy’scontroloverMotown’s
production.
ThesentimentalnatureofMotown’ssongswasinstarkcontrasttoChess,
Stax,andotherrecordlabelsthatprimarilyrecordedAfricanAmericanartists.Part
ofthisdifferencewasduetoownership,aswellastheintendedaudienceoftheir
records.ChessandStaxwerebothownedbywhiteindividuals.Chesswasstartedby
PolishimmigrantsLeonardandPhilChess,whileStaxwasownedbythesiblingsJim
StewartandEstelleAxton.Inadditiontowhiteownership,thesetworecordlabels
haddifferentfinancialgoalsthanMotown,primarilyinthattheysoughttoappealto
ablackaudience,whileMotownwashopingtohaveasbroadofamainstream
appealaspossible.StaxandChesswerecomfortableinappealingtoanichemarket
113
ofAfrican-Americansandcouldbemore“authentic”intheirmusicalofferingsand
marketing.Thiswaskeenlyreflectedinthetypesofmusicrecorded:StaxandChess
Recordsspecializedintheblues,gospel,andjazz.WhileMotownwouldrecordthese
genres,andGordy’spersonalfavoritegenrewasjazz,itwasfirstandforemostapop
recordcompany.Gordyhadmainstreamdesignsforhiscompany,andhebelieved
focusingontheblacknessofhisartistswouldultimatelyimpedeMotown’s
marketabilityfortheprimarilywhitelisteningaudiencenecessaryforMotown’s
profitability.Gordy’sbeliefpaidoffintermsofsalesandpopularityascomparedto
Stax.Forexample,from1961to1976,StaxRecordsplaced167songsinthe
BillboardTop100.4Incontrast,from1961to1971,Motownhad163songsin
BillboardsTop20.5
Gordy’sdownplayingofhisartists’blacknesswouldresultincriticismof
Motown.AlthoughMotown’scriticsrecognizedthelabel’spopularityand
appreciatedthefinancialgainsitwasbringingtoanotherwiselimitedpopulacein
Detroit,theyheldStaxandChesstobemoreauthenticallyblackdespitehaving
whiteownership.Ina1967articleinCrawdaddymagazine,musiccriticJonLandau
acknowledgedMotown’scontributionstoblackmusic,buthestillhailedStaxas
more“hardcore”sinceitmadeblackmusicforapurelyblackaudience,and
thereforewasofahigherquality.6However,GordyhadhisdefendersintheAfricanAmericancommunityduringthe1960s.JetandEbonymagazinesfavorablyreported
4StaxRecordscompanywebsite<http://www.staxrecords.com/about/>
5Motowncompanywebsite<http://classic.motown.com/history/>
6JonLandau.“AWhiterShadeofBlack”CrawdaddyNovember1967.34.
114
onGordy,Motown,anditsartists.ItheldMotownasapositiveforce,sinceitalso
demonstratedtherespectablemiddle-classblackexistencethemagazineshopedto
convey.Forinstance,duringa1965JetarticleonMaryWells’BritishTour,the
magazineproudlynotedthatthe“Negro-ownedrecordcompany…isthelargest
producerof45r.p.m.sintheUS,”addingthatthecompanyhadsold12millionunits
in1964.7NomatterwhattheoutsideblackcommunitythoughtofGordyand
Motown’smusic,therewasnodenyingitspopularity.Indeed,theonlyreason
MotownhadcriticswasduetoGordy’sinstanceonfocusingjustonrecordswith
wideenoughappealthatcouldbecomehits.Hadhenotbeensoexactingtomake
surehisrecordswereacceptabletoamainstreamaudience,itisunlikelyhewould
havehadenoughnationalexposuretowarrantthecriticismonwhetherMotown
wasauthenticallyblacktoasufficientamount.Criticswouldquestionwhether
Motown’smusichadartisticmeritasanartform,butGordy’sprimaryattentionwas
uponmusicasacommodity.
Asidefromcreativecontrol,Gordywasalsozealousoverthepublicimageof
MotownRecordsanditsartists.Itwasnotenoughjusttoproduceuniversally
appealingmusic,theartistspreformingthesongshadtobesimilarlyabove
reproachandacceptabletoamainstream,whiteaudience.Gordywasnotjust
producingmusic,hewasalsocultivatingstarswhohebelievedcouldbeareliable
sourceofincome.GordyinsistedthattheartistssignedtoMotownappearandactas
inoffensivelyandwidelyappealingaspossible.
7“WhattheBeatlesLearnedfromNegros”Jet.July1,1965.62.
115
Gordybelievedanacceptableappearancewasessentialforthecontinued
successofMotownRecords.HehopedtheshowmanshipandmeritofMotown’s
artistswouldbridgetheracialdivideandmakeMotownpopularamongwhite
audiences.Gordydesperatelycovetedthreeparticularvenues:LasVegascasinos,
higher-endnightclubs(likeNewYork’sCopacabana),andnationaltelevision
broadcasts,especiallytheEdSullivanShow.Gordybelievedsuccesswiththese
predominatelyolderandwhiteaudienceswouldprovidegreaterfinancialstability
thandependingonthewhimsofyoungblackpeople.Althoughtrendsinmusiccould
befickle,Gordytrustedthattheregularityandlucrativenessofthesevenueswould
provideastrongbaseforMotownRecordsthatcouldlastfordecades.
AlthoughGordywouldusemanytechniquestoensurehisartistswereready
tobeaspalatableaspossibleforthemainstreamaudience,hismostdirectmethod
wastheetiquettebootcampandfinishingschoolrequiredforallMotown
performers,calledArtistDevelopment.Gordywasnotuniqueamonglabelowners
inestablishingthisorganization,sinceotherrecordlabelsatthetimewould
occasionallyhireoutsideconsultantsinordertofine-tuneindividualacts,butnone
hadtheelaboratemachinerywithsuchpervasivecontrolasMotown’sArtist
Developmentdid.Althoughinitiallyoperatingonaninformalbasisprior,in1964
theArtistDevelopmentwingofMotownRecordswasestablished.8Itsgoalwasto
transformtherawandunsophisticatedlower-classDetroityoungsterswhomadeup
Motown’sranksintoseasonedandhighlypreparedperformersadeptinfrontofany
audience.
8NelsonGeorge.WhereDidOurLoveGo?:TheRise&FalloftheMotownSound,(London:Omnibus,
1986)87.
116
Gordyinitiallyselectedhisbrother-in-law,HarveyFuqua,tosuperviseArtist
Development.Fuquainitiatedtheschoolasastrictdisciplinarian.Classeswereheld
regularly,MondaythroughFriday,andallartistswereexpectedtoperformall
elementsoftheirperformance,includingsinging,choreography,andon-stage
banterwithperfection.Fuquawouldlaterrecalloftheschool,“Weheatedthe
performersuntiltheycracked,thenweheatedthemupagain.”9HiswifeGwenand
hersisterAnna,bothofwhomwerefamiliarwithmodelingandcosmetology,
assistedFuqua.
DespiteFuquabeingnamedasheadofthewing,itwasMaxinePowellwho
hadthemostinfluenceonMotown’sArtistDevelopment.Powellwasthe
proprietressoftheMaxinePowellFinishingandModelingSchool.Gordyhadbeen
acquaintedwithPowellforalmostadecade,whenPowellhadhiredtheGordy
familyprintshoptoproduceprogramsforoneofhertalentandfashionshows.10
AlthoughFuquawasinitiallynamedheadofArtistDevelopment,withPowellacting
asaspecialoutsideconsultant,sheshortlythereafterwashiredonfull-timeto
cultivateMotown’sartistsintoperformerssuitableforGordy’sgoals.
WiththehireofPowell,ArtistDevelopmentmovedintoitsownthree-story
houseintheever-expandingMotowncomplexonWestGrandBoulevard.Thefirst
floorhousedadancestudioforchoreography,thesecondfloorheldinstrumentsfor
musicalarrangementandperformance,andthethirdwasusedforwardrobe
9Benjaminson.StoryofMotown.39
10George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?87.
117
design.11Inadditiontoperformance,Powellwasinsistentoninstillingetiquette.
Motownartistsweregivenlessonsongrooming,diction,tablemanners,and
personalhygiene.Powellwouldofteninformherstudentstheywerebeinggroomed
toperforminonlytwovenues:BuckinghamPalaceandtheWhiteHouse.12Powell
alsocoachedMotownartistsondealingwiththepressandgivingan
unobjectionableinterview.WithGordy’sfullblessing,shedrilledherstudentsto
assertthatMotownwasa“wonderfulopportunityandatrail-blazinginstitution,”
andeveniftheyhadissueswiththelabel,nottomentionthemsince“evenyou
motherandfathermakemistakes”.13
Asidefrometiquetteoff-stage,on-stagecoordinationandchoreographywas
ofaparticularinteresttoArtistDevelopment.AMotownmusicalperformancewas
highlyscriptedandpreparedwithnoroomforimprovisation.Evenminutedetails,
suchasthebanterbytheartistsinbetweensongs,weretoiledoverandendlessly
rehearsed.Powellalsoweldedinfluenceintheartists’stagepresence.She
encouragedthesingersnottostoopwhilesinging,norprotrudetheirhindquarters,
believingsuchpoorposturesentanegativemessagetowardstheaudience.
Likewise,pelvicthrustsandotheroverlysexualmovementsweretobedoneina
subduedmannertonotdrawundueattention.EvenprovenstarsinMotown’s
hierarchywerenotsafefromPowell’scriticaleye.ShechidedSmokeyRobinsonfor
11Benjaminson,TheStoryofMotown.38.
12George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?88.
13Ibid.88.
118
grimacingtoomuchonstage,andsimilarlycriticizedMarvinGayeforclosinghis
eyeswhilesinging.14
Despitesomeresentmentfromtheartists,theArtistDevelopmentwingof
MotownRecordswasincrediblysuccessfulinmanufacturingartistsequally
rehearsedforonandoff-stage.Motownartistsbecamerenownedfortheirelaborate
performancesandintricatechoreography,aswellastheirdemeanorininterviews
andotherpublicappearances.Becauseofthisstricttraining,Motownartistswere
versatileandadeptatperforminginfrontofallsortsofaudiences,beitahigh-end
nightcluborarowdyroomofteenagers.Althoughsomeperformersmightbegrudge
itsmethods,therewasnodenyingthatthestridentmethodsofMaxinePowelland
ArtistDevelopmentwereeffectiveinmoldingyoungkidsfromDetroitintoseasoned
performerscapableofwithstandingmainstreamscrutiny.
However,thislevelofprofessionalismcameatacost,namelythe
individualismandauthenticityoftheartists.Gordywouldnotallowhisartiststobe
theiractualselves:blacklower-classyouthsfromDetroit.Instead,theyhadto
preformwithinthepersonacultivatedatArtistDevelopment,andremain
inoffensiveand,therefore,commerciallyprofitable.ToGordy’scredit,hadhe
expectedteenagersfromDetroit’shousingprojectswithnopriorexperiencein
performingoretiquettetosuccessfullyconductthemselvesinfrontofanational
audience,itisunlikelyMotownwouldhavehadmuchlastingcommercialsuccess.
OnceGordyhadperfectedhisMotownsoundandhadcommercially
successfulartistsperformingaroundtheworld,hebecameimmenselyprotectiveof
14Ibid.89.
119
hisachievements.Gordytypicallyresistednewmusicaltrends,believingthat
stickingtohisalreadyestablishedMotownsoundwasparamounttothelabel’s
profitability.AlthoughothergenresbecamepopularduringMotown’sheyday,
Gordyremainedcommittedtopreservinghiscreationinitsoriginalformat.This
resistancetochangebecameahallmarkofMotownduringitslaterdecadesof
independence.AlthoughMotownclaimedtobe“TheVoiceofYoungAmerica,”asthe
teenagerswhoMotownrepresentedatitsonsetgrewupandanewgenerationtook
theirplace,Motowndidnotchangewiththetimes.
Throughoutthe1960s,MotownwastrulyonthecuttingedgeofAmerican
popculture.Motownactshadimmensecrossoverappeal,popularwithbothblack
andwhiteaudiences,aswellasthoseofallgenerations.Asthe1970sbegan,
MotowncontinuedthissuccesswiththeadditionoftheJackson5,whobeganwith
universalsuccessunmatchedbyanyofMotown’sotheracts.However,thesuccess
oftheJackson5wasnotindicativeofMotown’sotheracts.Onlyafewyearsbefore,
beingontheMotownlabelwasalmostaguaranteeoffinancialsuccessandfame,but
thelabel’spopularitybegantostagnate.Othergenresbecamepopularamongblack
youngpeople,includingdisco,funk,andparticularlyhip-hop.However,Motowndid
notdeviatemuchfromitspreviouslywinningformulaofpop/R&B.
GordyandMotown’smanagementeventuallyadaptedtoincludefunk,
psychedelic,anddiscomusiciansamongtheircatalogofartists.Inaddition,Motown
wouldmakeothertokeneffortstoincludethesenewgenres,suchassigningRare
EarthandtheFifthDimension,andevenproducethediscomovie“ThankGodIt’s
120
Friday.”Regardlessoftheseefforts,itbecamemoreevidentthatdespitetheirslogan
ofbeingthe“voiceofyoungAmerica,”Motownwasbehindthetimes.
AnothercauseforMotown’shesitancytoembracechangewasthegenuine
successoftheirpreviousformula.Whilethefunkandpsychedelicgenresfaltered,it
wasrereleasesandGreatestHitscollectionsoftheiroldhitsthatkeptMotown
profitableduringthelate70s.Theoldrecordswereabankablecommodityand
madeupthefinancialbaseofMotown.Whenfacedwithchoosingbetweentakinga
riskinhopingtomakeahitwithanewgenerationofyoungpeopleortakingthe
conservativerouteofmaintainingprevioussuccessalbeitatasmallerlevel,Gordy
tookthelatterbelievingitwasthewiseroption.AlthoughMotownwouldclaim
relevanceamongtheyouthaudienceuntilitwassoldtoMCAin1989,itslateryears
ofindependentoperationproveGordywasbeholdentothisoldvisionanddidnot
wanttodetertoomuchfromhisearlierformula.TheMotown25televisionspecial
in1985isemblematicofthisdynamic.Thebulkoftheactswereeitherreunionsby
earlyMotownartistsorcurrentlypopulargroupswhoweresignedtootherlabels.
EvenMichaelJackson’sappearance,wherehepremieredtheMoonwalkdancestep
duringaperformanceof“BillieJean,”(whichwouldbecomebyfarthemosticonic
momentofthespecial)occurredonlyduetoJackson’scurrentrecordlabelEpic
demandinghegetachancetopreformacurrentsong.IfGordywouldnotletJackson
performarecentsong,Epicwouldrefusetoallowhimtoappear.
ForGordytobuckleunderoutsidepressureregardingthecreativedirection
ofanartistwasunheardofduringMotown’sheyday.AlthoughmanyofMotown’s
artistshopedtowritesongswithsubstancemoremeaningfulthanMotown’stypical
121
milieuandprovidecommentaryontheCivilRightsmovement,Gordyrefused,most
notablywhenheinitiallyrefusedtoreleaseMarvinGaye’ssong“What’sGoingOn.”
Foryears,Gordy’sbrother-in-lawGayehaddutifullygonealongwithGordy’sideas
forthesinger,despitehismisgivingswithGordy’sdirection.Inparticular,Gayewas
neverfullyateasewithGordy’sdesireforthesingertobecomeanightclubactand
toperforminsmallervenues.AlthoughGayewasadeptandplayedthepartwell,he
wasuncomfortablewiththeroleandprivatelyexpressedhisreservations.Gaye
certainlyfoundsuccessunderGordy’srigiddirection,buthegrewshiftlessand
erratic.AfterthedeathofsingingpartnerTammiTerrell,Gayegrewfurther
secludedfromthemusicbusiness.Anaturalathlete,hedecidedtotryoutforthe
DetroitLionsfootballteam,butwasultimatelyunsuccessful.
Inthesummerof1970,GayereturnedtoMotownwithsomeofhisold
energyandexcitement.Hehadwrittenanoriginalcompositionaboutthesocialills
andissuessurroundingtheblackcommunity.Entitled“What’sGoingOn,”Gaye
believedthesongwasanecessarycommentaryonthestateofblackAmericainthe
faceoftheVietnamWarandCivilRightsviolence.Itslyricswerequitebluntinits
criticism:“Picketlinesandpicketsigns/Don'tpunishmewithbrutality/C'montalk
tome/Soyoucansee/What'sgoingon.”15Uponhearingthesong,Gordywas
alarmed.Heinitiallyrefusedtoreleasethesong,fearingitwouldbetooradicalfor
themainstreamaudienceandundotheyearsofgoodwillMotownhadbuiltupby
beingapoliticalandnon-racial.GordyurgedGayetoreconsider,“Marvin,you’vegot
15Gaye,Marvin“What’sGoingOn”1970,TamlaRecords.
122
thisgreat,sexyimageandyou’vegottoprotectit.”16GayerespondedtoGordy’s
qualmsbygoingonstrike,refusingtorecordanythingforMotownuntil“What’s
GoingOn”wasreleased.Gayeheldoutforsixmonths,untilGordyfinallyrelented
andreleasedthesongasasingle,fullyexpectingthesongtoflop.
ToGordy’ssurprise,“What’sGoingOn”wasabonafidehitandreached#1on
theBillboardR&Bchartsaswellas#2onBillboard’sHot100.Buoyedbyitssuccess,
Gayecalledforafullconceptalbumonsimilarsubjectmatter.Gayeclaimedto
Gordyhewantedthisalbumtoprotestabout“Vietnam,policebrutality,social
conditions,alotofstuff.”17Onceagain,Gordyexpressedhismisgivingsaboutthe
project,hopingGayewouldatleasttrytomakethealbummorecommercial.
However,duetothesuccessof“What’sGoingOn”asasingle,Gordyrelentedand
allowedGayesubstantialcreativecontroloverthesimilarlytitledalbum.Thealbum
wasacriticalandcommercialsuccess,sellingovertwomillioncopiesandreaching
#6ontheBillboardchart.ItalsogarneredGayetwoGrammynominations.
Despitethesuccessofthiscontentshift,Gayereturnedtotheusualslateof
Motownsubjectmatterfollowingthetriumphofthe“What’sGoingOn”singleand
album.Thesuccessoftherecordwascertainlyfeltintheonemilliondollarrecord
contractGayesignedwithMotownin1971,whichwasthemostlucrativedeal
signedbyablackmaleartistatthetime.Gaye’sfirstalbumafterreleasing“What’s
GoingOn”wasasoundtrackfortheBlaxploitationfilm“TroubleMan”in1972,
whichdidnotcontainanyofthesocialcommentaryforwhichhehadbecome
16Gordy,Berry.ToBeLoved.302
17Ibid.302
123
known.Hisnextfullyoriginalalbumwas“Let’sGetItOn”releasedin1973.The
album,whilecertainlymoresexual,containedsimilarinstrumentationto“What’s
GoingOn,”butwasdevoidofanysubjectmatterweightierthanromance.Itwasas
thoughGayehadsaidallheneededtosayonasinglealbumandwasdutifullyback
tobeingunderGordy’screativecontrolaftergettingitoutofhissystem.Despitethe
acclaimofamoresociallyactiverecord,GordyfeltGayewasbestsuitedintherole
ofanR&Bballadeer.AlthoughGordywascapableofgoingalongwithGaye’s
personalcreativevision,itwasonlyforashortperiodoftimebeforeGordyreverted
backtotakinghisusualpositiondirectingallaspectsofanGaye’spublicpersona.
Gordy’sconservatismcontrastedtotherestofthemusicscene,whichwas
constantlychangingandadaptingtonewtrends.Largermainstreamlabelswere
morewillingtotakerisksonupstartgenresthanMotown,sinceMotown’sinitial
limitedfundingandcorporateculturedemandedtheproductionofonly“hits.”
Theseotherlabelsweremorecapableoftakingabsorbingthelossofafloprecord
thanMotown.Becauseofthishesitancy,criticsbegantoviewMotownasoldfashionedasthe1960sendedandanewdecadebegan.Forinstance,RollingStone
blastedtheSupremesas"Tomtravesties"whowere"lockedintoaplasticnightclub
styleofperforming.”18MaryWilsonoftheSupremeswouldlaterrespondto"the
misguidednotionthatablackwhowassinginganddidn'tsoundlikeAretha
FranklinorOtisReddingmusthavebeencorruptedinsomeway,”inordertodefend
herartistrywiththegroup.19Still,itremainedthatblackartistsweremaking
18AliceEchols.ScarsofSweetParadise:TheLifeandTimesofJanisJoplin.Macmillan.2000.239.
19Ibid.239.
124
protestandothersociallyconscioussongsonwhite-ownedlabelswithMotown
laggingbehind.SongslikeSamCooke’s“AChangeisGonnaCome”onRCA/Victor
andNinaSimone’s“MississippiGoddam”onPhilipswerebecomingpopular
amongstAfrican-Americansfortheircontent,yetGordy’sinsistenceonappealingto
amainstreamaudiencepreventedMotownartistsfromtalkingandperformingon
issuessuchasCivilRightsandtheVietnamWar.
Inadditiontohavingpervasivecontroloverhisartists’creativeoutputand
publicpersonas,GordyalsoactedasbusinessmanagerformostofMotown’sacts.In
hisautobiography,Gordyframedhisdecisiontostarthisartistmanagement
company,InternationalTalentManagementInc.(ITMI),asapaternalmeasure
designedtodefendhisartists.HeclaimedtheinitialsuccessofMotownwas
overwhelmingfortheartists,andtheylookedtoGordyforbusinessadvice.Gordy
recalledthatITMIservedhisartistsby“gettingthemgigs,providingcareerguidance
andnegotiatingwithbookingagentstomakesuretheypaidtheirtaxes,”allofwhich
werestandardresponsibilitiesassumedbyanartist’smanagement.20Gordy
assertedthismeasurewasforthebenefitofhisartists,whohadverylittlefinancial
literacyandmightotherwisebetargetsbypredatoryagents.
DespiteGordy’sclaimsofprotectiveness,ITMI’sbusinessstylewasclosedoff
toboththeartistsandthelargermusicbusiness.Artistswereonlyallowedtoaccess
Motown’sbusinessrecordstwiceayear.TheywereforcedtotakeGordyorother
Motownexecutivesattheirwordregardingthesalesandprofitabilityoftheir
records.Furthermore,industryregulatorygroups,includingtheRecordingIndustry
20Gordy,Berry.ToBeLoved.144.
125
AssociationofAmerica(whichtypicallycertifiesgoldandplatinumrecords),were
similarlybarredfromexaminingMotown’sbooks.21Inaddition,byrepresentingthe
artistssignedtohislabel,Gordywasabletoenactagreatdealofcrosscollateralizationanddouble-dippingbetweenMotownandIMTI.Forinstance,ifan
artistwassignedasbothaperformeronMotownandasongwritertoJobete,the
overheadingettingtheirrecordproducedcouldbechargedagainsttheir
songwritingroyaltiesfromthesuccessoftheirrecordandcollectedbyGordy.
Furthermore,sincetheartistwassignedtoITMI,Gordycouldtakeafurther
percentageasmanager.Althoughnoneofthesepracticeswereillegal,thissortof
dealwouldnothavebeenagreedtobyanyoutsideartistrepresentativesinceitput
somuchpowerinMotownandGordy’shands.
Gordywassimilarlyshort-changinghisstudiomusicians.Intheearly1960s,
hepromisedstaffmusiciansasalaryof$150,butforreasonsonlyknowntoGordy,
theirtypicalweeklypaywascloserto$135.22Additionally,sessionmusicianswere
paidfarbelowunionscale.In1962,Motowntypicallypaid$7.50persongtoan
outsidemusician,withthepossibilityofaddinganextra$10ifthemusicianwasa
unionmember.23Evenwiththeadditionalfunds,thiswasseverelyunderthe
minimumssetbythemusicians’union.Forinstance,accordingtoAmerican
FederationofMusicianswagescaleof1960,musicianswereexpectedtobepaid
around$50perthree-hoursession.24Despitethelowerpay,mostofthemusicians
21George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?29.
22Ibid,106.
23Ibid,107.
126
didnotverbalizeanydiscontentwithGordyorhismethods,duetotheconsistency
ofrecordingjobsMotownprovided.Ifamusicianperformedwell,Motowncould
becomearegularsourceofincome.Sincemusicjobsthatpaidscaleweresporadic
inDetroit,findingasteadypaycheckatMotownwasappealingtomostofthe
performerswhomadeupthestudiomusicians,evenifitwaslowerthanitoughtto
havebeen.AccordingtoEarlVanDyke,thepianistofthe‘FunkBrothers’thatplayed
backgroundinstrumentsonmostofMotown’sreleases,Motownwasthebestoption
inDetroit,“Inthattimeitwasrareforamusiciantoownhisownhome,butI
did…Everybodyhadsomemoney.Ifyoudidn’tcomeoutofMotownwithsome
moneyorsomeproperty,itwasn’tBerry’sfault.”25
VanDyke’ssentimentisechoedamongmostofMotown’sartistsandoffice
staff.SongwriterandproducerFrankWilsonraved,“IneverknewIcoulddowhatI
lovedtoandwhatIhadtodocouldberelated.MotownpaidmetodowhatIloved
to.Mylifehasbeenmarvelous!Marvelous!”26Similarly,Motownsecretaryturned
songwriterJanieBradfordHobbspraisedGordy’smethods,“Throughthemiracleof
BerryGordy,IboughtahouseinSherwoodForest(apleasantDetroit
neighborhood).He’sresponsibleforthewayIthink,thewayIfeel,thethingsIwant,
andthethingsIreachafter.”27Althoughmanyrecognizedtheywerenotbeing
compensatedinfairproportiontotheamountofrevenuetheywerebringinginto
24IngridMonson.FreedomSounds:CivilRightsCallouttoJazzandAfrica.OxfordUniversityPress.
2007.38.
25George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?107.
26BenjaminsonStoryofMotown.83.
27Ibid.83.
127
thecompany,moststayedaboardbecausetheyappreciatedtheexposureGordywas
generating.Likewise,Gordycouldbeextremelygeneroustohispopularartists,
showeringhit-makerswithCadillac’s,furs,andotherextravagantitems.
Thepromiseofextravagantgifts,however,wasnotenoughforsomeMotown
employees.ThefirstmajorartisttojumpshipfromthelabelwasMaryWells.Signed
byMotownatageseventeen,assheapproachedhertwenty-firstbirthdayinMayof
1964,sheentertainedmorelucrativeoffersfromotherlabels.Uponreceivingan
offerof$500,000foratwo-yeardealfromTwentieth-CenturyFoxRecords,the“My
Guy”singermadelegalmovestoescapeherMotowncontract.28Hercasehinged
uponhavinghercontractwithMotownruledvoidsinceshewasunderagewhenshe
signedit.ThiscameasasurprisetoGordy,especiallysince“MyGuy”wasonly
releasedinMarchofthesameyear.Inaddition,duringaMotown-hostedtwentyfirstbirthdaypartyforWells,Gordyhadpersonallygiventhesingera$5000mink
stoleinappreciationforherworkandhisaffection.DespiteGordy’sbesteffortsto
provetheamountoftimeandmoneyMotownhadspentontrainingandpromoting
Wells,ajudgereleasedherfromhercontractwithMotown,allowinghertosign
with20thCentury.However,hercareerafterleavingMotownpaledincomparisonto
herpreviouswork.Despitethebesteffortsofhernewlabel,Wellswasunableto
recapturethepopularityandlucrativenessshehadatMotown.Wells’failure
strengthenedMotown’smystiqueamongitsartists,believingtheywerebestserved
byMotowndespitelowerwages.MotownemployeeTomNoonanrecalled,“Ithink
whathappenedtoWellssolidifiedtheartiststhatwereatMotowntoMotown.They
28George.WhereDidOurLoveGo.78?
128
said,‘Wowlookatthat.Sheleftandshewasabigstarandshedidn’tmakeit.So
thereissomethinghereintermsofwritersandproducers.”29
DespiteWells’lackofsuccessuponleavingMotown,someotherartistsdid
choosetoleavetherecordlabel.Manyearlygroupsfromthelabel,includingthe
Spinners,Temptations,andMiracles(minusSmokeyRobinson,whohadretired
fromon-stageperformingin1972tofocusonhisroleasVicePresidentofMotown),
wouldleaveMotown.WiththeexceptionofGladysKnightandthePips,noneofthe
groupswholeftMotownwouldfindmuchcommercialsuccess.30Gordytookthese
departuresinstride,believingthemachineryimplementedatMotownwouldallow
foragrouptoeffortlesslytakeitsplace.ThisisbestexemplifiedbyTheSupremes,
whouponWells’departure,notonlyweregiventhesong“WhereDidOurLoveGo?”
whichwasintendedtobeafollowupforWellsafterthesuccessof“MyGuy,”but
alsoWells’spotonDickClark’s“CavalcadeofStars”tourinthesummerof1964.31
Eventhoughartistsmightleaveforthepromiseofabetterpayday,Gordybelieved
theteamhehadinplacecouldcreatestarsoutofanyone.“WhereDidOutLoveGo?”
becameTheSupremesfirstbighit.
However,thedeparturemostdamagingtothecraftedMotownMystique
camefromwithinthecreativeteaminwhichGordyplacedsomuchtrust.The
29Ibid.79.
30ThefirstsongKnightreleasedafterdepartingMotownforBuddhaRecordsin1967was“Midnight
TraintoGeorgia”,thebiggesthitandsole#1singleinherdiscography.
31Clarkinitiallyhadmisgivingsaboutbringingsuchanuntestedactuponhistour,butMotownwas
insistent.GordyevenallowedClarktopaythegroup$500aweek,whichwasnotenoughtocover
theirtravelingexpenses.However,bythetimethetourbegan,“WhereDidOurLoveGo?”wasahit
record,andClarkrenegotiatedtoacontractmoreadvantageoustothegroupandMotown.
Benjaminson.StoryofMotown.65.
129
songwritingandproductionteamofHolland-Dozer-Holland,orH-D-Hhadbeen
prolificforMotown.From1962to1967,thetriohadwrittenandproducedscoresof
songsforMotown’sartists,including25#1singles.However,bylate1967,theteam
hadbecomefrustratedwiththecompensationtheyreceivedfromMotown.
AlthoughtheirsongshadbeenlucrativeforMotown,H-D-HbelievedGordywas
withholdingtheirfairshareoftheprofits.Stilllockedintoacontract,intheclosing
monthsof1967thetriodecidedtobeginaworkslowdown.Theteam,which
previouslyhadbeendiligentintheircreationofrecords,didnotcreateasinglesong
foraninemonthperiod.Gordy,whobythistimewaslivinginLosAngelesandnot
involvedwiththedaytodayoperationsofMotowninDetroit,wasunawareofthe
strikeforseveralmonthsbeforebeinginformedofthesituationbyRalphSeltzer,
Motown’svice-presidentofcorporateaffairs.32Gordywasapprehensiveaboutthe
news,butbelievedhecouldsmooththingsoverwiththesongwriters.Hishopewas
dasheduponreceivingthenewsthatthetriohadsuccessfullynegotiatedwith
CapitolRecordsandleftMotown.33Enraged,onAugust29,1968,GordysuedH-D-H
forbreechofcontract,aswellas$4millioninlostearnings.34Gordyalsoaskedthe
courttopreventthetriofromworkingwithotherrecordlabels.H-D-Hresponded
withacounter-suitfor$22million.ThissuitaccusedMotownof“conspiracy,fraud,
deceit,over-reaching,andbreachoffiduciaryrelationships”andaskedthecourtto
putallofMotown’saccountsandcopyrightsintoreceivership.35Althoughthesuit
32George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?150.
33Gordy.ToBeLoved.263.
34George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?152.
130
waseventuallysettledoutofcourtin1977foranundisclosedsum,thedamageto
Motown’sreputationwasalreadydone.Gordy’sdepositionsforthesuitshowedthat
Motownwasnottheblackfaçadeitportrayed,namelythatGordywasbecomingan
absenteeownerandthelabels’maindecisionmakerswereallwhite.36Although
Gordysoughttocombattheallegationsbyissuingpressreleasesassuringthepublic
ofMotown’sfairnessincompensatingtheirartistsanditscommitmenttotheblack
community,Motown’smystiquewastarnishedbythedepartureofH-D-H.Gordy
couldnolongerclaimhewasinfullcontroloveralltheelementsofMotown,sinceit
wasevidenthisinterestwasprimarilyinnewopportunitiesontheWestCoast
ratherthanhispriorcommitmentsinDetroit.
GordybeganlookingwestwardinordertogrowMotownfromarecordlabel
intoanentertainmentconglomerate.HeorganizedMotownProductionsin1968to
createfilmandtelevisionavenuesforhisartists.Hebelievedthelong-termsuccess
forMotownwouldbeinexpandingitsbrandtoincludetelevisionandmovie
production.GordyhopedusingMotown’ssuccessinmusicandfamiliarityasa
brandtomainstreamaudienceswouldtranslateintootherformsofmedia.
ByGordy’sreckoning,hechosetomakeLadySingstheBlues(1972)forthree
reasons:“TohonorBillieHolliday;tocontinuetomoveDianaRosstounparalleled
heights;andtomakemovies.”37Heexpectedthisfilmnotonlytobeastar-making
vehicleforRoss,butalsoaprestigepiecethatwouldimmediatelysolidifyMotown
35Ibid.152.
36Ibid.153.
37Gordy,ToBeLoved.310.
131
asalegitimateplayerinHollywood.However,despiteGordy’sbeliefinMotown’s
widespreadmainstreamappeal,Paramountviewedthefilmasariskyendeavor.
Paramountwashesitanttoembarkontheproductionduetothelong-standing
beliefthatblackaudienceswerenotfinanciallysolvent.Inaddition,despite
Motown’ssuccessinthemusicworldandGordy’somnipresentaffiliation,
ParamountdidnotbelieveabiographicfilmonthelifeofBillieHollidaywouldbe
attractivetowhiteaudiences.InordertoensureLadywouldbemade,Gordywas
forcedtoinvestmoreandmoreofhisownmoney,uptotwomilliondollarsoverthe
film’sinitialbudgetoftwomillion.DespiteParamount’smisgivings,LadySingsthe
Blueswasacriticalandcommercialsuccess.Inaddition,thankstoGordy’sheavy
campaigningandspending,Ross’performanceearnedheranAcademyAward
nomination.AlthoughRossultimatelylosttoLizaMinnelli,Gordytookthe
Academy’sacceptanceofRoss’firststarringroleasanindicationthatfuture
Motownfilmswouldbesimilarlysuccessful.
However,thesolvencyGordyhopedwouldcomefromdiversificationinto
otherformsofmediaeludedMotown.PartiallytoblamewasGordy’schoicein
subsequentproductions.LadySingstheBlueswasfollowedupbyanotherRossstarringvehicle,Mahogany(1975).Despitebeingacontemporaryfilmaboutthe
ragstorichessuccessofafashionstudentturnedmodel,Mahoganywasfeltvery
similartoLadyinitscastandtone.LaterMotownfilmswouldhavethesameissues
ofbeingtoosimilarincasting.Forinstance,BillyDeeWilliamsplayedtheleading
maleinfourstraightMotownproductions:LadySingstheBlues,Mahogany,The
BingoLongTravellingAll-Stars&MotorKings,andScottJoplin.Gordywasalso
132
insistentincastingDianaRossasthefemalelead,evenwhenthepartcalledfor
anothersortofactress.ThiswasmostglaringinRoss’castingasDorothyinTheWiz.
GordywantedRosstoactinthelead,despitethefactthatRosswas33andthepart
ofDorothywaswrittenforateenager.ButthemostglaringshortcomingofMotown
Filmswasthattheywerequicklypigeonholedas“blackmovies”bymainstream
audiencesandheldlittlecrossoverappeal.EvenwhenMotowntriedtoappealtothe
mainstreamwith1978’sAlmostSummer,ahigh-schoolcomedyprimarilywitha
whitecast,theresultingboxofficereceiptsweredisappointing.DespiteGordy’sbest
efforts,whichincludedmovingMotown’sheadquarterstoLosAngelesinordertobe
closertomoviestudios,thecompanydidnotfindsuccessinthemoviebusinessakin
towhatithadfoundinthemusicindustry.38
Motownhadmoresuccessintelevision,butitwasneveraslucrativeorhigh
profileasGordyhadhoped.Earlyon,MotownProductionswasbolsteredbya
workingrelationshipwithNBC.ThankstoNBC’snationalreach,thefirstMotown
specials,1968’sTCB[‘TakingCareofBusiness’]and1969’sGITonBroadway
[‘GettingItTogether’],receivednationaldistribution.39Bothprogramswerevariety
shows,intermixedwithhumoroussketches,whichshowcasedtheSupremesandthe
Temptations.Thetwospecialswerewellreceived,withTCBevengarneringan
Emmynominationin1969forOutstandingIndividualAchievementinElectronic
Production.However,Motownwasunabletofollowupthesesuccesseswithan
expansionintoanyothersortoforiginaltelevisionprogramming.AlthoughGordy
38Indeed,TheWizhasbeenseentonotonlyrepresenttheendofBlaxploitation,butalsoheldby
manyasthereasonthegenrewaskilled
39Bothspecialsco-starredDianaRossandtheSupremesalongwiththeTemptations.
133
hadhopesforMotownbranchingoutintoothersortsoftelevisionshows,theoneoffmusicalspecialremainedMotownProductions’primarylive-actioncreation.
Intriguingly,theonlyepisodictelevisionseriesmadebyMotownProductionswas
“TheJackson5ive,”aSaturdaymorningcartoonabouttheadventuresoftheJackson
brothers.Thecartoon,whichranfrom1971to1973fortwenty-threeepisodes,was
ajointproductionbetweenMotownandanimationcompanyRankin/Bass.Although
theJackson5didnotvoicetheircartooncounterparts,theshowwassuccessfulin
raisingthegroup’sprofile.ItalsogaveMotownaninroadwithABC,whichwould
broadcastlaterMotownspecials,including1971’sJackson5productionGoin’Back
toIndiana.Despitetherelationshipswithtwomajortelevisionnetworks,Motown
wasneverabletocapitalizeontheseassociationstoregularlyproduceMotown
televisioncontent.
Gordy’sdecisiontoexpandMotownintotelevisionandfilmstandsin
contrasttohiscontemporariesintherealmofblackmusic.Chess,Stax,andother
blackrecordlabelsneverproducedtheirowntelevisionshows,movies,andother
mediaeventstoshowcasetheirartists.Whitelabelswouldregularlyleaseouttheir
artiststoperforminothervenues,butMotownwastheexceptionintryingtocreate
theseproductionsinhouse.Amongalltherecordingexecutivesatthetimeof
Motown’szenith,Gordywasuniqueinhisdesiretobecomeamediamogul.
Inall,althoughhisinterestandattentionwouldwaneastimewenton,Gordy
wasdirectlyresponsiblefortheeconomicdecisionsanddirectionatMotown.His
initialgoalofmakingsureMotownwassuccessfulthroughfocusingonmakingsure
134
asmallquantityofrecordswerehitsforthemainstreamaudiencewasparamount
atthecompany’sfounding.AsMotown’sreputationandprofitabilitygrew,Gordy
heldtighttothoseideals.Evenwhenmusicaltrendschangedandothergenrescame
invogue,GordyhopedthephilosophythatearnedMotown’searlysuccessesand
notorietywouldbethereasonforitscontinuedsuccess.WhileMotownmighthave
beenperceivedotherwise,Gordy’sfinancialactionsinrunningMotownshowedhe
wascommittedtosellinghiswarestoamainstreamaudience.
AlthoughGordycreatedMotowninordertosellrecords,intimethelabel
grewtobecomeaculturalinstitutionforAfrican-Americansthroughoutthecountry.
InMotown,Gordyhadcraftedadepictionofblackrespectabilitywithinitsartists
thatdidnotclashwiththewhitesensibilitiesheldbythemajorityofthenation.
BecauseofMotown’sfinancialsuccess,thelabelbecameafilterthatcastan
acceptableimageofblacksuccesstoAmerica.Gordywaswellawareofthe
institutionMotownhadbecomeandsoughttomaneuverthecompanyastobest
capitalizeonthisportrayalasapurveyorofblackrespectability.
TheCivilRightsmovementranconcurrenttoMotown’sriseinthe1960s,yet
Gordypurposefullyavoidedtakingastrongstandontheissue.Hishesitancyalso
appliedtothemusiciansandperformerssignedtoMotown.Althoughmanyofthe
artistshadstrongfeelingsonCivilRightsandtheplightofblackpeopleintheUnited
States,Gordyforbadethemfromspeakingoutontheissueforfearitwoulddamage
Motown’smarketability.UnlikeartistslikeArethaFranklin,whoregularly
preformedinCivilRightsprotests,Motownartistswerenotallowedtomakesucha
135
publicstand.ThiswasnottosaythatGordywasopposedtothemovementasa
whole,butrather,feltthathisorhisartists’involvementwouldbebadforbusiness.
DespiteGordy’smisgivingsaroundtheCivilRightsissue,hewasatleast
nominallylinkedtosomeofthemajornamesinthemovement.Dr.MartinLuther
KinghadaworkingrelationshipwithMotownandappearedtobeoncordialterms
withGordy.In1963,MotownreleasedtwoofKing’sspeeches,“GreatMarchto
Freedom”and“GreatMarchtoWashington,”asalbums.40“GreatMarchtoFreedom”
wasrecordedduringKing’sJune23,1963visittoDetroit,wherehegaveanearlier
versionofthe“IHaveaDream”speechthathewoulddeliverlaterthatsummerat
theMarchonWashington.41AtabenefitfortheSouthernChristianLeadership
ConferenceinAtlanta,GordypresentedKingwithacopyofthealbumand
proclaimed,“InhisspeechReverendKingintelligentlyandsuccinctlyexplainsthe
Negrorevolt,underlinesitsramificationsandpointsthewaytocertainsolutions.
ThisalbumbelongsinthehomeofeveryAmericanandshouldberequiredlistening
foreveryAmericanchild,whiteorblack.”42GordyalsoposedforapicturewithKing
atthebenefit.ThepictureshowsaveryjoviallookingGordyhandingthe“Marchto
Freedom”recordtoareservedKing,whoisflankedbyactressLenaHorneandjazz
composerBillyTaylor.
King’sdowerexpressioncouldbeattributedthestrainednegotiationsforthe
rightstothe“GreatMarchtoFreedom”speech.BootlegrecordingsofKing’s
40Gordy.ToBeLoved.249.
41Smith.DancingintheStreet.21.
42MichiganChronicle.August31,1963.SectionB,31.
136
speechesreleasedbyenterprisingrecordlabels,whichwerestoppedonlythrough
courtinjunctionsfiledbytheSCLC,hadlongplaguedKing.43DespiteKing’sdesire
forhisspeechestobeheardbyawideaudience,hewasuncertainaboutdealing
withsuchayoungandrelativelyunprovenrecordlabel.
Motown’sactionsinproducingtherecorddidnothelptheirreputationin
King’seyes.Gordydecidedtoputtherecordintoproductionbeforehehadafull
agreementwithKingandtheSCLC,believingsaleswouldsufferiftherecordwas
notreleasedinatimelymanner.ThiscausedconcernfromtheSCLC,whoexpressed
theirdispleasurewithGordy’sactions.Inordertodefendhimself,Gordywroteto
theRev.WyattTeeWalker,King’sassistantontheSCLC,onJuly18,1963.Inthe
letter,Gordydefinedhisroyaltyplanforthealbum,promisingKingfortycentsfor
eachalbumsold,aswellasafourhundreddollaradvance.44Gordyalsosummarized
hismotivesforwantingtoreleasetherecord:toprovidemoreofafinancial
donationtothecauseofCivilRights,tobethefirstinaseriesofalbumsMotown
wouldreleaseontheissue,andtohelpgrowtheyoungcompany.45Evenwhen
speakingonCivilRights,however,financialconsiderationstookprecedencefor
Gordy.HeinformedWalkerthatMotownwasnotwillingtonegotiatetheroyalty
rate,“Althoughweweremotivatedbymessianicdesirestodothealbum,asa
businessoperation,wecouldnotbecomeinvolvedinmanufacturinganitemof
43Ward,Brian.RecordingtheDream.HistoryToday,Volume48,Issue4.April1998.
http://www.historytoday.com/brian-ward/recording-dream
44LetterfromBerryGordytoWyattTeeWalker.July18,1963.TheKingCenter.
http://www.thekingcenter.org/archive/document/letter-berry-gordy-reverend-wyatt-tee-walker
45Ibid.
137
qualitywithoutexpectingaprofit.”46HealsoclosedtheletterbypressuringWalker
toacceptthedealquickly,“Inafewdays,morethanamonthwillhavepassedsince
ReverendKing’sDetroitappearance.Wehavealreadyaffectedtheimpactofthe
albumwithprocrastination,andifwecontinue,wewilldilutethevalueeven
more.”47
GordyshowedmoredeferenceinhistelegramdirectlytoKingthaninthe
lettertoWyatt.Inthetelegram,Gordywrote,“TheMotownRecordCorporationis
moreconcernedwiththeunityofCivilRightsorganizationsandtheprogressofthe
NegroinAmericathanitiswiththesaleofasinglerecordalbum,”beforedeferring
toKingtomakehisfinaldecision.48However,economicconsiderationsarestillfelt
inGordy’sappeal,“theremovalofthisalbumwillrepresentafinanciallosstousbut
wearepreparedtodothisasourcontributiontothecauseofunityamongCivil
Rightsorganizations.”49ItisuncertainwhetherGordy’sharshtoneintheletterto
WyattorhisconciliatorymannerinthetelegramtoKingwasmoreeffective,but
neverthelessKingandtheSCLCacceptedMotown’stermsandallowedtherecordto
bereleasedthatAugust.
Despitethereleaseof“GreatMarchtoFreedom,”thecontentionbetween
KingandGordywasnotfullyalleviated.ThetwomendisagreedonhowKing’sshare
46Ibid.
47Ibid.
48TelegramfromBerryGordy,Jr.toMLK.TheKingCenter.
http://www.thekingcenter.org/archive/document/telegram-berry-gordy-jr-mlk#
49Ibid.
138
oftheprofitsoftherecordshouldbespent.GordyassumedthatKingwouldkeep
thefortycentsperrecordforhispersonaluseandthebettermentofhisfamily.
However,Kingdisagreed,tellingGordy,“Thereisenoughconfusionoutthereright
now,asitis.Icannotallowtheperceptionofpersonalgain,rightorwrong,to
confusethemessageofthecause.”50Instead,Kingwantedallofhisroyaltiestogoto
theSCLC.GordywasinitiallyincredulousandtriedtoconvinceKingtochangehis
mindandtakewhatwasrightfullyhis.Gordycouldnotconceiveofanindividual
whoseconvictionsoverrodetheirdesireforprofit.Eventually,Gordyacquiescedin
King’swishforalltheroyaltiesfromthealbum’ssaletogototheSCLC.51
Althoughthetwosidescametoaresolutionregardingtherecordingof
“GreatMarchtoFreedom,”therewasstillstrifebetweenMotownandtheSCLC
whenitcametothesaleofKing’s“IHaveaDream”speech.Withinamonthofits
releaseinSeptember1963,KingandtheSCLCfiledalawsuitagainstMotownforthe
unauthorizedproductionofarecordingofthespeech.Motownwasnotaloneinthe
endeavorastwoothercompanies,MisterMaestro,Inc.andTwentiethCenturyFox,
werealsonamedinthelawsuitforsimilarrecordings.52However,theconflict
betweenMotownandtheSCLCwasnotlonglasting,astheSCLCdroppedtheirsuit
againstMotown(butnottheothercompanies)bytheendofOctober,whichwas
followedupbyKingsigningarecordingcontractwithMotownforanyfuture
50Gordy.ToBeLoved.249.
51Ibid.249.
52Kingv.MisterMaestro,Inc.,224F.Supp.101-Dist.Court,SDNewYork1963.GoogleScholar.
https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=7660085334840334909&hl=en&as_sdt=6&as_vis=1
&oi=scholarr
139
speeches.53ThisseemedtobetheendofanypersonalconflictforKingandGordy,
despitetheirdifferencesinideology.InAprilof1967,KingtelegrammedGordy,
congratulatingtheexecutivewhenGordywasawardedtheBusinessAchievement
AwardfromtheInterracialCouncilforBusinessOpportunity.Inthetelegram,King
praisedGordyforbothhiseconomicandsocialcontributions,“Yourcontributionas
apurveyorofourcultureisasimportantcontributiontothefreedommovementas
yourcreationofasoundfinancialinstitutionfortheemploymentofourpeople.”54
DespitetheworkingrelationshipbetweenGordyandKing,Gordyrefusedto
allowhisartiststoperformorbedirectlyaffiliatedwiththemovement.Thisstance
changeduponKing’sassassinationin1968.GordyattendedKing’sfuneraland
publicallypledgedcontinuedsupportfortheSCLC.Additionally,whenKing’swidow
CorettaScottKingaskedforassistanceinabenefitconcertforthePoorPeople’s
MarchshortlyafterKing’sfuneral,GordysentseveralofMotown’sbiggestartiststo
perform,includingtheSupremes,StevieWonder,theTemptations,andGladys
KnightandthePips.55Theconcertwasasmashingsuccess,raisingover$25,000for
theSCLCandthePoorPeople’sMarch.56Toshowtheirgratitude,CorettaScottKing
andRalphAbernathy,King’ssuccessoraspresidentoftheSCLC,presentedGordy
withaplaqueandbooksofKing’sspeeches.Gordywasappreciativenotonlyforhis
commendation,butalsomorecentrallyforthepublicityMotown’sactiongarnered.
53Smith.DancingintheStreet.55.
54TelegramfromMLKtoBerryGordy.TheKingCenter.
http://www.thekingcenter.org/archive/document/telegram-mlk-berry-gordy
55Gordy.ToBeLoved.251.
56Smith.DancingintheStreets.216.
140
Gordy’srecollectionofthebenefitwashighlightedby“marchingalongsideSidney
Poitier,SammyDavis,Jr.,NancyWilsonandsomanyothergreatpeople.”57Even
whenmourningaracialiconandfrequentcollaborator,Gordy’smindwasnevertoo
farfrompromotinghisrecordlabel.
Inall,Gordy’srelationshipwithKingshowsguardeddistanceonthepartof
bothmen.Eachrealizedtheothercouldbeusefulinachievingtheirgoals.ForKing,
Gordywasanavenuetogethismessageofnon-violentprotestandequalitytoa
wideraudience,whileGordysawKingasapublicfigurewhosespeechescouldbea
financialwindfallforMotown.Despitetheirverydifferentobjectivesand
philosophies,thetwowereappreciativeoftheother’sreachandwerecordial.Their
cordiality,however,wasnotfriendshiporequivalency.IttookKing’sdeathfor
GordytopublicallyendorsetheSCLCfully.Likewise,King’sinitialresponseto
findingoutthatMotownhadproducedrecordsofthe“IHaveaDream”speech
withouthisauthorizationwastobringalawsuit.Thisdynamicdemonstratedhow
variedtheirfocusandspheresofinfluencewere.Regardlessofaworking
relationship,KingandGordydidnothavethesameaimsfortheirorganizations.
OutsideofMotown’sworkingrelationshipwithKingandtheSCLC,Motown’s
otherstrongestactionforthecauseofCivilRightswastheestablishmentofthe
BlackForumimprintin1970.Thespoken-wordlabelwascreatedbyMotownto
serveas“amediumforthepresentationofideasandvoicesoftheworldwide
struggleofBlackpeopletocreateanewera…[andas]apermanentrecordofthe
57Gordy.ToBeLoved.251.
141
soundofthestruggleandthesoundofthenewera.”58Thelabel’sinauguralrecord
wasarecordingofasermonKinggavein1967entitled“WhyIOpposetheWarin
Vietnam.”TherecordwasacriticalsuccessandevenwontheGrammyforBest
SpokenWordAlbumthefollowingyear.ThisalbumwasfollowedupbyMotown’s
mostradicalrelease,StokelyCarmichael’s“FreeHuey!”a1968speechinwhichthe
BlackPowertrailblazercalledforthereleaseoftheBlackPantherco-founderHuey
P.Newtonfromprison.
ThefinalreleaseoftheBlackForumlabelin1970wasacollaboration
betweenpoetsLangstonHughesandMargretDanner,entitled“Writersofthe
Revolution.”ThiswasaposthumousreleaseforHughes,whohaddiedin1967.
Intriguingly,HugheshadsignedarecordingcontractwithMotowninOctober1963,
withtheinceptionofthe“WritersoftheRevolution”projectcomingshortly
thereafter.59However,Gordykeptpostponingtherecordingofthealbum,preferring
tofocusontherisingmainstreamsuccessoftheTemptations,Supremes,andother
Motownpopartists.Bythetimeoftherecord’sreleasein1970,Motownwasnot
interestedinpromotingthesaleofarace-consciouspoetryalbum,andtherecord
languished.AlthoughBlackForumwouldintermediatelymakereleasesuntil
Motown’smovetoLosAngelesin1972,noneofthemwerecommerciallysuccessful
andtheexperimentwasallbutforgotten.60Hadsuchblackexpressionproved
commerciallysuccessful,GordymighthavesupportedBlackForummore,butdueto
58StokelyCarmichael.Linernotes.“FreeHuey!”BlackForumBF452.MotownRecordCorporation.
1970.
59Jet,November21,1963.57.
60Asofthetimeofthiswriting,noneoftherecordsfromBlackForumhadbeenrereleased.
142
alackofasolidconsumerbase,thelabelwasabandoned.Motownneveragain
attemptedtomarketsuchovertlyracialmaterials.
Motown’sambivalencetowardsCivilRightsdidnotgounnoticedintheblack
community,especiallywhencomparedtoartistssignedtootherlabels,whocould
bemoreovertintheirracialstatementsthanthoseallowedbyGordy.Forinstance,
JamesBrownreleased“SayItLoud-I’mBlackandI’mProud”in1968forthewhiteownedKingRecords.Thesongwasbrasherandmoreupfrontwithracialissues
thanGordyallowedinhisartists.TwoyearpriortoGordyhesitantlyallowingGaye
torecord“What’sGoingOn?”Browndefiantlysangsuchlyricsas“OnethingmoreI
gottosayrighthere/Now,we'repeoplelikethebirdsandthebees/Weratherdie
onourfeet,/Thankeeplivingonourknees.”61Inaddition,Brown’sstageshow
containedmoresexualityandhipgyrationsthanwasdeemedacceptablebyGordy’s
ArtistDevelopment.Thisalsoappliedtoattire.AlthoughAfrosandothernatural
hairstyleswerebecomingpopularamongAfrican-Americans,Gordyinitiallydidnot
allowhisartiststoappearinthestyle.Likewise,theirclothingcouldnotreflectthe
stylesinfluencedbyhippiesandthecounter-culturethatwerebecomingpopular
amongtheyoungergenerations.BythetimeGordyallowedAfros,suchaswiththe
Jackson5,thestylehadlostitsradicalismandwassosanitizedastobeinoffensive.
Gordy’saspirationsofupwardmobilityandslickproductionvaluesstoodin
contrasttootherrecordlabels,mostnotablyMemphis’StaxRecords.Although
foundedbyJimStewart,awhiteman,anddistributedbyAtlanticRecords,awhite
61JamesBrown.KingRecords.1968.“SayItLoud-I’mBlackandI’mProud”
143
ownedcorporation,someintheblackcommunityhailedStax’srawanddirect
messageasmoreauthenticthanMotown.Forsomemusicalpurists,Stax’s
authenticitycamebecause“itsshouter’svocalsweregrittier,itshouseband’s
guitarsweremoredistorted,anditusedbluesyhornsandorgansmorethan
strings.”62DespitebeingofnodirectfinancialbenefittotheAfricanAmerican
struggle,Staxwaspraisedbycriticsforbeingtruertotheblackexperiencethanthe
sanitizedproductionsGordyputonforthemainstreamconsumer.Forinstance,the
magazineNewMusicExpressbemoaned“thedeclineofMotown”andasked“what
happenedtothedayswhenblackmusicwasblackandnotthismushofvacuous
Muzakandpretentiousdrivel?”priortopraisingthemoreauthenticsoundofgritty
soulandbluesmusicprovidedbyStax.63
AlthoughGordy,andMotownbyextension,washesitantaboutfully
embracinganaffiliationwiththeCivilRightsmovement,heshowednoqualms
aboutbeinglinkedtoDetroit’scivicassociations.Gordydesiredtoshowthewhite
statusquothatmadeupDetroit’sleadershipthathiscompanywasnotaracial
agitatorandwaswillingtoplaytheirpartforcivicimprovement.Aprimeexample
ofthisdynamicispresentinGordy’sreactiontothe1967DetroitRiot.Theriot,
causedbyapoliceraidonJuly23,1967atablindpig(atypeofillegalbar),wasthe
resultofdecadesofdiscriminationinhousingandemploymentagainstAfrican
AmericansinDetroit.Theresultinguprisinglasted5daysandleft34dead,aswell
62AndrewGrantJackson.1965:TheMostRevolutionaryYearinMusic
(NewYork:Macmillan.2015)141.
63AliceEchols.ShakyGround:TheSixtiesandItsAftershocks.(Ithica,NY:ColumbiaUniversityPress.
2013)174.
144
asseveralmoreinjured.Around7,200individualswerealsoarrested.Theriotshad
alargeeconomicimpact,withover2,500storesdamagedorlootedandproperty
damageexceeding50milliondollars.64However,eventhoughMotown’sstudioson
GrandBoulevardwaslocatedincloseproximitytotheriot’sepicenteron12thStreet,
itwentuntouchedbythearsonandvandalismprevalentintheriot.Furthermore,
Gordykepthisstudiosopenduringtheentiretyoftheriot.ByGordy’srecollection,
thedecisiontokeepMotownopenwasabenevolentaction.Inhisautobiography,he
recalledorderingtheofficesclosed,butemployeescametoworkanyway,deeming
thestudiosaferthantheirhomesandthatworkingwouldkeeptheirmindsoffthe
unrest.65Althoughsurroundedby“flamesjumping,brokenglass,anddebrisfrom
shatteredwindowsandlootedstores,”Motownoperatedandrecordedasusual.66
Oncetheriotshadceasedandrebuildingbegan,Gordywasbesetbyrequests
fromvariousAfrican-Americangroupstolendhisperformersforbenefitconcerts.
Gordyrebuffedtheseoffers,butcontinuedanaffiliationwiththeUnited
Foundation’sTorchDrive.Theorganization,foundedbyHenryFordIIandother
Detroitindustryleadersin1949,wascomprisedprimarilyofcorporateinterests
whowereentrenchedinthecontinuationofDetroit’sstatusquo.67WhileMotown’s
inclusionwashailedasaunitedeffortdesignedtotranscendracialboundariesand
64TheCivilUnrestof1967.ReutherLibrary.WayneStateUniversity.
http://reuther.wayne.edu/node/8036
65Gordy.ToBeLoved.248.
66Ibid.248.
67Smith.DancingintheStreet.182.
145
promoteunityamongDetroit’spopulace,itprimarilydemonstratedGordy’sdesire
toremainasinoffensiveaspossibletomaintainmarketability.
Gordy’swillingnesstocooperatewithDetroit’swhitecivicelitewasmost
centrallydemonstratedbyhisparticipationinthe“DetroitisHappening”campaign
inthesummerof1968.EnactedbyDetroitmayorJeromeCavanagh,thecampaign
wasdesignedtoavoidarepeatoftheriotsofthepreviousyear.Cavanagh,already
reelingincriticismfromhishandlingofthe1967riots,believedfutureconflictcould
bestavedoffthroughasummerprogramthatwouldkeepDetroit’syoungblack
populationotherwiseoccupiedthroughemployment,recreation,andeducational
projects.Bolsteredbya$60,000grantfromtheU.S.DepartmentofHousingand
UrbanDevelopment,thecityapproachedtheUnitedFoundationtolendfinancial
support.68TheUnitedFoundationagreedandapproachedMotowntoprovide
publicityforthecampaign.
Inordertopromotethecampaign,Motownrecordedtwothemesongs.The
firstwasare-recordingoftheSupremes’previoushit“TheHappening,”retitled
“DetroitisHappening.”Thenewsinglewasunalteredmusicallyfromtheoriginal,
butdrasticallychangedbytheinclusionofamotivationalvoice-overfromDetroit
TigeroutfielderWillieHorton.Ontherecord,Hortonbeginsbyinformingthe
listener,“Man,ifyouliveinDetroit,thenyou’relivinginthemostuptightandoutof
sightswingingcityinthewholecountry!Andwhateveryouwanttodothis
68Ibid.218.
146
summer,fromajobtoajamsession,call224-6440!”69Hortoncontinuedbylisting
evenmoresummerprogramsandrepeatingthephonenumber.Thisrecordwas
followedupbytheMiracles’“ICareaboutDetroit,pennedbySmokeyRobinson.
Althoughthesongdoesnotdirectlymentionthe“DetroitisHappening”programs,
itscontentaffirmedthemessageofthecampaignandmadeanappealforunity.The
songbeganwithamonologuefromRobinson,inwhichheasksthelistenerwhythey
careaboutacity:“Isitfriendly,warm,hospitable?Andaretheregoodjob
opportunities,educationalfacilities,andaculturalcenter?Areyouproudtocallit
yourhometown?”Robinsonthenansweredhisownremarkswith,“Whenyoucome
rightdowntoit,I’dventuretosaythatyou’dallagreetoaresounding‘yes’when
youaretalkingaboutDetroit,myhometown.”70Followingthisverbalexchange,
Robinsonstartedtosingthesonginearnest,whichwastypicalofthesaccharinand
overly-producednumbersforwhichMotownbecamefamous.UnliketheSupremes’
“DetroitisHappening,”“ICareaboutDetroit”wasawhollynewcompositionwith
nobasisinanearlierMotownhit.Motowndistributedcopiesofbothsongs
throughoutDetroitduringthesummerof1968inordertopromotethecampaign,
aswellascivicunity.
The“DetroitisHappening”campaignwasasuccess.Theprogramscreated
30,000summerjobs,with100,000studentsenrolledinsummerschooland
remedialeducationclasses.Additionally,50,000innercitystudentsparticipatedin
69TheSupremesandWillieHorton“DetroitisHappening”.MotownRecords.1968.
70SmokeyRobinsonandtheMiracles“ICareaboutDetroit.”MotownRecords.1968.
147
campingprogramsandculturalworkshops.71MoreimportantlyforMayorCavanagh
andtherestofthecivicleadership,therewasnorepeatoftheviolenceofthe
previoussummer.Inaspeechsummarizingthesuccessesofthecampaign,
Cavanaghasserted,“’DetroitisHappening’proved…thatDetroitisagoodplaceto
liveandtoworkandtohavefun.ManyDetroitershadforgottenhowthecitywas
beforeJuly23,1967.‘DetroitisHappening’remindedthem,andthey,inturn,gave
thecityachancetoliveagain.”72Motownwaslaudedbytheorganizersof‘Detroitis
Happening’foritsparticipationinthecampaign,andthecompanywaskeptinmind
forupcomingendeavors.Inthefinalreportonthecampaign,theorganizers
proposedforfuturecampaignsthat“MotownRecordsandtheradioindustryshould
sponsoracity-widebandandvocalcompetitionwitharecordingcontractasthe
firstprize.”73
EventhoughtheblackcommunityinDetroitwasstillreelingfromtheissues
thatcausedthe1967riot,Gordycontinuedtomakehiscompanyasappealingas
possibletothewhitecivicelite.AlthoughGordyframedhistacticsasacontinuation
ofKing’sbeliefinnon-violentactionsinordertodemonstratethepurityofhisaims,
themotivesofGordyweremoreinlinewithremaininginoffensiveandinclusionary
inordertomaintainprofitability.Hewouldrecall,“IsawMotownmuchlikethe
worldDr.Kingwasfightingfor-withpeopleofdifferentracesandreligions,working
71Smith.DancingintheStreet.219.
72Ibid.220.
73“DetroitisHappeningReport:Summer1968”box428.JeromeP.CavanaghPapers.
148
togetherharmoniouslyforacommongoal.”74Gordyclaimedtohavecompassionfor
thosewithmoreradicalbeliefs,“Irespectedallpeoplewhowerefightingagainst
bigotryandoppression.Iknewthereweremanyroadstofreedom.Andjustbecause
someonewasn’tonthesameoneasmedidnotmeantheyshouldbesilenced.”75
However,GordydidsilencethosesignedtoMotownwithdifferentbeliefsonCivil
Rights.HerefusedtohavehislabelaffiliatedwithmoreradicalBlackPower
movementsanddidnotallowMotownartiststoperformforconcertsbenefiting
suchcauses.AsevidencedbyMotown’sfullsupportbehindthe“Detroitis
Happening”campaign,Gordywasmoreinterestedinpromotingstabilityandthe
statusquoratherthanchangeachievedthroughmoredefiantmeans.SinceGordy
wastryingtocourtthemainstreamwhitemarket,itonlymadesensehewouldplay
nicewithitsleaders.
Motownwasostensiblypresentedasablackcompanyandproofthatblack
entrepreneurialismandcapitalismcouldbesuccessful.However,whileMotown’s
performersandgeneralstaffwereblack,asidefromGordyandRobinson,allthe
executivesandrealdecisionmakerswerewhite.BarneyAleswasthefirstwhite
personhiredbyGordytoworkforMotown,andwouldbecomeamajorforce.Prior
tobeinghiredbyMotownin1960,AlesworkedasarepresentativeforCapitol
RecordsandWarnerBros.Records,aswellasapartnerinaDetroit
distributorship.76ItwasAles’experienceinrecorddistributionthatinitiallycaught
74Gordy.ToBeLoved.249.
75Ibid.248.
76George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?39.
149
Gordy’sattention.AlthoughGordyhadafirmgraspondevelopingtalentand
manufacturingrecords,Motowninitiallyhadtroublemarketingandadvertisingits
records.ThisdifficultywaspartiallyduetoGordy’sowninexperience,herecalled:
“ourSalesDepartmentatthetimeconsistedofoneguy-me-IknewIneededmore
help,somebodywhocouldgettothebroadermarket.”77Outsideofhisownlackof
familiarity,Gordyfoundmostrecorddistributorswerewhite-ownedandhesitantto
havebusinessdealingswithablackbusinessperson.Furthermore,ifawhite
distributoragreedtopurchaseMotown’srecords,Gordyfoundcollectionscouldbe
difficulttorecoupsincesomewhitecompanieswerepurposefullydelinquentordid
notholdtheirdebtstoMotownaspressingneedsinordertobesettledsincethe
labelwasblack-owned.
Facedwiththisdilemma,Aleswasagodsend.Abrasiveandstreetwise,Ales
hadadrivingandforcefulpersonalityakintoGordy’s.Thetwoalsosharedaloveof
competitionandgambling,eventuallybecominggoodfriends.78However,sinceAles
waswhite,recorddistributorsweremorewillingtodobusinesswithhim.Sensing
Ales’potential,GordyletAlesdistributesomeofMotown’srecordsin1959.In
addition,AlesbeganinformallyadvisingGordyforMotown’sbillingthesameyear.79
WiththeadditionofAles,Motown’ssuccesswithdistributionandcollectionsrose.
Bolsteredbythissuccess,GordyofferedAlesajobwithMotownasvice-presidentin
77Gordy,ToBeLoved.140.
78AlesoncebraggedthatGordyowedhim10,000candybarsforlosingatpingpong.Gordyrefuted
theclaim,sayingthatAlesonlyone3outofever100conteststhetwoengagedin.George.WhereDid
OurLoveGo?39.
79Ibid39.
150
chargeofdistribution.Atfirst,Alesrefused,believinghisfriendshipwithGordy
wouldpreventhimfrombeingobjectiveasanexecutive.However,whenGordy
pressed,AleshappilyacceptedsincetheMotownpositionpaidhimconsiderably
morethanhisearlierjobs.LeBaronTaylor,aDJatDetroit’sWCHBradiostationand
friendofAlesrecalled,“Hewasthemostexcitedguyintheworld.Hesaid,‘Man,I’m
makingmoremoneythanI’veevermadeinmylife.’Hewasmakingahundred
twenty-fivedollarsaweekandtheygavehimaCadillac.”80
OnceAleswasofficiallyinstalledwithMotown,thelabel’sfortunes
dramaticallyimproved.RaymonaGordySingleton,Gordy’swifeatthetimeofAles’
hire,rememberedhisimpact:“Barneyorchestratedtheparticipationofallthemajor
whitedistributorsnationwide,andinsodoingsetupallthemachineryforusto
repeatthissuccessinthefuture.…Wehadcrossedover,andBarneyAleshadbeen
ournavigator.”81WithouttheinclusionofAlesinaprominentandvisualroleat
Motownearlyinthelabel’sexistence,itisunlikelyGordy’saspirationsforcrossover
andmainstreamsalesforhisrecordswouldhavecometofruition.AlthoughGordy
couldhaveconceivablyhadasmuchcreativesuccesswithMotown,withoutAles’
presence,heneverwouldhavehadtheeconomicfoundationnecessaryforthe
label’smainstreamachievements.
Asthe1960swenton,andGordybecamelessdirectlyengagedwiththe
directionofMotown,itwasAleswhotookmorecontrol.AlesheadedupMotown’s
80Ibid38.
81Singleton.Berry,Me,andMotown.99.
151
salesforceandbecamethebusinessbackboneofthecompany.WhenGordyleft
DetroitforHollywood,AleswasGordy’sprimaryindividuallefttomanagethe
Detroitbasedacts.Ales’involvementwithMotownculminatedinhisbeingnamed
presidentofthelabelin1975.82Althoughtherewascriticismoftheappointment,
sinceAlesreplacedEwartAbner,ablackman,themovewasinitiallyhailedasa
returntoformforMotown,whohopedAles’leadershipwouldreturnMotownto
prominence.Despitethehighexpectations,Aleswasunabletofulfillhisinitial
promisetomakeMotown“thenumber-onerecordcompanyagain,”andwas
replacedin1979byJayLasker.83
AlthoughAleswasthemostprominentwhitememberofMotown’sstaff,he
wasbynomeanstheonlywhitepersononthelabel’spayroll.Shortlyafterthelabel
hiredAles,hebroughtaboardhisattorneyfriendRalphSeltzertoserveasspecial
assistanttothepresident.IntimeSeltzergrewinauthorityandbecameGordy’s
bufferfromdirectlydealingwithartistsinanadministrativecapacity.84TheNoveck
brotherswereotherearlywhitehiresforthelabel.SidneyNoveckwasan
accountantwhotookchargeofMotown’sbookswhilehisbrotherHaroldwasa
lawyerandlegalconsultantforthelabel.85Anotherwhiteattorney,EdPollack,was
broughtinasanadministrator.
82George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?189.
83ThiswasAles’lastformalconnectiontothelabel,andsinceleavingthecompany,hasmaintained
anestrangedrelationshipwithGordy.Posner.Motown:Music,Money,Sex,andPower.288.
84George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?140.
85Ibid.56.
152
AsidefromanincreasingpresenceinMotown’sadministration,white
employeescomprisedallofMotown’ssalesandmarketingforce.Followingthe
successofemployingAlestocollectfromdistributorsandgettingMotown’srecords
playedonwhiteradiostations,MotownallowedAlestohireanall-whitesalesforce.
Thisfirstgroupwascomprisedof“PhilJones,AlKlein,IrvBiegel,andMelDaKroob
andlaterTomNoonan.”86UnderAles’direction,thisgroupofsalespeoplepromoted
Motown’srecordstoheightspreviouslyunobtainablebytheone-mansalesforceof
Gordy.
Thisinfluxofwhitepersonsinthemanagementofanotherwiseblack
companyspurredrumorsaboutMotown’struenature.Anearlyrumorthatbeganto
circulateonceMotownstartedtorisetonationalprominencewasthatAleswasthe
trueownerofMotownandGordywasjusthisfrontman,inordertomakethelabel
appearmorelegitasapurveyorofblackartists.Gordydidnotactivelyrefutethis
rumor,believingthismisbeliefwouldhelpensurewhitedistributorspaidthelabel,
andwasthereforeultimatelygoodforbusiness.87Alaterandmorepervasiverumor
wasthatMotownwasconnectedwithorganizedcrime.Theoriginofthis
relationshipchangedwiththetelling.SomeversionsclaimedGordywasabletostart
MotownthroughaloanfromthelocalTeamstersunion,andthegrouphadnever
leftthelabel.OthersclaimedthatGordy’sprolificgamblingwasatfault,andthathe
hadlostcontrolofthecompanytothemobduringanillegal,highstakespoker
86Gordy.ToBeLoved.177.
87George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?39.
153
game.Aleswasalsoamajorfigureintheserumors,sincehewasbothwhiteand
Italian.88Motown’ssupposedaffiliationwiththemafiawasabeliefsoprevalentthat
theFBIstartedtoinvestigatethecompanyandevencalledGordytotheirofficesfor
aninterviewconcerningpossiblemafiaconnections.Gordysuitablydemonstrated
therumorshadnobasisinreality,andtheinterviewculminatedwiththeFBIagents
askingforGordy’sautograph.89Likewise,theFBI’sinvestigationneverfoundproof
thattherewasanytruthtotherumorsofMotown’smobconnections.Onceagain,
Gordytooktheallegationsinstride,seeingthepositivebenefitsfromsucha
mistakenbelief.Hewouldlaterclaim,“Youknow,wegotourmoneyalittlequicker
fromthedistributors!”90Likewise,Aleshadfunwiththeaccusations;Gordywould
recallAlesrespondingtoquestionsaboutsupposedmobconnectionswith“’Well,I
amItalian,andIamfromDetroit’he’dsaywithadeadpanexpression-andthenlean
rightintotheirface.‘Yougoddaproblemwiddat?’91Despitetherumors,Gordywas
abletokeepMotownpopularandrelevant.
UnliketherumorsofMafiaownership,therewasnodenyingthatwhite
executiveshadincreasingauthorityatMotown.AsGordybecamemoredivorced
fromthedaytodayrunningofthelabelasthe1960swenton,itwaswhitepeople
whowereappointedtoruntheoperationinDetroit.Gordy’sdepositionsforthe
Holland-Dozier-HollandsuitexposedMotown’spowerhierarchythatwassetupin
88Ibid.58.
89Gordy.ToBeLoved.270.
90“BerryGordyQ&A”Billboard.November5,1994.84.
91Gordy.ToBeLoved.270.
154
hisabsence.Whenquestionedastowhowasinchargeofmakingdecisionsfor
MotownwhilehewasinDetroit,Gordyreplied,“ThereisHarryBalk,RalphSeltzer,
BarneyAles,andthatisaboutit.”92AllthreeindividualsnamedbyGordywere
white.DespiteMotownbeingahallmarkintheblackcommunity,Gordychoseto
surroundhimselfwithwhiteexecutives.A1970articleinJetmagazinealso
demonstratedthisdynamicinalistofthevicepresidentsofMotown:“fourwhiteincludingAles,MikeRoshkin,inchargeofpublicrelations;DavidWatts,financial;
andJohnMckuen,planningandoperations-andfourBlacks.ThelatterareMrs.
EstherEdwards,Gordy’ssisterwhoisseniorvicepresident;William(Smokey)
Robinson,withGordysinceMotown’sinception;RobertGordy,abrother,andEwart
Abner”93OfMotown’seightvicepresidents,onlyEwartAbner,theformerpresident
andpart-ownerofthedefunctVee-JayRecords,andRobinsonwereneitherwhite
noranimmediatememberofGordy’sfamily.
OtherrecordlabelscontemporarytoMotownwerenotascriticizedasGordy
wasfortheracialmakeupofitsmanagement.However,thoselabelsdidnotclaimto
representtheAfricanAmericancommunitylikeMotowndid.Despitethelow
numberofblackpersonsinuppermanagement,Motownstillhadmoreblack
executivesthananyotherrecordlabel.Furthermore,itwasnotasthoughwhite
personstotallyoverranMotown:inthelate1960s,ofMotown’sapproximately200
employees,onlyaround10werewhite.94Buttheirplacementwas
disproportionatelyhigh-level.Motown’skeyaccountants,vicepresidents,and
92George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?153.
93“MotownGrosses$39Million;DiscFirmtoRemaininDetroit”Jet.December3,1970.53.
94George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?154.
155
almosttheentiresalesforce,wereexclusivelywhite.AlthoughGordyclaimedthe
hireswerebaseduponthemostqualifiedapplicantsandthosemostlikelytoensure
Motown’ssuccess,itdidlittletoquietthegrowingdiscontentamongthoseinthe
blackcommunitywhobelievedGordyhadsoldouttowhiteinterests.
Gordywasawareofthisbacklashandwouldoftenattempttoquellthe
criticismthroughpublicactions.Forexample,in1967,Gordywentontheoffensive
againstthissortofcondemnationbyappointingtwoblackpeopletoprominent
positionswithinthecompany:EwartAbnerasdirectorofMotown’sInternational
TalentManagement,andJuniusGriffin,theformerdirectorofpublicityforthe
SouthernChristianLeadershipCouncil,tothesamepositionatMotown.Thehiring
wasannouncedinathree-pagestoryintheNovember2,1967,issueofJetinan
articlethatdetailedMotown’splansforexpansion,aswellasGordy’scommitment
totheAfricanAmericancommunity.Gordystatedhisdesireforthegrowthofblack
capitalismwith,“Makeyourownsuccessworktohelpothersachievetheirmeasure
ofsuccess,andhopethey,inturn,willdolikewise.Thistypeofwonderfulchain
reactionwouldbemusictomyears,andisindeedthecredoofMotown.”Healso
emphasizedthatMotownemployeeswerecontentwiththelabelanditsdirection,
“wecanonlygrowasfastandbigasMotownemployeeswillallow,andthatis
preciselythekeytooursuccess.Happypeopleworkforusandthatisthewayitwill
alwaysbeaslongasIamheadofMotown.”95ForGordy,Motown’scontinued
growthwasprooftheemployeesofMotownwerecontentwithhisdirection,since
unhappyemployeeswouldresultindiminishingreturnsforthelabel.
95“MotownRevealsBigExpansion”Jet.November2,1967.60.
156
Gordyclaimedtohavehisemployees’happinessattheforefrontofhismind
andoftencitedthefamilynatureofthecompanyasproofoftheircontentment.He
wouldlaterrecall,“Motownwasafamily,rightfromthebeginning-livingtogether,
playingtogether,makingmusictogether,eatingtogether.…Iwouldalwayslove
everypersonwhowasapartofthisstory.They’reallinmyblood,andIintheirs.
Theycannotnotloveme;Icannotnotlovethem.”96ThisdesiretokeepMotownlike
afamilymanifestedinitscorporateculture,whichinitiallyhadastrongfamily-like
atmosphere.Gordyhopedtostaveoffcriticismbyhisartistsandemployeesby
claimingtheywereallpartofthesamefamily,withhimfirmlysetasthefather.
Gordy’sappealstofamilyunitywouldcontinueevenasMotownexpandedand
Gordybecamelessinvolvedinitsoperation.
AlargepartofthefamilialimageofMotownthatGordyhopedtoconveywas
initsiconicHitsvilleStudios.LocatedinamiddleclassAfrican-AmericanDetroit
neighborhoodat2648WestGrandBoulevard,Gordypurchasedthetwo-storyhouse
in1959.97Drawingmainlyuponhisfamily’slabor,Gordytransformedtheproperty
tosuitthelabel’sneeds.Agaragephotostudiowasremodeledintoarecording
studio,whilethefirstfloorservedaslobbyandcontrolroomalongwithGordy’s
officeinadownstairsbedroom.Gordy,hiswife,andhischildrenlivedonthesecond
floor.Additionalupstairsbedroomsfunctionedastheaccountingandmarketing
offices.98Eventheoutdoorlawnwasusedinserviceoftherecordlabel,actingasa
96GordyToBeLoved.170.
97BenjaminsonTheStoryofMotown.21.
98Gordy.ToBeLoved.120.
157
waitingroomfortheaspiringartistsandproducerswhosoughttheiropportunityto
becomefamousthroughthelabel,“localkidswouldlinethesidewalkandthefront
lawn,tryingtogetdiscoveredortogetaglimpseofoneofthestars…some
succeeded,gettingjobsassecretaries,officehelpers,evenjanitors.”99Althoughmost
oftheteenswholoiteredinfrontofMotown’sofficesneverhadtheirdreamsof
stardomfulfilledbythelabel,enoughdidthatthemythcontinuedtoperpetuate.
SomeofMotown’sbiggestacts,mostnotablyDianaRoss,werediscoveredthrough
impromptuauditionsthatweregivenafterhangingaroundthestudioslongenough.
Eventhoughitwasjustahouse,Detroit’sblackcommunityviewedMotown’s
Hitsvillestudiosasaplacethatcouldturndreamsintorealityforyoungblack
residents.
AsMotownbecamemoresuccessful,Gordyexpandedhiscompanybybuying
housessurroundingtheoriginalHitsvillehouse,intimeowningeightresidencesin
theneighborhood.EachbuildinghousedanindividualelementofMotown’s
production.AccordingtoGordy,AlesdescribedMotown’scompoundas“theonly
high-risethatwentsideways.”100Thefirstadditionalhouse,purchasedin1961,
housedJobetePublishing.In1962,Gordyfollowedthisbypurchasingahouseto
serveasofficesforheandhissisterEsther,aswellaspersonalresidenceforGordy,
movingoutofthesecondflooroftheoriginalHitsvillehouse.OnceGordymovedout
ofthesecondfloorofthestudio,Motown’sArtists&Repertoiremovedin.Ahouse
forthefinancedepartmentfollowedin1965.1966wasthemostactiveyearfor
99Ibid.152.
100Ibid.175.
158
Motownpurchasinghousesforoffices,withfourhousespurchased:athreestory
homeforMotown’sArtistDevelopmentdepartment,ahouseforInternational
TalentManagement,andtwohomesforadministrativeoffices.101Withthepurchase
ofthesehouses,Motown’searlyofficecomplexblurredthelinebetweenbusiness
placeandneighborhood.AlthoughGordy,intime,wouldexpandintomore
traditionalcorporateenvironments,theidyllicimageoftheresidentialHitsville
studiobecamesynonymouswiththepublic’sviewofMotown.
Motown’sfamilialatmospherewasreinforcedbythelargenumberofGordy’s
immediatefamilymembersworkinginhigh-levelpositionsatthelabel.Allof
Gordy’ssevensiblingsworkedatMotowninsomecapacityduringtheirlives,most
asexecutives.102EvenGordy’selderlyfather,BerryGordy,Sr.betterknowntoall
Motownstaffandartistsas‘Pops’,wasawell-dressedpresenceatthelabel,where
hefreelyspenthistimeasanunofficialmaintenanceworker.PopsGordy’spresence
wasdescribedas“hewasalwaysaround,likeamascot…likehewaswatchingover
hisseeds.”103 Inaddition,intermarriagewascommonamongtheGordyfamilyand
Motownemployees.Gordy’ssisterAnnamarriedsingerMarvinGaye,hissister
GwenmarriedproducerHarveyFuqua,andhissisterLoucyewedMotownartist
coordinatorRonaldWakefield.104ThisprincipleevencontinuedwithGordy’sown
101Benjaminson.StoryofMotown.39.
102TherewassomuchfluidityintermsoftitlesandactualauthorityfortheGordysiblingsatMotown
itwouldbeconvolutedtoexpanduponwhatexactjobseachmemberofthefamilyheldandforhow
long.Thatbeingsaid,ingeneral,itwasthefemaleGordy’sthattypicallyhadmoreautonomyfrom
Gordyandultimatelystayedwiththecompanylongest.
https://www.motownmuseum.org/story/gordy-family/MotownMuseumWebsite.
103Benjaminson.TheStoryofMotown.19.
104“Mrs.LoucyeWakefield,MotownExecutive,IsBuried”.Jet.August12,1965.59.
159
children,hisdaughterHazelmarriedJermaineJacksonoftheJackson5inalavish
1973ceremony.105WithalloftheGordy’sandGordy’s-in-lawsworkingatMotown,
itwasnotdifficultforGordytoexpandthefamilialatmospheretoallemployeesof
thelabel.
GordyfurthercultivatedMotown’sdomesticauraviaotherdeliberate
measures.Gordyforcedhisemployeestosingacompanysongbeforeevery
meeting.Thesong,writtenbyRobinson,expressedthevaluesGordyhopedtoinstill
inhisemployees:“Oh,wehaveaveryswingingcompany/Workinghardfromdayto
day/Nowherewillyoufindmoreunity/ThanatHitsville,U.S.A…Ouremployees
mustbeneatandclean/Andreallyhavesomethingontheball/Honestyisouronly
policy/HereatHitsville,U.S.A.”106Althoughthesongwastypicalcorporate
boosterism,Gordynotonlyrequiredallemployeestosingalong,hewouldtypically
singleoutarecalcitrantmemberofthestafftoleadthecollectivebodyinthesong.
Gordyalsoencouragedcompetitionbetweenthestaffmembersthroughcontests
andgames,offeringlavishprizesforthewinners.Mostnotablewerecompany
footballandbaseballgames,whichtypicallyresultedinnumerousinjuries,but
generousprizes,suchascashandjewelryforthevictors.GordyalsohiredLillyHart,
anolderwomanfromtheGrandBoulevardneighborhood,topreparelunches
servedfamily-styleintheHitsvillekitchen.107AlthoughMotownwasatitsessencea
105“JermaineJackson’sWifeChangesHisLife”.Jet.December20,1973.76.
106Gordy.ToBeLoved.169.
107Ibid.170.
160
money-makingenterprise,GordytriedhisbesttoputonthefaçadethatMotown
wasafamily.
Asaresult,althoughMotownemployeescouldbeverycompetitiveandat
timesmistrustingofeachother,theyweredevotedtoGordyandheldhiminhigh
regard.Evenemployeeswholeftthecompany,becauseofcontractdisputesor
feelingsofbeingexploitedbyGordy,typicallydidnotcriticizehimdirectly.For
instance,BrendaHollowayleftthelabelaftershefeltshewasunder-promotedand
notgiventhesameopportunitiesasotherartists.Inher1967letteraddressedto
Gordy,sheexpandsuponhergrievancesforparagraphs,yetclosedwith“Iwould
liketosayithasbeenagreatexperiencebeingalittlepartofMotown,andeven
greaterexperiencehavingworkedforyou….P.S.IwillalwaysLOVEMotownand
you!”108Hollowaywasnotuniqueinherperspective,asmostformeremployeesof
thecompanyregardedGordyinhighesteem,despitehavingadimviewofsomeof
hisbusinesspractices.
AlthoughGordytriedtokeepthefamilialfeelattheHitsvillecomplexon
GrandBoulevard,asMotownexpanded,itbecamemorecorporateandlostits
feelingofcloseness.Gordyinitiallymovedthecompany’sadministrationfromthe
Hitsvillehousetoatenstoryhigh-riseonDetroit’sWoodwardAvenuein1968since
itprovidedbettersecurity.However,themovewasbemoanedbyMotown
employees,whofoundthebuildingharshandcold.AccordingtosongwriterJanie
Bradford,“Ittooktheintimacyout,becauseitwaslikeabig10-storybuilding.We
weren’tallovereachother.Itbecamephased,andeveryonehadtheirownoffice.It
108George.WhereDidOurLoveGo?156-157.
161
becamebigbusiness.Itjustwasn’tthesame.”109ThemovetoWoodwardAvenue
wasultimatelyshort-lived,sinceGordywouldrelocatethecompanytoLosAngeles
in1972,evenfurtherstrainingthefamilialatmospherehehadhopedtocultivatein
Motown’scorporateculture.AlthoughMotownhadbeenstartedasablackfamily
business,asthecompanybecamemoresuccessful,Gordybowedtooutside
corporatepressures.Bymakingthelabelfitmorewithintheexpectationof
corporateculture,ittransformedMotownintoanorganizationvirtually
indistinguishablefromanyotherrecordlabel.InordertoaffirmMotown’s
uniqueness,andthereforesetitapartfromthecompetition,Gordykept
perpetuatingthemythofMotown’sfamilyambianceandthelabel’sownpast.
However,inbecomingsoself-preserving,Motownlostitsculturalrelevanceandin
timebecameashellofitsformerself.NolongerwasMotownthe“SoundofYoung
America.”Bythe1970sand80s,Motownwasthesoundofnostalgia.Still,with
Motown’scurrentartistsnotfindinganaudienceinthelateryears,Gordywas
contenttoputoutreissueafterreissueofoldersongs,sincetheywerestill
financiallyviable.
Despitehisfoibles,BerryGordyandMotownrecordshavebeenhailedasa
crowningachievementofblackcapitalismandheldasevidenceofcapitalism’s
potency.HehadseeminglylivedouttheAmericanDream,notonlybyturningaloan
fromhisfamilyintoamulti-milliondollarcompany,butbydoingsothroughtaking
abunchofyoungblackkidsfromDetroitandturningthemintohouseholdnames.
109BillDahl.Motown:TheGoldenYears.(Iola,WI:KrausePublications,2011)38.
162
ByGordy’sownrecollectionaftersellingMotowntoMCAin1988,“fromeight
hundreddollarstosixty-onemillion.Ihaddoneit.Ihadwonthepokergame.”110
Furthermore,Gordyhadseeminglyprovedthatblackmusicandartistsno
longercouldbemarginalizedintheeyesofpopularmusic.Thismythosisembodied
inthebiographyintroducingGordyathisinductionintotheRockandRollHallof
Famein1988thatstatesthatGordy“insuredthatMotown’sstableofsingers,
songwriters,producersandmusicianstooktheconceptofsimple,catchypopsongs
toawholenewlevelofsophisticationand,thankstothemusic’srootsingospeland
blues,visceralintensity….AfterMotown,blackpopularmusicwouldneveragainbe
dismissedasaminoritytaste.”111However,asevidencedbyGordy’sactionsto
ensureMotown’smusicwouldreachaswideofanaudienceaspossible,hereduced
thelevelof“blackness”astobeinoffensivetoawhitelisteningaudience.Although
Motown’sartistswereclearlyblack,theywerealso‘neatandclean’anddidnot
offendlisteners’sensibilitiesintheotherwiseturbulent1960s.Indeed,Gordy
seemedproudofthisdynamic,“Butinallthecampsthereseemedtobeone
constant-Motownmusic.Theywerealllisteningtoit.Blackandwhite.Militantand
nonviolent.Antiwardemonstratorsandthepro-warestablishment.”112Gordy’s
actionstoexpandMotown’sconsumerbasenotonlyensureditsrelevanceamong
theAfrican-Americancommunity,italsoprovidedatemplatelaterentrepreneurs
couldfollowandbesuccessfulsellingotherwisemarginalmusic.UnlikeHarryPace
110Gordy.ToBeLoved.398.
111BerryGordyBiography.http://rockhall.com/inductees/berry_gordy_jr/bio/
112Gordy.ToBeLoved.242.
163
andBlackSwanRecords,Gordy’sdeliberatemaneuveringofMotowntobe
appealingtoamajoritywhiteaudiencewasultimatelynotonlysustainable,but
incrediblylucrative.EventhoughMotowneventuallylostitsplaceasthe“Voiceof
YoungAmerica,”itwasstillthesortofcompanylaterblackentrepreneurswouldtry
toemulate.AsAmericatransitionedfromthe1960sintothe70sand80s,Gordy’s
successwithMotownnotonlyshowedhowablackpersoncouldsucceedinthe
musicbusinesspurveyingsongsperformedbyblackartists,buthowthatsuccess
wouldeventuallyforcethecompanytoloseitsracialelementsasanorganizationin
ordertosustainitsownexistence.HadGordynotmadethechangestoMotown,it
wouldhavebeenunabletoreachthenationalaudiencenecessarytotransformthe
labelintotheracialiconitbecame.BecauseofGordy’ssuccess,anewgenerationof
blackrecordexecutiveswouldtrytheirhandatsellingthesamegenresofmusic
Motownhadinitiallyresisted,suchasdiscoandfunk.However,ofallthegenres
Motownhadnotrecorded,itwasrapmusicthatwouldultimatelyprovethemost
lucrative.
164
CHAPTERFIVE:DEFJAM,RUSSELLSIMMONS,ANDHIPHOP:1984-1999
ThefirstmeetingbetweenRussellSimmonsandRickRubinwasmarkedby
disbelief.Simmonscouldnotfathomthattheproducerresponsiblefor“It’sYours,”
oneofhisfavoriterapsongs,wasalong-hairedchubbyJewishcollegestudent.
Likewise,RubinwasshockedbySimmons,whohadareputationasthemanagerof
thebiggestactsintheemergingHip-Hopscene,butdressedveryconservatively“in
asportsjacketwithelbowpatches,andpennyloafers.”1However,thesefirst
impressionsweretossedawayoncethetwomenbegantotalktoeachother.
Despitecomingfromverydifferentbackgrounds,thetwomenconnectedoveralove
ofmusicandtheirdesiretotakeHip-Hopfurther.Thisunlikelypairofatwenty-one
year-oldwhiterichkidfromLongIslandandatwenty-sevenyear-oldblackman
fromQueenswouldcreateDefJamRecords.Inparticular,RussellSimmonswould
betheindividualwhostayedwiththelabelthelongestandhadthemostinfluence
notonlyontherunningofthelabel,butinthespreadofHip-Hopfromaregional
genreintoanationalphenomenon.
Hip-Hopstartedasaregionalvariantofdisco,beguninNewYorkCityduring
themid-1970s.Althoughlegendsaboutitsexactoriginsvary,afewconceptsare
consistentinallnarratives.First,almostallareinagreementitcamefromthe
Bronx.ThebestevidenceofanexactdatefortheoriginsofthegenreisonAugust
13,1973,whenCindyCampbelldecidedtothrowabacktoschoolpartyinorderto
raisemoneyforschoolclothes.Forentertainment,sheaskedher16-yearold
brotherClivetoplaysomerecords.Clive,betterknownas“Hercules”thankstohis
1LeahWhisler.DefJamRecordings:TheFirst25YearsoftheLastGreatRecordLabel.(NewYork:
Rizzoli,2011)31.
165
muscularphysique,agreedundertheconditionhewouldbeabletoplaythemusic
heliked.Cindyacquiesced,andflyerssoonappearedaroundtheirapartment
buildingandsurroundingBronxneighborhoodinvitingteenstoa“DJKoolHerc
party.”Theflyersalsostatedthatthepartywouldlastfrom9pmto4amandcost
25centsfortheladiesand50centsforthe“fellas.”Theparty’ssetlistwaseccentric,
primarilyconsistingofinstrumentalbitsofCliveCampbell’sfavoritesongsstrung
together.Still,thepartywasasuccess,withover300inattendance,andDJKool
Hercfoundhimselfinhighdemandforotherparties.2AsHerc’snotorietyspread,
otherDJsbegantocopyhisstyleandconcocttheirownmusicalcreations.Intime,a
vocalistwasaddedtotheperformance,whowouldgathertheaudience’sattention
byrhyminginrhythmoverthesongs.Thisstylewouldeventuallybecomeknownas
rapping.3
AlthoughHip-HopwasgrowinginpopularityintheBronxandstartingto
spreadtootherboroughsandregionsintheNortheastinthelate1970s,itwasstill
primarilyanundergroundphenomenon.DJsandrapperswerestartingtosellout
clubsinNewYorkCity,butthenatureoftheperformanceseemedtolenditselftoa
liveviewing.DJswerecapableofputtingonshowsthatlastedafewhourswithno
breakinthemusic,andrappersweretoworkprimarilythroughimprovisation,
neitherofwhichwasconducivetorecording.Still,in1979,SylviaRobinson,a
formerstudiomusician,formedarecordlabelcalledSugarHillRecords,namedfor
2http://www.theguardian.com/music/2011/jun/13/dj-kool-herc-block-party.
3AccordingtoHip-Hoppurists,thereareforelementsofHip-Hop:DJing,rapping,graffiti,and
breakdancing.However,adherencetofourdistinctelementsisproblematicsincerapping(andtoa
lesserextentDJing)comestodominatetheothersoncetheculturalwascommoditized.Forthe
purposesofthisdissertation,theterm“Hip-Hop”willbeusedtodenotemusic,notthefour-part
culturalphenomenon.
166
theregioninHarlem,withtheaimsofcapitalizingonthecrazewitharecorded
song.UnabletoconvinceanyofthepopularrappersandDJsoftheperiodtorecord
forher,shecompiledagroupofherowndesign,andreleasedasongunderthe
namethe“SugarHillGang.”Shecalledtherecord“RappersDelight,”anditwas
releasedinSeptemberof1979.Therecordwasnearlyfifteenminuteslongand
sampledthebeatfromChic’s“GoodTimes.”Hip-Hoppuristsdenouncedthesong,
sincethetitulargangwasanewcreationmadespecificallyfortherecord,and
claimedfifteenminuteswasnotnearlyenoughtimetoconveythenuancesofan
actualliveDJshow.Yet,inspiteofthesemisgivings,thesongwasmoderately
successful,risingto#36ontheBillboardHot100chart.Althoughfinancial
mismanagementplaguedSugarHillRecords,Robertsontooktheopportunitytodub
herself“QueenofHip-Hop”andhopedfuturerecordswouldbeassuccessful.
Although“Rapper’sDelight”wasthefirstraprecordwithnationalrelease,the
secondwasMercuryRecords’“ChristmasRappin’”anoveltyholidayrecordthat
sampledthesamebeatfromChic’s“GoodTimes.”“ChristmasRappin’”was
performedbyKurtisBlow,arapperfromHarlemwhowasmanagedbyayoungman
fromQueenshemetwhileatNewYork’sCityCollege.Thisyoungmanagerfrom
Queenswouldbecometheprimaryforcebehindrap’sdevelopmentandeventual
risetonationalprominence.Although“ChristmasRappin’”thefirstraprecordmade
underthedirectionofRussellSimmons,itwasfarfromthelast,beginningalengthy
interplaywiththegenre.
RussellSimmonswasborninJamaica,QueensonOctober4,1957toDaniel
Sr.andEvelynSimmons.Simmons’parentswerebothcollege-educated,havingmet
167
atHowardUniversity,andheldstablejobs.Daniel,Sr.wasaschoolteacherand
eventualattendancesupervisorforQueens’District29,whileEvelynworkedasa
recreationdirectorfortheNewYorkCityDepartmentofParks.4Thecouplehadone
childolderthanSimmons,DanielJr.(knownas‘Danny’),andwouldeventuallyhave
athirdson,Joseph.5Simmons’earlychildhoodwasidyllic:Jamaicawasasaferegion,
andSimmons’parentsweregeneroustotheirsonsthankstotheiroccupations.
Simmonsalsobecamefascinatedwithpopularmusicfromanearlyage,as
evidencedbyhisbrother’sremembranceofSimmonsreligiouslywatchingElvis
PresleymoviesonSaturdaymorningsasachild.6
In1965,thefamilywouldmovetoHollis,amiddle-classneighborhoodinthe
southeasternpartitionofQueens.Simmonswouldlaterrecallthatatthetimeofhis
family’smovingintoHollis,theareawas10percentwhite,but“[r]ightafterwe
movedinthat10percentdisappeared.”7Still,Holliswasdeemeddesirablebymany
blackresidents,whofavoredtheneighborhoodsincelandwasinexpensiveand
allowedforthefeelingofsuburbanlifewhilestilllivingwithinNewYorkCity.
Furthermore,thankstoDanielSr.’spositionwithintheschoolsystem,theSimmons’
wereabletoensurethattheirsonsattendedthebestpublicschoolsthroughoutthe
system,whichweremoreintegratedthantheneighborhoodschoolsofHollis.The
firstfewyearsoftheSimmons’familylivinginHolliswasuneventful,butasthe
4RussellSimmons.LifeandDef:Sex,Drugs,Money,andGod.(NewYork,NY:CrownPublishers,2001)
12.
5Josephwouldbecomebetterknownas“Run”andmakeupone-thirdofRun-DMC.
6StacyGueraseva.DefJam,Inc.:RussellSimmons,RickRubin,andtheExtraordinaryStoryofthe
World'sMostInfluentialHipHopLabel.(NewYork:OneWorldBallantine,2005)21.
7Simmons,LifeandDef.14.
168
decadewaned,heroinbecameprevalent.Dannywouldrecall,“therewasheroinall
upanddownHollisavenue…everyotherkidwaseitheronheroinorsellingheroin,
orboth.”8Dannywouldfallvictimtothedrugs,eventuallydevelopinga$50-a-day
heroinhabit.AftertheireldeststartingstealingfromEvelyn’spurseinordertofund
hismainliningofheroin,theSimmons’sentDannytolivewithEvelyn’smotherinSt.
Albans,Queens.9AlthoughDannywouldeventuallybreakhisaddiction,theimpact
drugshadonhisolderbrotherwasenoughtokeepRussellawayfromdrugsfor
mostofhisearlyteenagedyears.
Simmonsmighthavekeptawayfromdrugsbecauseoftheireffectsonthe
user,buthecouldnotdenyitslucrativenature.Asheenteredhighschool,Simmons
decidedtostartsellingdrugssimplytomakeextramoney.Hewouldlaterrecall,
“Thisdecisionwasn’tmadeoutofdesperationorneed.Myfamilynevermisseda
mealorcameanywherenearbeinghomeless….partofitwasgreed…Ialwaysliked
niceclothesandusedthisdopemoneytobuythem….soinmysillyteenaged
perspective,sellingon205thStreetmadesense.”10Simmonsstartedsmall,primarily
throughthesellingofnickelbagsofmarijuana,andevenbeganusinghimself.
Recklessinhisselling,Simmonsandafellowdealerwereoncearrestedforsmoking
jointsandcarryingseveralbagsfordistributioninfrontofapoliceprecincthouse.
Still,theteenagedSimmonswouldjustifythepracticesinceitallowedhimto
purchasethethingshedesired,“thingsthatinretrospectwereridiculousand
8Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.21.
9Ibid.22.
10Simmons,LifeandDef,17.
169
unnecessary.Mygoalatthatpoint,andformuchofmyteenyears,wassimple--to
getintoclubswheretheflykidshungoutandtoownflyclothes.”11
AsSimmons’careerasadrugdealerprogressed,healsobecameinterestedin
thegangworld.TheSevenImmortalsgangrecruitedSimmonstobecomeamember
intheirHollisdivision.Simmonswouldlaterrecallthegang’sbehaviorswerenot
particularlyterrifying,“ourmajoractivitieswerebreakingintoschooldancesor
concerts.…wewouldrideonthesubwayandintimidatepeopleifwecould.Butwe
werereallyyoungandnotthatfearsome.”12Still,Simmonsenjoyedganglifesinceit
allowedhimsomeprotectionasadrugdealer.However,Simmons’careerasagang
memberwasshort-lived,quittingafterthemurderofaSevenImmortalsmemberby
arivalgang.ThemurdershookSimmons,whonotonlystoppedbeingamemberin
thegang,buthealsostoppedsellingillegaldrugs.
Eventhoughshaken,Simmonsstillfeltthedesiretopurchasehisownflashy
clothesandotheritems.Duringhissenioryear,Simmonstookhisfather’sadvice
andbeganworkingalegitimatejobatanOrangeJuliusinGreenwichVillage.
AlthoughSimmonsappreciatedthesafetyofthework,hegrewboredofthe
monotonyandquitwithinafewweeksofstartingtoseeknewopportunities.What
hefoundwascocaleafincense.Perfectlylegal,Simmonslearnedthatiftheincense
waschoppedupandwrappedinaluminumfoil,itactedandlookedlikecocaine.
Simmonsrationalizedmostpeopleonthestreetcouldnotaffordrealcocaineand
wouldneverknowthedifference,herecalled:“Ihadnoproblemsellingfakecocaine
11Ibid.17.
12Ibid.22.
170
towhoevercamealonginHarlemorGreenwichVillage.Infact,Ilivedhighonthe
hogsellingthatstufffortwoyears.”13
Simmonsbelievedhehadfoundtheperfectbalancebetweenlucrativeness
andlegalityinsellingfakecocaine,butstillenrolledincollegeathisfather’surging.
In1975,SimmonsbeganhisstudiesattheHarlembranchoftheCityCollegeofNew
York.AlthoughSimmonsinitiallycommutedtotheschoolfromhisparents’housein
Hollis,hefoundhimselfmoreattractedtolifeinManhattanfortwomainreasons:
drugsandmusic.AtCityCollege,Simmonswasfirstexposedtoangeldust,orPCP.
AngeldustwouldbecomeSimmons’drugofchoiceforoveradecade.Although
theoreticallyatCityCollegetostudysociology,Simmonswouldspendmostofhis
timeattheschoolinthestudentloungesmokingpotandplayingcards,before
indulginginPCP.14Simmonsalsowasattractedtotheemergingnewmusicscene
andstartedtospendmostofhisnightsatvariousnightclubs.
Itwasthisloveofmusicthatwouldeventuallydominatehislifeandcareer.
Inthestudentlounge,SimmonsmetRudyToppin,afellowstudentwhoworkedasa
promoteratCharles’Galleryon125thStreet,anightclubthatSimmonsenjoyed.It
wasToppinwhofirstgaveSimmonsthemoniker“Rush,”areferencetoSimmons’
hurriedspeakingstyleandenergy,aswellasintroducedSimmonstoHip-Hop.
Simmonsalmostimmediatelyfeltdrawntothegenreandbeganpartypromoting.
Hewouldrecall“AllthestreetentrepreneurshipI’dlearnedsellingherb,hawking
fakecocaine,andstayingoutofjail,Idecidedtoputintopromotingmusic.Itseemed
13Ibid.27
14Gueraseva,DefJam,Inc.23.
171
alotlessdangerous,morefunandmoreprestigious.”15SimmonsjoinedwithToppin
andbeganpromotingHip-Hopconcerts.Intime,theduowouldbejoinedby
aspiringpartypromoters,includingCurtisWalker,whoSimmonsrenamed“Kurtis
Blow”thankstoWalker’senjoymentofcocaleafincense.16Joinedbyothers,the
groupwouldcallthemselves“TheForce”andstartedpromotingpartiesand
concertsinHarlematclubslikeSmall’sParadiseandCharlesGallery.17Intime,the
groupexpandedtootherboroughsandbecamemoresuccessful.Inparticular,
KurtisBlowbecamefairlywellknownasarapperthankstohisassociationwith
GrandmasterFlash.DJGrandmasterFlash,alongwithhisFuriousFiveMCs,wasa
pioneeringDJfromtheBronxwhotookashinetoBlow,andperformedonjoint
concertsinQueens.18AsthecollaborationsbetweenBlowandFlashgrewin
notoriety,sodidSimmons’attemptstobookpartiesinlargerandlargervenues.
AlthoughintheorystillastudentatCityCollege,planningandpromotingevents
tookmostofSimmons’timeandenergy.Simmonsalsobroughthislittlebrother
Josephintotheworldofrapmusic.BlowandSimmonshired13-yearoldJoseph
SimmonstospinrecordsforBlowwhenFlashwasunavailable.Theyounger
Simmonswasbilledas“DJRunhis[Blows’]discoson,”referencingJoseph’s
tendencytorunhismouth.Themonikerstuck,andJosephSimmonskeptthename
Runthroughouthisrapcareer.19
15Simmons,LifeandDef,35.
16Ibid.40.
17Gueraseva,DefJam,Inc.23.
18Simmons,LifeandDef,43.
172
TheeventthatcementedSimmons’decisiontoabandonfinishinghisdegree
andtowardsthemusicbusinesswasaconcertheldattheHotelDiplomatinTimes
Squarein1977.20Simmonschosethehotel,whichwasanoldandonceelegant
buildingon43thStreet,duetoitsproximitytotwopopularvenues.Thefirstwas
Xenon,whichSimmonsdescribedas“thenumbertwoglamdiscoofthetime,right
behindStudio54.Xenonwastheplaceyouwenttodocokeifyoucouldn’tcrash
54.”21Inaddition,theHotelDiplomatwasacrossthestreetfromTownHall,astage
knownforitsfolkandjazzperformances.Simmonshopedtheconcert,featuring
KurtisBlowandGrandmasterFlash,wouldgarnerfoottrafficfrompersonsunable
togetintotheothertwovenues,butcuriousaboutrapmusic.Theconcertdrew
largercrowdsthanthehotel’sballroomwasdesignedtohandle.Overtwothousand
fansshowedupfortheconcert,withmanyspillingoverintothestreet.22Thecrowd
wasunrulyandturnedviolent.Simmonsrecalled,“Youhadpeoplegettingrobbed,
mugged,stomped,trampled.OutsidetheDiplomatyouhadaclashbetweenallthese
differentgroupsofpartypeopleonthestreetandpeopledesperatelytryingtoget
intotheDiplomat.”23Thesituationinsidethehotelwasnotmuchsafer,asSimmons
spenttheconcertinthehotel’sboxoffice,sinceithadbullet-proofwindows,in
ordertoprotecttheprofits.
19Note:Inordertopreventconfusionbetweenthetwoindividuals,JosephSimmonswillbedenoted
as‘Run’or‘Joseph’todistinguishhimfromhisbrotherRussellSimmons.Ibid,45.
20GuerasevaDefJam,Inc.24.
21Simmons,LifeandDef,45.
22PeterBaulner“TheRaponRun-DMC:TheKidsfromHollisStrikeGold”NewYorkMagazine.
November17,1986.69
23Simmons,LifeandDef.45.
173
Despitethesecurityissues,theconcertwaslucrativeandconvinced
SimmonstodropoutofCityCollegeinhissenioryear,onlyafewcreditsshyof
completinghissociologydegree.ThemovegreatlyupsetSimmons’father,who
admonishedhisson.Simmonsremembered,“Overandoverhelecturedmethatthe
onlywayforablackmantomakeitwastogetadegreeandajob,”butSimmonsfelt
hisentrepreneurialspiritwouldbeultimatelymoresuccessfulthanfinishinghis
education.24Followinghisdeparturefromschool,Simmonsfullyinvestedhimselfin
hispartyplanningbusiness,whichhecalledRushProductions,inorderto
distinguishhissoloventurefromthepartieshehadpromotedaspartofagroupat
CityCollege.
Simmons’tenureatRushProductionscaughtaveryearlybreakthanksto
journalistRobertFordwhowrotereviewsandarticlesforBillboard,focusing
primarilyonthebusinesssideofdisco.Fordfollowedthegrowinginterestinrap
musicbyNewYorkyouthsandkeptaneyeonthegenreasitdeveloped.In
particular,henoticedthatmanystickerspromotingHip-Hopshowssharedthesame
logo:RushProductions.Onedayin1978whileridingtheQ2busdownHollis
Avenue,henoticedayoungteenagerputtingthestickersuponthebus.Ford
introducedhimselftotheyoungmanandtoldtheteenthathewasinterestedin
writingastoryaboutpartypromotersforBillboard.Theteen,JosephSimmons,
informedFordthatRushProductionswashisbrotherRussell’scompany.Fordgave
Josephabusinesscardandaskedhimtohavehisbrothercallhisoffice.25Thenext
24Ibid.36.
174
morning,SimmonscalledFordandwasquitehyperonthephone.Fordrecalled,“He
wasanervouswreck….Russelltalkedamileaminute.”26Theyarrangedtomeetat
Ford’sofficethenextmorning.Simmons’manicenergycontinuedattheirin-person
meeting,yet,despiteSimmons’youthandinexperience,Fordwasenchantedbythe
21-yearold’senthusiasm.FordwouldlaterdescribeSimmonsattheirfirstmeeting
asknowing“…everythingtherewastoknowaboutrapmusicandunderstoodwhat
workwentintomakeithappen.Thatlevelofpassionisincredibleandyouhaveto
respectthat.”27
ForddecidedtoutilizeSimmons’knowledgeofrapmusicforanarticlein
Billboard’sMay5,1978,issue.Thearticle,entitled“JiveTalkingN.Y.DJsRapping
AwayinBlackDiscos,”ranonpage3andbrieflydetailedtheriseofrapmusicin
popularityamongblackyouths.Inthearticle,Fordmentionsfourartistsasbest
representingthegenre:EddieCheeba,DJHollywood,DJStarski,andKurtisBlow.
AlthoughFordwroteaboutBlowinfavorableterms,mentioninghowtheartistwas
“nowbookedforweeks,”Ford’sarticledidnotindicateSimmonsinanycapacity.28
Still,Simmons’presenceisfeltsinceFordmentionedBlowasbeingatthesamelevel
asCheebaandDJHollywood,althoughthetwoweremuchbiggerdrawsthanBlow
atthetime.ItwaslikelyBlow’sinclusionwasduetoFord’srelationshipwith
25DanCharnas.TheBigPayback:TheHistoryoftheBusinessofHip-Hop,(NewYork,NY:New
AmericanLibrary,2010)46.
26Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.14.
27Ibid.15.
28Billboard,“JiveTalkingN.Y.DJsRappingAwayinBlackDiscos,”May5,1978.3.
175
Simmons,withtheyoungermanpesteringforBlow’spresenceinthearticletoraise
theartist’sprofile.
Ford’saffiliationwithSimmonsdidnotendwiththeBillboardarticle.Inthe
summerof1979,SimmonssuccessfullyconvincedFordtoassisthiminmakinga
Hip-HoprecordwithKurtisBlow.SimmonswishedtodrawuponFord’scontactsin
therecordbusinesstoaidinmakingsuretherecordwouldbemade.AlthoughFord
wasinitiallyhesitant,Simmons’persistenceworehimdown.Fordwouldrecall,
“ThiswastobemyfirstexperiencewithRussell’suniquegiftforobsessive
nagging….IchoseKurtisBlownotforKurtisBlow,butforRussell--hewasmy
ambassadortorap.Hewastheonlyguywhokneweverybodyinrap.”29Nowon
board,ForddecidedthatthesongshouldbeaChristmasnumber,rememberingthe
experienceofaproducerfriendwhohadwrittenholidaysongsforPerryComoin
thepastandstillreceivedroyaltychecks.FordalsoenlistedJ.B.Moore,aco-worker
atBillboard,intheproject.AlthoughMoorewasa37-yearoldwhiteman,hewrote
thelyricstothesong,“ChristmasRappin’,“andsentthemtoSimmonsandBlowfor
approval.30SimmonsandBlowacquiescedtothelyrics,whichtheyaddedwithbits
fromBlow’sstandardroutinesandrhymes.ThesongwasrecordedatSoho’sGreene
StreetRecordingstudioinOctoberof1979.31
AlthoughSimmonshadhighhopesforthesong,Ford’scontactsintherecord
businesswerenotpanningout.Evenwiththesuccessof“Rapper’sDelight,”record
29Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.16.
30Charnas,TheBigPayback.47-48
31Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.16.
176
companieswerenotconvincedHip-Hopwasmorethanaregionalfad.“Christmas
Rappin’“beingaholidaynoveltyrecordwasnotenoughtooffsetthedimopinions
regardingrapmusic.Simmonspressedon,givingouttestprintsoftherecordtoDJs
andclubpromoters.HealsohopedtoswayPolyGramrecords(hometomanyfunk
andR&BactssuchasKool&theGang,theGapBand,andParliament)topickupthe
songthroughfacetiousmeans,“tohypeupPolyGramweplacedfakeordersforthe
recordinthesystembytellingretailersandwholesalerstoorderthe12-inch
throughPolygram.PolyGramdidn’townityet,butwecreatedanappetitefor
“ChristmasRappin’”thatledthemtobuyit.”32DespiteSimmons’efforts,itwasnot
PolyGramitselfwhopickeduptherightsto“ChristmasRappin’“butratherMercury
Records,anEnglishsubsidiaryofPolyGramthatspecializedinmoretraditionally
whitegenres.ThedealalsogaveMercurytherightstohaveBlowrecordasecond
songshould“ChristmasRappin’“provesuccessful.
Thesongwasreleasedin1979duringthefirstweekofDecemberandwas
thefirstrapsongreleasedbyamajorlabel.Simmonsfirstheardthesongonthe
radiothatChristmasEve,andtheexperiencewaselectric:“Irandownstairs.Itold
myfather.Isatlookingatthespeakers.ArecordImadewasontheradio.Itwasan
unbelievablemoment.”33Althoughtherecordwasaseasonalnoveltysong,itsold
respectably.Thesongsold100,000recordsbeforeChristmasandroseto300,000
totalinthenextyear.34ThesuccessofthesongalsoallowedBlowandSimmonsto
32Simmons.LifeandDef.53.
33Ibid.54.
34Charnas,TheBigPayback.47-48
177
tourthecountry,aswellasEurope.Simmons,whohadonlybeenonaplaneoncein
hislifeasachild,wasoverwhelmed.Herecalled,“Herewewere,twostudentsfrom
CityCollege,beingflowntoanothercountryforKurtistoperformahitrecord.Ifelt
rich.Thatshitfeltamazing!”35
Thankstothesuccessof“ChristmasRappin’,”Mercuryexercisedtheiroption
tohaveBlowrecordanothersongforthelabel.Thefollow-upsong,‘TheBreaks,”
wasanevenbiggerhit.Releasedinthesummerof1980,“TheBreaks”would
becomethefirstraprecordcertifiedgoldbytheRecordingIndustryAssociationof
America,withover500,000copiessold.36Thesongbecamesopopularthaton
August2,1980,theboroughofQueensdeclared“KurtisBlowDay.”37Additionally,
Blowbecamemoreindemandasaperformer,evenopeningforthepopgroupthe
Commodoresduringanationaltour.
ThesuccessofBlowbolsteredSimmons,whosoughttoaddmoreactsin
ordertorecordmorerecords.Overthenextyearandinto1982,Simmonsgrew
RushProductionsandRushManagement.ActssuchasJimmySpicer,Lovebug
StarskiandOrangeKrushreleasedsongsforSimmons,butnoneofthemhadthe
samelevelofsuccessasBlow.SimmonsfoundmiddlingsuccesswithDr.Jekylland
Mr.Hyde,aduowhosegimmickwasrappinginsuitsandties.Theduohada
successfulrecordwith1981’s“GeniusRap,”whichsold150,000unitsandwas
releasedonProfileRecords,however,thesuccesswasnotsustainedinfuture
35Simmons.LifeandDef.55.
36Charnas,TheBigPayback.50.
37Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.18.
178
releases.38Simmonsbecamefrustratedwiththelackofsales,placingtheblame
upontherepetitivemusicalityandrelianceupongimmicks.Atthetime,themajority
ofcommerciallypopularHip-HopsongstendedtofollowthemodelsetbySugarHill
Records:sanitizedremakesofpopulardiscosongs.Furthermore,popularSugarHill
artistssuchasMelleMelandGrandmasterFlashdressedinastylethatwasflashy
andheavilyinfluencedbydisco.Simmonsfeltthediscomotifwasnotrepresentative
ofthemusicactuallyheardinliverapconcerts,norintheattirewornbyactual
blackyouths.InSimmons’mind,theHip-Hopthatbecamepopularlacked
authenticityandhehopedtofindanartiststrippedofthediscoaesthetic,thathe
couldpresentasthetrueembodimentofrap.
Simmonsdidnotevenhavetolookoutsidehisownfamilyforsuchanartist
tomold.AfteryearspreformingasKurtisBlow’s“DiscoSon:DJRun,”Simmons’
youngerbrotherhadgrownasalyricist.Inaddition,hehadcoercedDarryl
McDaniels,aschoolchumofRun’swhousedhisinitalsDMCasastagename,to
performalongsidehimatvariousconcerts.Theduobecameatriowiththeaddition
ofanotherclassmatefromHollis,JasonMizell.Mizellservedasthegroup’sDJand
adoptedthenameof“JamMasterJay.”SinceRunhadaspirationsofmakingitasa
rapper,hepesteredhisbrother,whoalreadyhadexperiencewithasuccessfulartist
inBlow,toallowheandhisfriendstorecord.Althoughinitiallyhesitant,Simmons
relentedsincehisbrotherallowedhimalmostcompletecreativecontroloverthe
38Charnas,TheBigPayback.76.Inaddition,Andre‘Dr.Jeckyll’Millerwouldbecomeaclosefriendof
Simmonsandeventuallyamusicexecutiveinhisownright.Intime,hewouldevenserveas
presidentasMotown.
179
group.Simmonsnowhadtotalcontroloverthegroup’smusicality,attire,andeven
name.Againstthegroup’sinitialwishes,Simmons’namedthetrioRun-DMC.39
Notwantingtospendmoneyonstudiotimeoranunprovenact,Simmons
decidedtorecordRun-DMC’sfirstrecordinhisparents’attic.Simmonsbrought
alongLarrySmithtoserveasco-producerandaudioengineerforthesong.Smith
hadmadethearrangementsforBlow’searliersongs,soSimmonstrustedhis
expertise.OverasimplebeatgeneratedbySmithonadrummachine,punctuatedby
asynthesizer,RunandDMCrappedasongtitled“It’sLikeThat.”40Inaddition,
Simmonstookcreativecontroloncraftingthebeatforthenextsong,whichhetitled
“Krush-Groove1.”Thesongwaseventuallyrenamed“SuckerMCs”andmadeupthe
B-sideofthegroup’sinitialdemo.Simmonswouldlaterrecallthatco-producing
“SuckerMCs”was“thesinglemostcreativethingI’veeverdone.Thedrumbeaton
thatrecordismine,andit’sbeenbittencountlesstimesincewelaiditdown.Itwas
oneofthefirstoriginalb-boybreakbeatsmadeforaraprecord.”41Inthefallof
1982,SimmonstookthedemotoProfileRecords,wherehealreadyhadagood
relationshipthroughtherecordsofDr.JekyllandMr.Hyde.Profile,asmall
independentlabel,showedinterestinRun-DMCandofferedtosignthegroupfor10
percentofsalesanda$25,000advanceforafullalbum.AlthoughSimmonshad
connectionsatMercuryRecordsviaBlow,hedecidedProfilewouldbemost
advantageousforhisbrother.AccordingtoSimmons,“therewasnomajorlabel
39Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.18.
40Charnas,TheBigPayback.89.
41Simmons,LifeandDef,65.
180
supportingrapmusic…sowegotthebestdealwecould.Profilewasthebest
independentlabelatthetime,whichmeanttheymightpayyoualittlebitinsteadof
nothingatall.”42Run-DMCwasalsodifficulttomarket.Radiostationsthatcatered
toblackaudiencesoutsideofNewYorkwerehesitanttoplay“It’sLikeThat”or
“SuckerMCs.”Inordertogenerateinterest,SimmonssentRun-DMConatourofthe
Southernstates.Simmonshadthegroupplayfreeshowsforradiostationsin
exchangeforthestationsaddingthegrouptotheirroster.Thestrategypaidoff,and
“It’sLikeThat”eventuallypeakedatnumberfifteenontheBillboardBlacksingles
charts.43Furthermore,recordsalesincreased,“It’sLikeThat”/”SuckerMCs”sold
250,000copieswithinayearofitsrelease.
AmongthosewhoheardtherecordwasajunioratNYUnamedRickRubin.
Rubin,whofanciedhimselfamusicaficionado,enjoyed“SuckerMCs”becausehefelt
itcapturedtherawenergyofaliveHip-Hopshowbetterthantherecordswhich
meremoreprevalentduringthetime.44Althoughprimarilyinterestedinpunkrock,
RubinfeltHip-Hophadthesamerawandgrittyaestheticthatmaderockmusic
authentic.AsastudentatNYU,Rubinwouldregularlyattendrapshowsatvarious
Manhattannightclubs,includingtheRoxy,wherehestruckuparelationshipwith
AfrikaBambaataa’sDJ,JazzyJay.Jewish,heavyset,andlong-haired,Rubinwasan
unlikelydevoteeofrapmusicandwouldultimatelygreatlymolditsfuture.
42Ibid.65.
43Charnas,TheBigPayback.98.
44Ibid.134.
181
FrederickJayRubinwasbornonMarch10,1963,onLongIslandtoMickey
andLindaRubin.TheRubinswerewealthyandusedtheirconsiderablemeansto
spoiltheironlychild.Forinstance,whenRubindemonstratedaninterestin
photographyasateenager,hisparentsnotonlyboughthimacamera,butalso
enrolledhiminasummercourseatHarvardonthesubject.Likewise,whenRubin
becameinterestedinrockmusicandwantedtogotoManhattanvenueslikeMax’s
KansasCityorCBGB’s,hisparentswouldnotonlydrivehimtotheclub,butalso
waitoutsideintheircarfortheconcerttoend.45AlthoughRubinhadacomfortable
upbringinginsuburbanLongIsland,helongedtobeinManhattan.Hewouldlater
recallthatgrowingupinthesuburbsprovided“afilteronwhatIseeand
hear…whichprobablyledtomehavingamorecommercialtaste.”46Forhighschool,
heattendedLongBeachHighSchool,anintegratedandeconomicallydiverseschool
onLongIsland.ItwashereRubinfirstlearnedofHip-Hopfromhisblackclassmates.
Althoughprimarilyinterestedinpunkrockacts,hecorrelatedthetwogenresinhis
mind,“Punkandrapgroupsmadesongsforthemomentandthentossedthem
away…[for]somethingnewer,better,andfresher.Bothwerecreatedbynear
amateurs,forthesheerfunofit.”47Aftergraduation,Rubinhadtodecidebetween
attendingNYUortheUniversityofChicago.48Furthermore,hisparentswerewilling
topayhistuitionandotherexpensesateitherschool,sothechoicewasultimately
45Ibid.124.
46Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.6.
47Charnas,TheBigPayback.125.
48Despiteneverdiligentlyapplyinghimselfinhisstudies,Rubinmadegradesgoodenoughtoattend
bothprestigiousschoolsthroughsheerintelligence.
182
lefttoRubin.AlthoughRubinacknowledgetheappealofgoingfarfromhisfamily
andsuburbanroots,heultimatelydecidedtogotoNYUbecauseofthelocation.He
wouldrecall,“Andmywholelife,I’dwantedtoliveinManhattan.Iloved…goingto
shows,concerts,andmuseums.Allthethingsthatwereintellectuallystimulating
wereinthecityandthat’swhereIwantedtobe.IchoseNYU.”49
AtNYU,Rubinneglectedhisstudiesinfavorofexploringhispassionsin
Manhattan.AlthoughpunkrockwasstillRubin’sprimaryinterest,healsohadtwo
growingsub-interests:professionalwrestlingandHip-Hop.Rubinwouldstayout
untilearlyinthemorningattendingwrestlingeventsaswellasHip-Hopshows.
Rubin’sdormroomatNYU’sWeinsteinHallwouldbecomeacombinationshrine
andhoarder’sstashdevotedtohishobbies.Rubin’sroommate,AdamDurbin,would
laterrecallhisfirsttimeenteringintotheroomtheyweretoshare:“Inoticed
nothingintheroomthatletyouknowthattherewasanyschoolworktobedone.No
textbooks,notebooks,binders,loose-leafs.Nothing.”50Inadditiontolisteningto
music,Rubinbecameinterestedinmakingmusic.DuringhisfreshmanyearatNYU,
hestartedanart-rockbandcalledHose.Inaddition,hebecamefriendswitha
quartetofpunkrockerscalledTheYoungandTheUseless,whoweremore
interestedincuttinguponstagethanplayingtheirinstruments.
Rubinalsodrewuponhisparents’wealthtopurchaserecordingequipment,
makingthedormroomadefactostudioaswell.Inhisdormstudio,Rubinrecorded
primarilyforHose,butalsoforotherstudentsatNYU.OnceRubindecidedto
49Whisler.DefJamRecordings.20.
50Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.3.
183
releasecommerciallytherecordsmadeinhisdormroom,herealizedheneededa
name.Althoughprimarilyinterestedinrockmusic,hedrewinspirationfromhis
growinginterestinrap.HedecidedonDefJam,aHip-Hopphrasethatmeant“good
song.”Rubinlaterrecalled,“Ithoughtofthosewords--defjam--ascoolandcutting
edge.Therearedisagreementsonwhetherpeopleweremispronouncing‘death’–
meaning‘It’stheend.It’sdeath!–orifitwasshortfor‘definitive.’Butdefwasa
wordthatpeopleused,anditseemedlikeagoodnameforalabel.”51Rubinalso
managedtoinkadistributiondealforDefJamwiththeNewYorkindependentlabel
99Records.52ThefirstrecordreleasedonDefJamwasanEPbyHoseinApril1982.
Thealbumdidnotsellparticularlywell,butRubinwasmoreinterestedinmaking
recordsheenjoyedthanmakingmoney.Itwasinthefallofthesameyearwhen
Rubinfirstheard“It’sLikeThat”and“SuckerMCs.”Rubin’sinitialreactiontothe
record’sstrippedproductionandmoreauthenticsoundingmusicwasenthusiasm:
“Thisistherealshit!”followedbydefiance:“Icoulddothisbetter.”53Rubinhad
decidedtonotonlymakearaprecord,buttomakewhathebelievedwouldbethe
bestraprecordtodate.
Rubin’saspirationsofmakingsucharecordmighthavebeenfruitlesshadit
notbeenforsomerelationshipshehaddevelopedintheHip-Hopworld.Duringhis
timevisitingrapclubs,hehadbecomefriendlywithnotonlyDJJazzyJay,butalso
withtheTreacherousThree,atrioofMCscomprisedofKoolMoeDee,SpecialK,and
51Whisler.DefJamRecordings20.
52Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.5.
53Charnas,TheBigPayback.134.
184
LASunshine.Rubininitiallyapproachedthetrioaboutrecordingasong,butthey
refused.ThegrouphadanexclusivecontractwithSugarHillRecordsandtherefore
couldnotrecordonRubin’spersonallabel.54Undeterred,Rubinpressedthegroup
further.Finally,SpecialKsuggestedRubintalktohisolderbrother,whowas
workingatapharmacyatthetime,buthadpreviouslyrappedundermonikerTLa
Rock.RubinandTLaRockmet,hititoff,andRockagreedtorecordasongwiththe
still-teenagedRubin.NowhavinganMC,RubinthenapproachedJazzyJaytoserve
asDJontherecord,whosimilarlyagreed.Withateamnowinplace,Rubin
borrowedaRolandTR-808drummachinefromAdamHorovitz,afriendofRubin’s
fromthebandTheYoungandTheUseless,andsetuphisdorm-roomstudiotoa
recordarapsong.
Theresultingsongwasentitled“It’sYours”andwasreleasedonStreetwise
Recordsinlate1983.55Rubinwaspaid$2,000forthetrackbyStreetwiseandgiven
thebrandingrightsforthesong,whichallowedthelogoforDefJamtobefeatured
prominentlyontherecordsleeve.Rubinwaspleasedthathewouldbeabletogive
hispetlabelexposurethroughthesuccessoftherecord,butwasinitiallyfrustrated
bystagnantsales.Rubinventedaboutthisfrustrationtoafriend,TuffCityRecords
founderAaronFuchs,whosuggestedRubinseekoutRussellSimmons,sinceFuchs
reasoned“noonepromotesraprecordsbetter.”56RubinwasawareofSimmons
54Ibid.134.
55Ibid.135.
56Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.30.
185
throughhisworkwithRun-DMC,KurtisBlow,andotherRushManagementacts,and
figuredmeetingwiththeoldermanwouldbeusefultohelphisrecordsales.
WhileRubinwasdecidingtomeetwithSimmons,Simmonswasalready
impressedby“It’sYours.”Simmonslovedthesong’s“big,hugebeats,minimal
melodyandaggressivevocals.”57AlthoughtheRushManagementbrandhadgrown
toincludeartistssuchastherapbandsOrangeKrushandWhodini,inadditionto
establishedactslikeBlowandRun-DMC,Simmonswasstillonthehuntfor
intriguingnewsounds.Hewassoenthralledby“It’sYours,”hesoughttomeetthis
newproducerandutilizehisservicesforhisownartists.
SimmonsfinallymetRubininJuneof1984atapartyheldattheDanceteria
nightclubhonoringthepremiereofGraffitiRock,asyndicatedHip-Hopsketch
show.58JazzyJay,whonotonlyknewbothmen,butalsoknewtheywantedtomeet
eachother,facilitatedtheirmeeting.Despitetheinterestineachother’sabilities,
theirfirstmeetingwasinitiallymarkedbydisbelief.Simmonscouldnotfathomthat
theproducerresponsibleforoneofhisfavoritesongswaswhite.Simmons
exclaimeduponrealizingthatRubinwasindeedtheoneresponsiblefor“It’sYours”:
“Ican’tbelieveyoumadethatrecordandyou’rewhite!Causethat’stheblackest
recordthat’severbeen!”59Rubinrecalledbeingsimilarlyunderwhelmedby
Simmonsatfirst:“Russellwasdressedlikeasubstituteteacher,inasportsjacket
withelbowpatches,andpennyloafers.Drinkingscrewdrivers.”60Butintime,Rubin
57Simmons,LifeandDef.78.
58Whisler.DefJamRecordings,31.
59Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.33.
186
similarlywarmeduptohim,“Irememberhewasreallyfunnyandfuntotalkto.Full
ofenergy,Ireallylikedhim.”61Despitecomingfromverydifferentbackgrounds,the
twomenconnectedoveraloveofmusicandtheirdesiretotakeHip-hopfurther.
Simmonswouldlaterrecalloftheirfriendship,“Webothhatedthesoft-assblack
musicthatwasontheradio;webothenjoyedtherebelattitudethathip-hop
embodied;webothsawthattherewasmoreincommonbetweenAC/DCand
rappersthanbetweenrappersandLutherVandross.”62Althoughanunlikelypairing,
theirfriendshipdevelopedintoamusicalandbusinessrelationship,asSimmons
laterstated:“Wemadeagoodteam--Iwasamanager/producertype,andRick
madebeatsandunderstoodtheattitude.”63
SplittingtimebetweenRushManagement’sofficesonBroadwayand26th
StreetandDefJam’shomeinRubin’sdorm-roomatNYU,theduostartedmaking
theirfirstmovestogether.Withthereleaseof“It’sYours”containingtheaddressof
Rubin’sdormroomasDefJam’soffices,theyfoundthemselvesdelugedbydemosby
rapperswantingtobesigned.Mostwentignoredwithoutbeingheardbyeither
man,butRubin’sroommateandfriendAdamHorovitztookthetimetolistento
everydemo.OnerecordinginparticularappealedtoHorovitz,andhepassedit
alongtoRubin.Thedemowasbyasixteen-year-oldfromSt.Albans,Queensnamed
JamesToddSmith,whogavehimselfthemoniker“LLCoolJ,”shortfor‘LadiesLove
60Whisler.DefJamRecordings,31.
61Ibid.31.
62Simmons.LifeandDef,78.
63Ibid.78.
187
CoolJames.’64RubinfeltSmithhadgreatpotentialasarapper,duetohisimpressive
vocabularyandwittyrhymes,butneededpolishinordertobeasuccess.Rubinlater
recalledofSmith’sinitialdemo:“Ican’tsayitwasgreat…butitwasdifferent,andI
likedit.Therewassomethingaboutitthatjuststruckusasfunny,andwewantedto
hearitoverandoveragain.”65Impressed,RubincalledSmith’shouseinorderto
arrangeameeting.EventhoughSmithwasnotathomeatthetimeoftheinitialcall,
hewouldremembertheexhilarationofthemomentoftelephoningRubin:“Rickwas
like,‘Yo,thisisRick.Comeondown.Let’smakeademo.’Isaid‘Word?Oh,man!’
Peopletakepillstofeellikethat!”66SmithjourneyedtoNYUtomeetwithRubinand
reactedtoRubin’sraceasSimmonshad.Smithrecalled:“WhenRickcame
downstairs,thefirstthingIsaidwas,‘Yo,youRick?’Hesaid,‘Yeah.’Isaid,‘Ithought
youwasblack.’Hesaid,‘Cool.’”67However,onceSmithbegantotalktoRubin,he
realizedtheheavy-setbeardedJewishcollegestudentwaslegitimate.Seeingthe
rawtalentinSmith,Rubinplayedafewbeatsprogrammedinthedrum-machine,to
whichSmithrespondedbycreatingrhymes.Withinafewhours,theduohad
recordedademoofanewsong,whichtheytitled“INeedaBeat.”
Havinganewsonghewassuretobeasuccess,RubinapproachedSimmons
toofficiallybecomepartnersatDefJaminordertofinancethereleaseof“INeeda
Beat.”AlthoughSimmonsagreedtherecordwouldbeahit,heinitiallyrespondedby
advisingRubintoreleasethesongonProfile,withwhomhehadarelationship
64Charnas,TheBigPayback138.
65Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc38.
66Whisler.DefJamRecordings.61.
67Ibid.61.
188
throughRushManagementartists.Rubinwasinsistent:“Allyou’vedonesincewe’ve
beenfriendsiscomplaintomeaboutProfile--youhate‘em,youdon’ttrust‘em,you
havetodoalltheworkbecausetheystealfromyou,theydon’tpayyou.Whywould
wegiveittothem?”68Rubin’swordsrangtrueforSimmons.Hehadproduced
severalrecordsforRun-DMCandotherRushartistsforotherrecordlabelsandhad
littletoshowforitfinancially.Still,Simmonsbelievedstartinghisownrecordlabel
wouldinterferewithhisultimategoalofhavinganimprintatoneofthelargerecord
companies.Indeed,atthetimeofRubin’spleatoSimmons,hewasalreadyintalks
withA&RrepresentativeSteveRalbovskyatEMIRecordsforanimprinttobecalled
RushRecords.69Simmonsfearedstartinghisownlabel,nomatterhowsmall,would
hampertheimpendingdeal,butRubinwasinsistent.HerecalledtellingSimmons,
“Thiswon’tgetinthewayofthat.Thisisseparate.Let’sdoalittleindependent
company.I’llmakealltherecords.I’lldoallthework.I’lldoeverything.Youjustbe
mypartner.”70WhileRubinplannedtodoalltheintialwork,hehopedearlysuccess
wouldcauseSimmonstobecomemoreengagedatDefJamandutilizehisprolific
skillatmarketingandcommunicationtoensurethelabel’slong-termsurvival.
SimmonsviewedRubinasanincredibleproducerandbeatmaker,whohadasurefirehitin“INeedaBeat.”EventhoughSimmonsfelttruefinancialsustainability
wouldcomethroughadistributiondealwithalargerecordcompany,hehopedthe
successof“INeedaBeat”andanyfuturerecordsmightleverageanevenbetterdeal
68Ibid.61.
69Charnas,TheBigPayback139.
70Whisler.DefJamRecordings.61.
189
withamajorlabel.Becauseofthisfuturehope,Simmonsagreedtobecomepartners
withRubinatDefJamRecords.
Inthesummerof1984,SimmonsaskedhislawyerPaulSchindlertodrawup
anagreementthatmadeRubinandSimmonsequalpartnersatDefJamRecords.
Bothmenwerequiteyoungtobeenteringintosuchapartnership,withSimmonsat
26andRubin,technicallystillafull-timecollegestudentat21yearsofage.The
initialcapitalofthenewlabelwas$6000total,with$1000providedbySimmons.
Rubin’sparentsgavetheother$5000,undertherequirementthatifthecompany
wasnotsuccessful,Rubinwouldgotolawschool.71Inaddition,Simmonsagreedto
manageanyactssignedtothelabel.Thisentailednotonlybookingtheirgigs,but
alsogeneratingpublicityandshapingtheirpublicpersona.AlthoughSimmonshada
fullslateofartiststomanageonRushManagementwhoweresignedtodifferent
labels,hefeltabletodividehistimetostillfulfillhisresponsibilitiestobothDefJam
andRush.
Simmons’abilitytobalancebetweenDefJamandRushartistswas
demonstratedinthesamesummerof1984.SimmonspartneredwithRickyWalker,
anotherrappromoter,tolaunchtheFreshFesttour.Thetourwasthefirstofits
kind,containingallrapandHip-Hopacts.Inaddition,thetourwassponsoredbythe
SwatchWatchCompanyandmarkedthefirsttimeamajorcompanydirectly
sponsoredtheburgeoningHip-Hopculture.72ThroughDecemberof1984,theFresh
FesttourcrossedtheUnitedStates,sellingouttentotwenty-thousand-seatarenas
71Charnas,TheBigPayback139.=
72Ibid.115.
190
ateachperformance.ThetourwasalsoafinancialboontoSimmons.Inadditionto
headlinersRun-DMCandKurtisBlow,thetouralsocontainedotherRush
ManagementartistslikeWhodiniandNewcleus,alongwithseveralbreak-dancing
teams.Theonlynon-RushManagementHip-hopgrouponthetourwastheFatBoys.
Thegroup,whichwasgrowinginpopularity,signedKurtisBlowastheirproducer.
SoalthoughSimmonsdidnottechnicallyrepresenttheFatBoys,hedidrepresent
Blowandwasabletogetacutoftheirprofitsaswell.Simmonswouldlaterrecall
theamountofmoneyhisactsearnedperperformance,recallingWalker“booked
Run-DMCtoheadlinethetourfor$5,000anight.Whodini,KurtisBlow,andtheFat
Boysgot$3,500pershow.Imanagedalltheacts[excepttheFatBoys].…SoRush
Managementwascommissioningabout$1,200orsomethingashow.IthoughtIwas
rich.”73Afterfifteenweeksandeightyperformancesinfiftycities,thetourendedin
thewinterof1984.Notonlywasthetourlucrative,earning$3.5million,butitalso
demonstratedraphadafutureoutsideNewYork.74Inaddition,thetourshowed
thatHip-Hophadcrossoverappeal,sincewhitefanspurchasedasignificantportion
ofthetickets.ThispercentagewashighestinProvidence,RhodeIsland,whereover
halftheticketsintheareawereboughtbywhiteteenagers.75
TheFreshFesttourwassignificantforSimmons’futurefortworeasons.The
firstwasthathemetLyorCohenduringthetour’sstopinLosAngeles.Run-DMC
wasbookedforaseparateshowcaseattheMixClub,avenuehousedintheformer
73Simmons,LifeandDef.69.
74Ibid.69.
75Charnas,TheBigPayback116.
191
StardustBallroom.Theshow,whichmainlyfeaturedthepunkrocksbandsFear,
SocialDistortion,CircleJerks,andFishbone,includedRun-DMCduetoCohen’s
insistence.76TheIsraeli-bornCohen,whomanagedtheMixClubpart-time,believed
Run-DMCembodiedthesamerebelliousspiritaspunkrockandthoughttheir
inclusionwouldincreaseticketsales.Cohen’sgamblepaidoff,andtheshowearned
him$35,000inasinglenight.77Thatsamenight,Simmons,impressedbyCohenand
highonangeldust,offeredCohenajobwithRushManagement.Cohenacceptedand
flewtoNewYork.OnceCohenarrivedatRushManagement’soffice,hefoundavery
quietreception,sinceSimmonsdidnotrememberofferingCohenthejobduringhis
inebriatedstate.78Undeterred,Cohenwasofferedachancetoprovehisworthby
servingasroadmanageronRun-DMC’sEuropeantour,whichwastobeginalmost
immediatelyfollowingtheconclusionoftheFreshFesttour.AlthoughSimmonsdid
notinitiallyrecallofferingCohenajob,hisdiligenceimpressedSimmonsgreatly.In
time,CohenwouldultimatelyriseinauthorityatbothRushandDefJam,second
onlytoSimmons.
TheothermajordevelopmentforSimmonsthatoccurredthankstotheFresh
FesttourwasanarticleintheWallStreetJournalonDecember4,1984.Thearticle,
writtenbyMegCoxandgiventheunfortunatetitleof“IfABigBeatZapsYouOutOf
ANap,TheMusicIsRap,”detailsthesuccessoftheFreshFesttourthroughoutthe
country.79Cox’sarticlehighlightsRun-DMCandKurtisBlowasveryfinancially
76Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.31.
77Charnas,TheBigPayback.155.
78Ibid.156.
192
lucrativebeforepointingouttheinvolvementofSimmons.Althoughtheentire
articleisverycomplimentaryofSimmons,thereisasinglephrasethathetookto
heart.InsummationofSimmons’achievements,Coxstated:“Mr.Simmons,26,now
represents17artistsandisknownasthemogulofrap.”80Simmonsneverbefore
hadbeenlabeledasthe“mogulofrap,”butheenjoyedthetitleandrelishedthe
attention.Hewouldrecalltheironyofthephrase“mogulofrap”:“Funniestthing.
Rapwasn’tshit,butIwasthemogulanyway.”81TheJournalarticledefinitelyraised
hispublicprofileandaidedingettingfinancingforDefJamandRushManagement
projects.
WithSimmonsontheFreshFesttour,Rubinspentthelatterpartof1984
settingupDefJam’sinitialstaff.DefJam’searliestofficestaffwasRubin’scollege
friendsAdamDubinandGeorgeDrakoulias.82Theduoprimarilyansweredphones
andranerrandsforthenewlabel,butalsomadedeliveriestodistributors.Since
RubindidnothaveenoughmoneytopayDubinandDrakouliasaregularsalary,
theywereinsteadcompensatedthroughreceivingcollegecreditfromNYU,which
countedtheirworkforthelabelasaninternship.Rubinalsodrewgreatlyupon
Simmons’staffatRushManagement,primarilyLyorCohen,toaidwithDefJam’s
booksandaccounting.
InNovemberof1984,LLCoolJ’s“INeedaBeat”wasthefirstsinglereleased
bythenewrecordlabel.AsSimmonsandRubinbothpredicted,itwasahugehit,
79MegCox,“IfABigBeatZapsYouOutOfANap,TheMusicIsRap”WallStreetJournal.December4,
1984.
80Ibid.
81SimmonsLifeandDef.99.
82Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.41.
193
selling100,000copiesbytheendoftheyear.83Thesongalsowascriticallywell
received.TheNovember30thissueofDanceMusicReportfavorablyreviewedthe
song,callingit:“hardcorerapatitsmostinsistent.Featuringarelentlessdrum
pattern,variousscratcheffects,andanunusuallywell-enunciated,highlypercussive
vocal,thisisaproductthatshouldimmediatelyappealtoitstargetaudience,”before
surmisingtherecordwouldbe“aguaranteedretailmover.”84TheDecember21st
issueofBlackRadioExclusiveheldasimilarview,sayingtherecordwas
“ReminiscentoftheRun-DMCstyle,this16yearoldwhizcanrhymeandrapwith
thebestofthemasis[sic]forceablydemonstratedonthisdebutrelease.”85
WiththeinitialsuccessofLLCoolJ,SimmonsandRubinbothsoughttofind
moreartiststofilloutthelabel’sroster.Rubinwasfirsttosignanotheract.Hehad
alreadybeenfriendswiththemembersofthepunkrockbandTheYoungandThe
UselessforseveralyearsandhadbeenroommateswithmemberAdamHorovitzin
thepast.ThankstoSimmons’andRubin’surging,theband,whichalsoincluded
AdamYauchandMichaelDiamond,ditchedtheirinstrumentsandswitchedgenres
toHip-Hop.Thegroup’sswitchtorapmusicalsonecessitatedanamechangeforthe
band,whichnowcalledthemselvestheBeastieBoys.Simmonsalsoscoutednew
actsforthelabeltosign,includingJimmySpicer,MCAandBurzootie,andOriginal
83Charnas,TheBigPayback.140.
84DanceMusicReport.November30,1984.
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/defjam/exhibition/ineedabeat/index.html.
85BlackRadioExclusive.December21,1984.
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/defjam/exhibition/ineedabeat/index.html.
194
Concept.86WithseveralartistsrecordingnewmaterialinDefJam’sdormroom
studio,DefJam’sfoundershopedtheupcomingyearof1985wouldcontinuethe
successfoundwith“INeedaBeat.”
ThesecondsinglereleasedbyDefJamcameinthelastofweekofDecember
1984andfeaturedtheBeastieBoys.Entitled“RockHard,”thetrackfeaturedthetrio
rappingoverAC/DC’s“BackinBlack.”AlthoughRubin,whoproducedtherecord,
hopedthesongwouldappealtobothblackHip-Hopfansandwhiterock
aficionados,theresultingtrackwasamessyamalgamationofbothstyles.Unlike“I
NeedaBeat,”whichhadaverycleanproduction,“RockHard”wasmuddledand
difficulttoheartheBeastiesrappingoverthesong.Criticshadamixedresponseto
therecord.ThemostdamningcriticismcamefromAndyDunkley,areviewerforthe
RockpoolNewsletter,whoseentirereviewoftherecordwas“Plod,plod,plod,plod,
plod,fastelectrodrum-break,plod,plod,plod,plod.Echhhhh!!!!”87Amorepositive
reviewcamefromtheCMJNewMusicReport,whichstatedthattheBeastieshad
“nowmanifestedthemselvesintothefirstlegitimaterapgroupofCaucasoid
origin.”88Althoughtherecordsoldrespectably,itwasnowherenearthesuccessof
“INeedaBeat.”SubsequentDefJamreleasesbyJazzyJayandMCAandBurzootie
weresimilarlyunsuccessful.ItwasonlywhenLLCoolJ’sfollow-up“IWantYou”
wasreleasedinFebruaryof1985thatDefJamhadasecondhitonparwith“INeed
aBeat.”
86Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.299.
87AndyDunkley,RockpoolNewsletter.January21,1985.
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/defjam/exhibition/rockhard/index.html.
88CMJNewMusicReport.Feburary8,1985.
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/defjam/exhibition/rockhard/index.html.
195
WhileRubinwasproducingsongsforDefJam’sartists,Simmonswasfocused
upongettingDefJamadistributiondealwithamajorlabel.AlthoughSimmonswas
abletogetmeetingswithmajorcompanies,hewasunsuccessfulinwinningover
executivesinordertosecureadeal.SimmonswouldlaterrecallhisandRubin’s
responsetooneparticularlydisastrousmeetingwithWarnerBrothers,“Soweput
onLLCoolJ’s‘INeedaBeat.’Thewholeroomsatthere--someofthematthe
speakers,someofthemjustlookingattheirhands.Itwasliketheywerehearing
musicfromanotherplanet….RickandIjustlaughedaboutit.”89Despitethegrowing
popularityofrapmusicandmanagingabonofidesuperstargroupinRun-DMC,
Simmonswasunabletoparleythatexperienceintothedistributiondealhedesired
fromDefJam’sonset.
However,DefJamwaseventuallyabletogetnationwideexposure,ultimately
resultinginadistributiondealwithColumbiaRecords,thankstoanimprobable
seriesofevents.AlthoughWarnerBrotherspassedonsigningDefJamtoa
distributiondeal,WarnerBothersMusicchiefMoAustinpassedwordalongtothe
WarnerBrothersPicturespresidentMarkCanton,thatthelabel,andespecially
Simmons,mightbeworthalookforafilmproject.Canton,whohadpreviously
foundsuccessinproducingPurpleRain,believedthatmoneycouldbemadein
makingfilmsstarringRun-DMC.CantonapproachedSimmonsaboutmakingsucha
film,onlytobesurprisedtolearnthatSimmonsnotonlywasinterestedinsucha
project,healreadyhadascript.InthemonthsbeforetheWarnerBrothersmeeting,
SimmonshadbecomefriendswithMichaelShultz,ablackproducerandthedirector
89Simmons.LifeandDef.84.
196
oftheRichardPryorfilmsCarWash(1976)andWhichWayIsUp(1977),aswellas
CooleyHigh(1975)whichwasafavoriteofSimmons.90AlthoughSimmonsinitially
pitchedShultzanaccountofRun-DMC’sriseintheNewYorkrapscene,Shultz
encouragedSimmonstolookinadifferentdirection.Thetwodecidedinsteadto
makeafictionalizedversionofDefJam’screationwiththerelationshipbetween
RubinandSimmonsattheheartofthefilm’splot.RubinandSimmonsagreedand
bothhopeditwouldraisethecompany’sprofile.
Thesubsequentmovie,KrushGroove(1985),crossedtheboundaries
betweenfantasyandreality.Thefilm’splotwasaboutthetravailsoftwo
entrepreneursastheystartuparaprecordlabelfromadormroom.Astheysigna
slateofacts,includingRun-DMC,KurtisBlow,theFatBoys,andLLCoolJ,the
foundersfruitlesslysearchforfundingforthelabel’sexpansion.Unabletofind
legitimatesourcesofrevenue,thefoundersinsteadturntoborrowingmoneyfrom
gangsters.Primarilytoldthroughvignettesinbetweenrapperformances,theplot
wasvirtuallynon-existentintheresultingfilm.However,theminimaliststoryof
KrushGroovewasincrediblyclosetotheactualfoundingofDefJamRecords.Further
muddlingtheseparationbetweenartandlifewasthatvirtuallyeverycharacterin
thefilmwasportrayedbytheirreal-lifeanalog.Therapartistswhoactedinthefilm
usedtheirsamestagenamesandperformedthesamesongsastheydidinreality.
RickRubinplayed‘Rick’,aJewishstudentatNYUwhostartsthetitularrecordlabel
inhisdormroom.Theonlypersonwhodidnotplayhimselfinthemoviewas
Simmons,whoinsteadwasreplacedbyBlairUnderwood,whoportrayedRussell
90Charnas,TheBigPayback.146.
197
Walker,theeconomicallydrivenandout-spokenco-founderofKrushGroove
Records,whosebrotherisRunofRun-DMC.AlthoughSimmonswasinitiallypicked
toplaytherole,producerswantedmoreofaleading-mantypetoportraythepart.91
Simmonswasnotresentfulforthesubstitution,sincehewasnotcomfortablewith
actinginsuchalargerole,andthefactthat“…BlairUnderwoodplayedmewas
certainlyhelpfulingettingmypictureintheblackteenmagazineRightOn!The
moviegotmelaid.”92Simmonsdidultimatelyhaveapartinthefilm,playing
Crockett,anunscrupulousgangsterwholoansRussellWalkerandRickmoneyfor
thelabel.
KrushGroovewasreleasedinthefallof1985andgenerallypanedbycritics.
Forexample,inherOctober25threviewofthefilmfortheNewYorkTimes,critic
JanetMaslinpraisedtherapperformances,butcritiquedthefilm’seditingand
plotline:“Unfortunately,theskimpyscreenplaybyRalphFarquharinsistsupon
entanglingtheperformersinthemostconventionalsubplotsimaginable.Talent
contests,feebleattemptsatromanceandthetravailsofastrugglingyoungrecord
companyareallenlisted,howeverbriefly,intheefforttodrumupbackstage
activitiesfortheplayers,whoarebestwatchedinperformanceanyhow.”93Maslin
concluded:“Rapmusicisinfinitelymoreoriginalthanthesecreakydevices,andit
deservessomethingbetter.”94LynnVanMatreoftheChicagoTribunefeltsimilarto
91Ibid.148-149.
92Simmons,LifeandDef,100.
93JanetMaslin.“KrushGroove”(1985).NewYorkTimes.October25,1985.
http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9901E7DB1638F936A15753C1A963948260
94Ibid.
198
Maslin.Inherreviewofthefilm,alsopublishedonOctober25thof1985,shecalled
KrushGroovea“harmlessbutpredictableandpedestrianexcursionintotheworldof
streetwiserapbandshopingforabigbreak.”95VanMatrealsocomplimentedthe
musicalperformancesofRun-DMCandotheracts,butsummarized:“Aperennial
problemwithmusic-orientedmoviesisthattheexcitementofaliveperformanceso
seldomtranslatessuccessfullytothescreen,andrapisnoexception.Thereare
plentyofbignamesinvolvedinKrushGroove,butthemusicaloneisn`tabletocarry
thefilm,andtheplotcertainlycan`t.”96
Despitethemisgivingsofcritics,KrushGroovewasafinancialsuccessfor
bothWarnerBrothersandDefJam.Thefilmpremieredat515theatersacross
Americaandgrossed$3millionduringitsopeningweekend.97KrushGroovewould
ultimatelymake$11millionattheboxoffice,morethanthreetimesitsbudget.98
Simmons,Rubin,andtheirartistswerecompensatedforthemovie,asSimmons
wouldlaterrecall:“SotobeinvolvedinKrushGrooveIwaspaid$15,000.RickRubin
got$15,000.…Run-DMCjointlygot$15,000.”99Furthermore,thefilm’ssoundtrack,
whichheavilyfeaturedthesameartistsintheactualmovie,wasasuccessfor
WarnerBrothers,peakingat#79onthepopchartand#14ontheR&Bchart.
95LynnVanMatre,“GoodRap,BadRap:MusicTopsPlotIn`KrushGroove”ChicagoTribune.October
25,1985.http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1985-10-25/entertainment/8503130289_1_run-dmcbad-rap-rap-music.
96Ibid.
97Charnas,TheBigPayback.152-153.
98Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.68.
99Simmons.LifeandDef.99.
199
DespiteKrushGroove’ssuccess,itwasnotwithoutcontroversybecausefights
eruptedinsometheatersduringscreeningsofthefilm.Theworstviolencewas
centeredinNewYorkCity.Forinstance,policereportedthatonemeleeinNassau
Countyinvolvedasmanyas225teenagers.100AnotherfightinElmont,LongIsland
resultedinScottLund,aseventeen-year-oldbeingthrownthroughaplate-glass
windowandreceivingmorethan200stitchesasaresult.101Inordertocombatthe
associationbetweenDefJamandRushManagementactswithviolence,Simmons
sentAndreHarrell,whohadnowtransitionedfrombeingaperformerwithDr.
Jekyll&Mr.HydeintoanexecutivewithRushManagement,tospeakindefenseof
thefilm.HarrelljoinedwiththeReverendAlSharptonatapublicityeventoutside
theRKO-WarnerTheatreonBroadwaydesignedbySimmonstopromotethefilmas
wellasupholditsmerits.102TheefforttoseparateKrushGroovefromtheteenaged
violencewassuccessfultoanextent,buttheassociationofDefJamandRushartists
withriotsandmayhemwouldonlygrowastimewenton.
AtthesametimeKrushGroovewasbeingfilmed,Simmonsmadeanother
movethatelevatedDefJam’sawarenessamongthepublicconsciousness.Duringthe
sametriptoLosAngelesasthedisastrousWarnerBrothersmeeting,Simmons
receivedacallfromFreddyDeMann,Madonna’smanager.DeMannwasunderthe
mistakenimpressionthatSimmonsmanagedtheFatBoys,andhewantedthetrioto
openforMadonnaduringher“LikeaVirgin”tour,whichwastooccurfromApril
100CliffordMay.‘OnL.I.FightsFollowaFilmonRapMusic’NewYorkTimes.November6,1985.
http://www.nytimes.com/1985/11/06/nyregion/on-li-fights-follow-a-film-on-rap-music.html.
101Ibid.
102Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.68.
200
throughJune1985.AlthoughSimmonsdidnotmanagetheFatBoys,hepretended
hedid,andsaidtheyweretoobusytoperformonthetour.103DeMannpressedon,
inquiringaboutRun-DMC’savailability.Simmonsrebuffedtheoffer,statingthat
afterheadliningtheFreshFestTour,thegroupwastoohighprofiletoopenfor
anotheract.SimmonsthencounteredDeMannandsuggestedtheBeastieBoys.The
grouphadpreviouslysharedthebillwithMadonnaatCBGB’stwoyearspriorand
werealreadyacquaintedwiththesingerthroughhangingoutattheFunhouseand
otherManhattanclubs.DeMannagreedandtheBeastieBoysweresentoutontour
attherateof$500anight.ThetourwasahugeboontoDefJamandSimmons’
businessprospects.AlthoughtheFreshFesttourhadbeenlarge,itwasstillsmallin
comparisontotheaudiencesizeandmoneybroughtinbyapopsingersuchas
Madonna.Simmonshopedthetour’sexposurewouldendeartheBeastieBoystoa
largermainstreamaudience.
However,theBeastie’santicswerenotwellreceivedbyeitheraudiencesor
critics.Despitethecriticism,thegroupwasnotaskedtoleavethetourbecause
Madonnawasamusedbytheirantics.Horovitzrecalled,“Madonna’smanager
wantedusgone,butMadonnaherselfsawthehumorinitandhowitworkedtoher
benefit.…IpersonallyfeelweowesomuchtoMadonna…It[thetour]gaveusso
muchexperienceandconfidence.”104Asthetourprogressed,audienceswarmedup
totheBeastieBoys’unconventionalperformancesandbrandofhumor.Bythetour’s
finalstopinNewYorkCity’sMadisonSquareGarden,wheretheBeastiessoaked
103Ibid.50-51.
104Whisler.DefJamRecordings.80,88.
201
Madonnawithwatergunsinlieuofanencore,thegrouphadgrownconsiderablyin
popularityandgarneredagreatdealofexposureforSimmons’enterprises.
Simmons’effortstopromoteDefJam’sartistsinaswideacapacityas
possibleultimatelyculminatedinadistributiondealwithColumbiaRecordsin
Octoberof1985.ThedealwasfacilitatedbySteveRalbovsky,anA&Rrepresentative
forColumbiawhohadarelationshipSimmonsdatingfrom1983duringSimmons’
attemptstofindRun-DMCarecorddeal.RalbovskyrecalledSimmons’successful
presentationtoColumbia’sexecutives,Simmons“startedlayingitalloutforthem:
thedifferentnamesofthegroups,thedifferentartists.Itjusthadaflavor.Itwasthe
unveilingofthissubculturethatwasreceivedwiththesebigsmilesandlaughsand
head-shaking.Like,‘Oh,mygod!There’sthiswholeotherworldoutthere!’”105
Furthermore,ColumbiawasclearlyinterestedinDefJambecauseofitsrecent
mainstreamexposure.Indeed,inapressreleaseannouncingthedeal,Columbia
RecordshighlightedtheimpendingreleaseofKrushGrooveandtheBeastieBoys
tourwithMadonnaasreasonsforColumbia’sinterestinDefJam.106Enchantedby
Simmons,Columbia’sexecutivessignedDefJamtoa$2millionproductiondeal.107
ThedealpromisedthatDefJamwoulddeliverfouralbumsbyfourdifferent
artiststoColumbiabytheendof1986,withinthedeal’sfirstfullyear,withtwoto
followinthenext,andsubsequentyearstobenegotiatedatalaterpoint.108DefJam
105Ibid.79.
106“DefJamandColumbiaSetWorldWideAgreement:BeastieBoysandLLCoolJFirstReleases”
October9,1985.http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/defjam/exhibition/columbia/index.html.
107Charnas,TheBigPayback.151.
108Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc62.
202
alsoreceivedanadvanceandfourteenroyaltypointsoneachalbum,butthe
royaltieswerecross-collateralized,whichallowedforColumbiatocoverthelosses
ofanunsuccessfulalbumthroughtheroyaltiesfromasuccessfulone.109Asawhole,
thedealwasnotparticularlygenerous,butSimmonswasmoreinterestedinthe
exposureaswellasColumbia’sdistributionandmarketingcapacitiesthanpersonal
finances.Hewouldrecall,“IfRickandIhadstayedindependentbackin1984,I
couldhavemadealotmoremoneyperrecordsold.However,withoutthepowerof
[Columbia’s]distributionandmarketingclot…[ourartists]neverwouldhavegotten
asbigastheydid.”110Simmonswouldalsoclarify,“Wedidthatdealfortheartists
andtogrowtheculture,butasanowner,Ireallydidnotgetpaid.DefJamgrossed
millionsfor[Columbia],butInettedonlyafractionoftheprofitgenerated.”111
Regardlessofanymisgivings,SimmonsandRubincelebratedthedealwitha“White
CastleParty”ontheroofoftheDanceteria,apopularManhattanHip-Hopclub.The
party,whichfeaturedthousandsofWhiteCastlehamburgers,culminatedinagiant
foodfightinstigatedbytheBeastieBoys.112
InadditiontothemoneypromisedtoDefJam,SimmonsandRubinwere
givena$600,000advancecheckfromColumbiatosplitbetweenthetwoofthem.At
Rubin’surging,theduodecidedtoinvestthebulkoftheiradvanceonafour-story
109Charnas,TheBigPayback.151.
110Simmons.LifeandDef.110.
111ThedealwaswithColumbiaRecords,whowasasubsidiaryofCBS.Inadditionally,Sonywould
buyoutCBS/Columbiain1988.SimmonsandotherDefJamexecutivesusethethreecompanynames
interchangeablywhentalkingabouttheinitialrecorddeal.Foreaseofunderstanding,theterm
‘Columbia’willbeusedasacatch-allinquotationsIbid.110.
112Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.64-65.
203
officebuildingat298ElizabethStreetinManhattantoserveasajointofficeforboth
DefJamandRushManagement.113 Althoughthespacewasdilapidatedandinneed
ofseriousrenovations,itwouldallowbothcompaniesanoffice,aswellasspaceto
constructtheirownprivatestudio.Therenovationswouldultimatelylastfourteenmonths,butattheirculmination,DefJamRecordshadahomemoreprofessional
thanadormroomatNYU.Intheinterimperiodwhiletheconstructionwas
occurringatthenewoffice,thecompaniessplitaformerdancestudioat40East19th
Street.Inadditiontoofficespace,halfthestudiowaswalledofftoserveasa
residenceforSimmonsandCohen,whohadprovedhimselfinvaluabletoSimmons
andbecomehisright-handmanatRushManagement.114
Withbothadistributiondealwithamajorlabelandofficespacesecured,
SimmonsandRubinbegantheirpursuitofsuccessforDefJam.LLCoolJwastapped
toreleasethefirstfull-lengthalbumonDefJamRecords.EntitledRadioandlargely
producedbyRubin,thealbumwasissuedinNovemberof1985.Aidedby
Columbia’simpressivepublicityanddistributiondepartments,thealbumwas
successfulwithurbanandsuburbanHip-Hopfans.Radiosold500,000copieswithin
thefirst5monthsofitsrelease,withoveramillionsoldby1988.115Evenmore
impressive,bytheendof1985,Radiohadsingle-handedlyrecoupedDefJam’sinitial
advancefromColumbia.116 113Ibid.75.
114Charnas,TheBigPayback.158.
115JamesToddSmith.(1990).Radio(reissue).CDlinerbooklet.DefJamRecordings.1-4.
116Charnas,TheBigPayback.154.
204
DespitethesuccessofRadio,SimmonsandRubinchoseforthelabel’sfollowupalbumstocomefromnon-Hip-Hopacts.Oran‘Juice’JoneswasanR&Bsingerand
apetprojectofSimmons.Hisself-titledalbumwasreleasedin1986tomodest
success,thanksinlargeparttothestrengthofthesingle“TheRain,”butpaledin
comparisontothesalesofRadio.1986’snextalbumreleasefromDefJamwas
Slayer’sReigninBlood.Thegroupwasawhitethrashmetalbandandwasonly
signedtothelabelthankstoRubin’sinsistence.Althoughcriticallyacclaimed,the
albumwasevenlesssuccessfulthanJones’anddidnotcontinuethecommercial
successbroughtbyLLCoolJ.
ThefinalalbumreleasedbyDefJamin1986wasfromaHip-Hopact,and
becamethebiggestcommercialsuccessfortheburgeoninglabel.Rubinhadbeen
workingonafull-lengthalbumwiththeBeastieBoyssince1984,butitlanguished
indevelopmentuntilNovemberof1986.LicensedtoIllwasthefastestsellingdebut
albuminColumbiaRecords’historyandwascertifiedPlatinuminFebruaryof
1987.117Inaddition,therecordalsotoppedBillboard’schartforbest-sellingalbums
andwasDefJam’sfirstnumberonealbum.ThankstothesuccessoftheBeasties,
Columbia’sdealwithDefJamwasnowprofitable,andthelabelbroughtinmillions
ofdollarsforthelargercompany.
DefJam’ssuccesswithHip-HopartistscontinuedwiththesigningofPublic
Enemy.Thegroup,comprisedofrappersCarlton“ChuckD”Ridenhour,Richard
“ProfessorGriff”Griffin,andWilliam“FlavorFlav”Drayton,Jr,alongtheirDJRichard
117Thealbumwouldultimatelygo‘Diamond’,anRIAAdesignationforsellingover10millioncopies
in2015.BrittanySpanos.’29YearsLater,BeastieBoys’‘LicensetoIll’Sells10MillionCopies’.
http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/29-years-later-beastie-boys-licensed-to-ill-sells-10million-copies-20150318.
205
“TerminatorX”Rogers,andagroupofuniform-cladsecurity/dancerscollectively
knownastheSecurityoftheFirstWorldor“S1Ws”,wasaboontoDefJam’slabel.
Unafraidofbeingcontroversial,racial,andpolitical,thegroup’sdebutalbumYo!
BumRushtheShowwasreleasedinFebruaryof1987tocriticalacclaim.Astime
wenton,PublicEnemywouldbeheldasexemplarilyofthelabel’spoliticaledgeto
disputeclaimsDefJamhadlostitsedgeorbecometootame.
DespitethecontinuingsuccessofDefJamRecords,Simmonsbecamemore
disengagedwiththerunningofthelabel.Partially,thiswasduetohisinvolvement
withRushManagementandhisbrother’sgroupinparticular.Run-DMChada
massivecross-overhitwith1986’s“WalkThisWay,”acollaborationwithwhite
rockersAerosmith,thatpeakedat#4ontheBillboardhot100chart,thefirstHipHopsingletochartinthetop5.Inaddition,RaisingHell,Run-DMC’salbum
producedbyRubinforProfileRecordswasasimilarsmash.Thealbum,releasedon
July4,1986,wasthefirstPlatinum-sellingrapalbumandbroughtinevenmore
acclaimforthegroup.118Simmonsbolsteredthegroup’spopularity,alreadyatan
all-timehigh,bysecuringanendorsementdealwithshoemakerAdidas.Thedeal,
initiatedbySimmonsinanangel-dustinducedhigh,butfacilitatedbyCohen,earned
therappersanendorsementagreementworth$1millionandeventuallyexpanded
intotheirownshoeline.119
Simmonsbegantospendmoretimeawayfrombothofhisbusinessesand
insteadheldcourtinvariousNewYorknightclubs.Simmons,whohadengagedin
118Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.91.
119Charnas,TheBigPayback.185.
206
recreationaldrugusesincehisdaysasamarijuanadealer,hadmovedontoharder
drugs.HewasmostenamoredwithPCP,orangeldust,andwouldlaterrecallhis
attractiontothedrug,“itwasn’tacoolrushlikecocaineortrippylikeacid,butitdid
somethingtoyourheadthatwasuniquetoeachperson.Personally,Ilovedgetting
‘dusty.’Itmademehappy.”120 Yet,Simmonswasalsofondofcocaine,asproducer
ArthurBlakewouldrecall,“Irememberthesmellofburningcocaineinthecigarette:
asortofsicklysweetsmell.”121Despitehavingtwolargecompanies,aswellas
numerousartiststomanage,Simmonswasmorethancontenttodelegatehiswork
tosubordinates,leavinghimthetimetospendhighandoutoftheoffice.In
Simmons’absence,LyorCohenprovedhimselfindispensableatRushManagement,
andCohen’sinfluencewasincreasinglyfeltatDefJam,muchtothedismayof
Rubin.122AlthoughRubinwouldnotdirectlyexpresshisdiscontentwithSimmons’
absenceandCohen’sascensiontohisbusinesspartner,tensionwasgrowing
betweenthetwoDefJamfoundersas1986drewtoaclose.
ANovember4,1986,articleintheVillageVoiceexasperatedthesimmering
tensionbetweenDefJam’sco-founders.Thearticleproclaimed,“He’stheKingof
Rap,ThereisNoneHigher,CBSExecsAllCallHimSire”beforebestowingthetitle
solelyuponRubin.123ThearticlehailedRubinastheactualbrainsbehindtheHipHopphenomenon,onlymentioningSimmonsinpassing.Thearticlealsohighlighted
Rubin’sprivilegedupbringingandcriticizedhislackofknowledgeconcerning
120Simmons.LifeandDef.32.
121Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.95.
122Charnas,TheBigPayback.183.
123BarryWalters.‘TheKingofRap.’VillageVoice.November4,1986.1.
207
musicaltheory.ThearticlewasupsettingtomanyatbothDefJamandRush
Management,butitwasRunwhodraftedanangryresponsetotheVoice’seditorsto
defendhisbrother.Runwrote,“Ifanybody’stheKingofRap,it’sRun-DMC.Andif
it’snotus,it’smybrotherRussellSimmons,who’schartedtwenty-onesinglesthis
year.”124Hecontinued,“RickRubinisnotjustaveryclosefriendofmine,he’sa
greatmulti-talentdeservingofacclaim.Butitfucksmeupthatanybodythinksthat
hemademyalbum.WhenIwritemylyrics,Iwritethemusicandthefinalmixatthe
sametime,andthat’sthemotherfuckingtruth!”125Tohiscredit,Rubinwasregretful
ofthetoneofthearticle.Herecalled,“Ifeltbad….Itdidkindofhurtmyfeelings,
‘causeIfeltlikewewereallonthesameteam.…It’snotlikeIhadmyownpublicist
workingforme.”126DespiteRubin’sremorse,thearticlefurtherstrainedanalready
edgyrelationshipbetweenDefJam’sfounders.
Still,as1987began,DefJamhadarosyoutlookforthefuture.Rubinhad
agreedtodirectTougherThanLeather,aRun-DMC-starringfollow-uptoKrush
Groove,whichbothfoundershopedwouldbemoreseriousintonethanits
predecessor.Additionally,thelabelhadtwoestablishedplatinum-sellingartistsin
LLCoolJandtheBeastieBoys,withnewlysignedactslikePublicEnemyupand
coming.Expectationsforthelabelwerehighandwere,byandlarge,fulfilled.
ThankstothecontinuedsuccessofLicensedtoIllandLLCoolJ’ssophomorerelease,
BiggerandDeffer,aswellasthesoundtracktothefilmLessThanZero,1987wasthe
124Charnas,TheBigPayback.183.
125Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.103.
126Ibid.103.
208
mostprofitableyearforDefJamRecords.Thislevelofsuccesswouldnotbe
repeatedforthelabelfortenyears.127
Thetensionsbetweencompany’sfounderswerebecomingirreversible.
Althoughthecompanywasabletofindcommercialsuccess,mostofitsprofitswere
goingtoColumbiathankstoadistributiondealthatheavilyfavoredthelarger
company.Furthercomplicatingfinancialmatters,forthefirstthreeyearsofits
existence,DefJamwasnotproperlyregisteredwithASCAPorBMI,whichprevented
artistsandthelabelfromreceivingtheirfullperformanceroyalties.128 Evenwhen
DefJamwasabletoearnmoney,thecloserelationshipbetweenitandRush
Managementresultedinmoneyfrombothenterprisesbeingusedindiscriminately
foreithercompany.Sincethetwocompaniessharedthesamesetofbooks,there
wasnowaytotrulytelltheincomeofeithercompany.Althoughgrowingin
popularity,withoutamajorchangeinmanagementandstructure,DefJamwouldbe
unabletosurviveasabusiness.
Simmons’immediateresponsetothechallengesfacingDefJamwasto
promoteCohenevenhigher.Cohen,accordingtostafferFaithNewmanbecame
Simmons’heavy:“somebodytosayno,somebodytoyell,totaketheheat.”129The
moveallowedSimmonstomaintainhisroleasavisionary,whileCohenbecamethe
hardlinenegotiatorwhoturnedSimmons’dreamsintopracticalreality.Cohenwas
abletostraightenoutDefJamandRushManagement’sbooks,toanextent,and
127Ibid.138.
128Ibid.121.
129Ibid.144.
209
enforcemoreprofessionalismintheoffice.However,Cohen’sascensionintheDef
JamhierarchyinfuriatedRubin,whofeltCohensacrificedartisticintegrityforDef
Jam’smarketability.Inaddition,RubinfeltSimmonswasbeingfartoopassiveand
handsoffwiththecompanytheyhadjointlyfounded:“Idon’trememberRussell
takingaveryactiverole.Ithinkofhimasbeingpassive,justhopingitwouldwork
out.130ThecontentionbetweenCohenandRubinstartedasplitwithintheDefJam
offices.AlthoughSimmonstriedtostayasneutralaspossibleintheconflict,the
tensioneventuallyaffectedthefounder.AsheconfidedinBillAdler,thelong-time
personalrelationsheadforDefJam,“Bill,myJewsarefighting.”131
Simmons’issueswerecompoundedbytroubleswithProfileRecords,the
labelwhosignedRun-DMC,aRushManagementact.Despitethegroup’ssuccess,
Profilewasonlypayingtheactaportionofitsearnedroyalties.Forinstance,inthe
summerof1986,Simmonsreceivedacheckfor$486,994,representingtheroyalties
for250,000unitsofRaisingHell.However,theRun-DMCalbumhadcertifiedsalesof
onemillionunits,withactualsalesapproachingthreemillion.132Inadditionto
withholdingroyalties,ProfiledemandedRun-DMCreleaseasecondcontractually
obligatedalbumbyOctober1stof1986.However,Run-DMCwasscheduledtobeon
touruntilJanuaryof1987.Profilerefusedtopaythegroupanymoneyuntilthe
albumwasreceived;adealwhichSimmonsandthegroupfeltwasimpossibledueto
thetouringschedule.Inresponse,SimmonsinformedProfilethegroupwouldnot
130WhislerDefJamRecordings.94.
131Ibid.94.
132Charnas,TheBigPayback.186.
210
deliveranynewmusicuntiltheypaid$6.8million,theamountofroyaltiesowedto
thegroupfromthesuccessofRaisingHell.ProfileaccusedSimmonsofbeing
unreasonableandallegedhishardballtacticswereonlyaploytohavethegroup
releasedfromtheircontractinordertosignwithDefJam.
ThisbrinksmanshipcontinueduntilAugust3,1987,whenRushManagement
filedsuitagainstProfile,accusingthecompanyofnonpaymentofroyaltiesand
“fraudulentaccountingpractices.”133 Profilerespondedwithacounter-suit
contendingSimmonswasouttodefametherecordlabelinordertohavethegroup
signforhisownprivatelabel.Thesuiteventuallywouldbesettledoutofcourtin
thespringof1988.ThesettlementkeptRun-DMConProfilefortenmorealbums,
butforahigherroyaltyrateof40percent.134However,inthetwoyearssinceRunDMCreleasedRaisingHell,thepublichadmovedonfromthegroup.Theirfollow-up
album,TougherThanLeather,failed,costingmoreinprintinganddistributionthan
itactuallyreturned.Likewise,theirRickRubin-directedfeaturefilm,alsoentitled
TougherThanLeather(1988),bombedatthebox-office.DespiteSimmons’best
efforts,hisbrother’sgroupwasnolongerthesuperstarstheyoncewere.
IssueswerealsobrewingatDefJamwiththeBeastieBoys.Theact,still
hugelypopularfromLicensedtoIll,wasseekingoutnewbusinessopportunities.
CohenhadnegotiatedadealwithUniversalStudiostofilmacomedic-horrorpicture
staringthegroupentitledScaredStupid.Rubinbalkedattheidea,findingittoo
commercialandmiddlebrowforhistastes.UndeterredbyRubin’shesitancy,the
133Ibid.187.
134Ibid.199.
211
groupandCohenpressedon.Inretaliation,Rubinrefusedtoletthehypothetical
filmcontainanyofthegroup’ssongs,sinceDefJamownedtherightstotheBeastie
Boys’music.135FacedwiththeprospectofafilmstartingtheBeastieBoyswithout
anyoftheirmusic,Universalstoppedpursuingtheproject.UpsetwithCohen’s
encroachmentonthegroupRubinhadinitiallybroughttothelabel,inadditionto
hisongoingdissatisfactionwithDefJam’smanagerialdirection,Rubinbegan
advisingthegrouptoseekotherlabels.AdamHorovitzrecalledRubintellinghim
abouttheroyaltydealthegrouphadwithDefJam:“Iforgetexactlywhatthe
numberswere-butlike,theBeastiesgotthree,andheandRussellgotthirty-five…I
remembergoingbacktoAdamandMikeandtellingthemaboutthepoints.That’s
whenitallstartinggoingsouth-anditallhappenedreallyfast.”136Upsetbywhat
theydeemedanunfairsplit,thegroupdecidedtonotrecordtheircontractually
obligatednextalbumforDefJam.Inresponse,DefJamwithheldthegroup’s
royaltiesfromLicensedtoIllandthreatenedtosuethemforbreachofcontract.The
situationculminatedwhenthegroupleftDefJamtosigna$3.6millioncontractwith
CapitalRecords.137TheBeastieBoysleavingDefJamwasaheart-breakingsituation
forallparties.Simmonswouldlatercallthegroup’sdeparturethebiggestmistake
hehadevermade.138Rubinwouldlikewisefeelsadnessrecallingthesituation:“The
135Ibid.183.
136Whisler.DefJamRecordings.94.
137Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.151.
138Whisler.DefJamRecordings.96.
212
Beasties’leavingreallybrokemyheart.ItwasreallysadbecauseIreallyfeltlikea
bigpartofthemandthiswasourthingtogether.”139
ThedepartureoftheBeastiesBoyswasthefinalstrawforRubin’sgrowing
discontentwithDefJam.HewastiredofSimmonsinaction,aswellasCohen’s
influenceonsteeringthelabeltowardspurecommercialism.Inaddition,Rubinhad
relocatedawayfromDefJam’sofficesinNewYorkforaresidenceinLosAngeles,
wherehebecamealoofandunconnectedfromtheeverydaygoingsonatthelabel.
AlthoughheenjoyedSimmons’company,Rubinwasnolongerinterestedinrunning
arecordlabelwithhim.Inthesummerof1988Rubinmetwithhisfriendand
businesspartnerattheNoHoStarrestaurantonthecornerofLafayetteand
BleeckernearDefJam’sofficesinManhattan.140There,thetwofoundersshareda
meal,andRubinsaidhewantedtodissolvetheirpartnership.Simmonsagreedthat
theirpartnershiphadrunitscourse,andthefoundersdivideduptheirassets.Rubin
wouldtaketheartiststhatSimmonshadlittleinterestin(primarilyhardrockacts
likeDanzig,Slayer,andMastersofReality)andformhisownlabelinCalifornia,Def
America.SimmonswouldmaintainDefJam’sname,logo,andHip-HopandR&Bacts.
Althoughsaddenedtoleavethecompanyhehadfounded,Rubinwouldlaterremark
onhowthesplitwasultimatelymutuallybeneficialtobothparties:“It’sinteresting
howourlivesplayedoutbecausewebothgotwhatwewanted.Mygoalswere
alwaysrelatedtocreatinggreatart.Russell’sgoal,Ithink,wasalwaystogeta
139Ibid.96.
140Charnas,TheBigPayback.197.
213
check.”141Atagetwenty-five,Rubinpublicallyleftthecompanyhehadfoundedin
hisdormroom.Althoughhewouldretainalargepercentageofownershipinthe
label,Rubinofficiallyhadnomoresayinthecompany’sdirection.
ThesplitbetweenRubinandSimmonswasmetwithvaryingdegreesof
surprisefromDefJamstaffers,butmostfeltRubin’sdeparturewouldnotultimately
harmthelabel.BillStephney,whowaspromotedtopresidentofDefJamfollowing
Rubin’sdeparture,recalledhisreactiontothenews:“Ifeltlikemyparentswere
divorcing.…theyhadbeenfightingforyears,andtherewasfinallyaresolution.”142
However,hestillheldfasttoSimmons’centralityfortheongoingsuccessofthe
label,“ButifRickbuiltDefJam,it’sstillsubordinatetoRussell’sbuildinghip-hop.
Russellbuilttheculture.TherewouldbenohipDefJam,orthesuccessofRickwith
DefJam,withoutthemagicofRussellSimmons,whoessentiallycarriedtheculture
onhisshouldersandmoveditallalong.”143LyorCohen,whoembodiedmuchof
Rubin’sgrowingresentmentatDefJam,wassimilarlynonchalant:“WasIsurprised
whenRickleft?Yes,butnecessity’samotherfucker,sowhatelsewassupposedto
happen?Therewasnootherwayitcould’veplayedout.”144 Columbia’sreactionto
thesplitwaslikewiseunconcerned.RubenRodriguez,Columbia’sVPofBlackMusic
atthetimeofthedeparturerespondedwith“thefaceofDefJamwasRussell.You
141Whisler.DefJamRecordings,116.
142Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.152.
143Whisler.DefJamRecordings,116.
144Ibid.116.
214
neverwanttoseeacombinationlikethatbreakup,butIdidn’tworry,becauseIfelt
likeRussellcouldstandonhisown.”145
Unsurprisingly,Rubin’sdeparturefromDefJamresultedwithSimmons
delegatingevenmorepowertoCoheninthefallof1988.Althoughtechnicallystilla
partofRushManagement,Cohen’sroleasSimmons’surrogateatDefJamresultedin
morestablegrowthforthecompany.Moreactsweresigned,includingaone-eyed
BritishbornrapperRicky“SlickRick”Walters,theLongIsland-basedduoEPMD,
andthewhiterapperduo3rdBass.Inaddition,PublicEnemywasimmensely
popular,withtheirsophomorealbumItTakesaNationofMillionstoHoldUsBack
goingplatinumbythesummerof1989.Inaddition,CohenhiredCarmenAshhurst
toserveasanadministratorforSimmons’variousenterprises.Itwasunderthe
adviceofAshhurstthatSimmonsconsolidatedhisvariousventuresunderneatha
singleparentcompany.Thenewcompany,calledRushCommunications,notonly
containedDefJamandRushManagement,butwould,intime,consistoffashion
brands,advertisingfirms,andphilanthropicpursuits,aswellasfilmandtelevision
productions.146TheformationofRushCommunicationsalsoseparatedthebooksof
DefJamandRushManagement,whichhadbeenindiscriminatelymixedsincethe
foundingofDefJamfiveyearsprior.
1989alsomarkedamajorchangeinSimmons’behavior.Afteryearsof
neglectinghisresponsibilitiesathiscompaniesinfavorofnightclubsanddrugs,
Simmonssoberedupandbecameobsessedwithhishealth.Thisobsessionbegan
145Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.153.
146Ibid.158.
215
whenRobertRodriguez,Columbia’sVPofBlackMusic,forcedSimmonstovisitthe
TenthStreetBaths,aRussianBathhouseintheEastVillage.Simmonsfoundthe
bathsweremoreexhilaratingthandrugusehadbeen.Healsobegantryinga
healthierdietandwasparticularlytakenbysushiatatimewhenitwasnotwidely
popularintheUnitedStates.AlthoughstillunlikelytovisitDefJam’soffice,Simmons
startedtotakeamoreactiveroleinhisbusinessesfromhisapartment,calling
distributorsinordertomakesureDefJamwasreceivingitsproperroyaltiesand
Cohentoinsuretheofficewasbeingrunwell.Bythespringof1989,DefJamhad
outgrownitsofficesonElizabethStreetanddecidedtomoveintoaloftspaceat652
Broadway.147ThismovetoanewofficewastobeginarevitalizationforDefJam
afterthedepartureofRubin.
YetSimmons’revitalizationcorrespondedwithadownturninthefortunes
andpopularityofDefJamanditsartists.Artistswhohadpreviouslybeenreliable
hit-makerslikeLLCoolJwerenotreplicatingtheirearliersuccesses.Inaddition,the
newactssignedbythelabel,suchasNewkirkwhowasdesignedtobeDefJam’s
answertoPrince,weresimilarlyunsuccessful.DefJam’slackofsaleshurttheir
relationshipwithColumbia.Seekingtoexpandtheirchancesforsuccess,Simmons
andCohendecidedtoformRushAssociatedLabels,orRALforshort.RALwould
giveartiststheirownimprintonDefJam,muchlikehowDefJamwasasubsidiaryof
Columbia.Inexchangeforaheftypercentageoftheimprints’ownership,RALwould
allowartiststoseekouttheirowngroupsandhopefullyfindthenextgreathit
rappersandmusicians.ThecreationofRALwasinitiallyasuccess,thanksinlarge
147Ibid.167.
216
parttoJMJRecords,animprintfoundedbyRun-DMCmemberJamMasterJay,and
DewDooMan,formedbyupcomingmusicproducerPaul“PrincePaul”Huston.
IncelebrationofDefJam’simprovedprospects,Simmonsmovedintoa$1.6
millionpenthouseapartmentat692BroadwayandFourthStreetpreviouslyowned
byCher.Simmons’relocationalsocorrespondedtohisincreasinginclusionin
mainstreamcelebrity.Forinstance,oneofSimmons’newneighborswasactor
RobertDeNiro.Withinamonthofmovingtothenewbuilding,Simmonswasa
partnerinDeNiro’srestaurantTribecaBar&Grill.148Simmonsgrewfondofthe
upscalelifestyle,relishingtripstoritzylocalesliketheHamptonsandSt.Barthelme.
Hewouldrecallfeelingveryincludedinthisnewworld,“thepeopleIencountered
andbefriendedintheseupscaleenvironmentshelpedmeseehowthe[Hip-Hop]
culturewasgoingmainstreamandfindlinkswhereotherpeoplesawbarriers.”149
Simmons’newupscalelifestyleincludedaninterestinmodels.Hislustformodels
wouldintimebecomeasofequalaviceashisinterestinnightclubsanddrugshad
previouslybeen.
ButSimmons’personalgainsdidnotequatebenefitforhiscompany.The
initialsuccessofRALwasnotlong-lasting.Theimprintlabelsgrewtoolargein
number,weretooexpensiveintheirstart-upcosts,andneverreturnedthehit
recordsSimmonshadexpected.Althoughsomesuccessfulnewartistsweresigned
byDefJamduringthistimeperiod,suchasClifford“MethodMan”SmithoftheWuTangClanandReginald“Redman”Noble,theirinclusiondidnothelpinreducingDef
148Ibid.185.
149Simmons,LifeandDef,164.
217
Jam’sgrowingdebttoColumbia.Inaddition,GangstaRap,whichwasmoreviolent
andaggressivethanDefJam’sHip-Hopofferings,wasgrowinginpopularityinthe
early1990s.DefJam’smusic,whichhadoncebeenattheheightofpopularityand
synonymouswithrapmusic,wasbeginningtoloseitsedge.Theonebrightspotfor
theDefJamlabelduringthistimeperiodwasthesuccessofDefComedyJamon
television.Theshow,producedbySimmonsaspartofhisRushPicturesand
broadcastbyHBO,wasconsiderablypopular,attracting1.7millionviewersduring
itsfirstseason.150DefComedyJamwasanoutletforblackcomediansandlaunched
manycareers,suchasthoseofBernieMac,JamieFoxx,ChrisTucker,andMartin
Lawrence.Thetelevisionshow,eachepisodeofwhichconcludedwithSimmons
biddingtheaudiencefarewell,keptupDefJam’sprofileeventhoughthecompany
waslagginginsales.
Simmons’personalprofilewasalsobolsteredbyhisotherenterprises.In
particular,hisclothinglabelPhatFarmwouldcometoexemplifySimmonsasmuch
ashisownershipofDefJam.Foundedin1992withastartingcapitalofaroundhalfa
milliondollars,PhatFarmexistedinthesamemarketspacewithFubu,Wu-Wear,
andotherbrandsmarketingclothestourbanyouth.Althoughittooksixyearsfor
thecompanytobecomeprofitable,Simmonsgladlyinvested“$10millionincashin
thatcompany‘causeIbelievedinmyvision.”151Simmons’visionwouldbe
150GregBraxton."LAUGHZNTHEHOOD:Television:AShowcaseforUnknownBlackComics,
'RussellSimmons'DefComedyJam'BeginsItsSecondSeasonFridayonHBO."LosAngelesTimes.
July06,1992.AccessedJanuary29,2016.http://articles.latimes.com/1992-0806/entertainment/ca-5268_1_def-comedy-jam/2.
151Ibid.157.
218
rewarded,asPhatFarmwouldgrossover$225millioninrevenueintheyear2000
alone,demonstratingSimmons’beliefinthecompany’sfuturewassubstantiated.
HoweversuccessfulSimmons’otherventureswere,thatsuccessdidnot
detractfromthefactthatDefJamwasincreasinglyindebttoColumbia,andits
parentcompanySony.AlthoughRALwasdesignedtoincreasethelabel’srevenue,
itslimitedsuccessresultedinDefJamowningColumbiaover$17millionby1994.
AlthoughDefJamwasabletofindlimitedsuccessthankstonewartistsliketherap
groupOnyxandhadrecentlysignedWestCoastGangstaRapperWarren“WarrenG”
Griffin,whowasthestepbrotheroffamedproducerAndre“Dr.Dre”Young,itdid
littletoalleviatetheirdebt.WithSimmonsmoreinterestedinotherventures,itfell
uponLyorCohentofigureoutawayDefJamcouldcomeoutfromthisdebt.The
firstactionCohendidwastoofficiallyeliminateRushManagement.Cohenfoundthe
companytobeafinancialdrain,sincehewasconstantly“advancingmoney,loaning
money,deferringcommissions….Ididn’twanttochaseanyonedownfora
commissioncheck.”152Cohenalsobeganactivelycourtingothermajorrecordlabels
toacquireDefJamandhopefullyrelievetheirdebttoColumbia.Hefoundlimited
successatfirst,withmeetingsatRCAandotherlabelsgoingpoorly.
However,theconglomeratePolygramhadbeenpurchasingmusiclabels
hopingtogetintotheblackmusicbusiness.HavingacquiredMotownin1993,
CohenrightfullybelievedPolygramwasmoreinterestedinpurchasingname
recognitionratherthanfinanciallyprofitablecompanies.Cohenbegannegotiations
withthefirminthesummerof1994.Polygramwashesitantatfirst,sincePublic
152Whisler.DefJamRecordings.134.
219
Enemy’salbumreleasedinAugustof1994,MuseSick-n-HourMessAge,wasacritical
andcommercialfailure,butthesuccessofWarrenG’s“Regulate”convincedthem
thatDefJamwasstillrelevant.153Thedeal,whichwasofficiallyannouncedin
September,gavePolygrama50percentequitystakeinexchangeforaround$33
million.Simmonswouldlatercallthedeal“thegreatestthingintheworld,”since
“here’salabelthatwasdefunctandworthnothingandthatowes$17milliontoits
parentcompany,andwesellitfor$33million.”154Simmonswouldalsoboast,“so
insteadofbeing$17millioninthehole,weendedupwith$15millionintheblack
afterlawyers’andaccountantsfees.”155ThemovealsocementedCohenasthe
poweratDefJam,althoughSimmonswasstillthefaceofthecompany.Anexecutive
atPolygraminformedCohenthatSimmons,evenhalf-focused,wasworthdoubleof
whatPolygrampaidforDefJam.156ThedealwithPolygramalsoallowedCohenand
SimmonstoresolveissueswithRubin,whowasnowfirmlyinplaceinCalifornia
withhisownrecordlabel.TheinfluxofcashallowedforRubintobeboughtout
fromhisownershippointsandfullyrestoredthefriendshipbetweenhimselfand
Simmons.Althoughthetwohadtheirdifferencesasco-foundersandownersofDef
Jam,theirpersonalrelationshipwascompletelymended.
ThePolygramdealgavenewlifetoDefJamatatimewhenrapmusicwas
onceagaininflux.DefJamscoredamajorhitwithWarrenG’s“Regulate”inthe
winterof1994,whichgavethelabelsomecreditabilityintherealmofGangstaRap
153Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.241.
154Whisler.DefJamRecordings.142.
155Simmons,LifeandDef.113.
156Whisler.DefJamRecordings.142.
220
whereitwasotherwiselacking.However,thetrendsofrapmusicwerechanging
onceagain.SeanCombs,aformerinternatAndreHarrell’sUptownRecords,had
startedhisownlabelcalledBadBoy.Combs’flashydemeanorbothpersonallyand
forhisartistsclashedwiththemoresubduedimageryprevalentinEastCoastrap,
suchasthosedemonstratedbyDefJam.BadBoyartistssoaredinpopularityasa
whole,whileDefJamwasstillsearchingtogetitsfootinginthisnewtrend.LongtimestafferChrisLightyrecalled,“WewerefightingagainstPuffy,justfor
survival.”157
ThechangeintastealsocorrespondedwithchangesinDefJam’sartists.
Long-timeactslikePublicEnemyleftthelabel.Ridenhour,thegroup’sleader,had
growndissatisfiedwithDefJam’sdirection,callingthecompany“nothingbut
followers.They’reanirresponsiblecrackhouseofarecordcompany.”158Inaddition,
Simmons’personalitystrainedrelationshipswithotherDefJamartists.Richard
“SlickRick”Waltersappearedinasegment1995’sTheShow,adocumentaryabout
Hip-Hop.ThesegmentshowsSimmonsvisitingWalters,servingoutasentencefor
attemptedmurder,inprison.AlthoughSimmonswascordialtoWaltersoncamera,
hisvoice-overberatedWalters,whohecalled“ascrazyasabagofangeldust.”159In
addition,SimmonsstatedtheonlyreasonhewasgoingtoseeWalterswasbecause
ofthedocumentary,adding“makesureyoukeepthatin,Iwantittobereal.”160The
moveupsetWalters,whofeltbetrayedbySimmons.Hewouldlaterrecall:“you
157Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.256.
158Ibid.251.
159TheShow(1995)SavoyPictures.
160Ibid.
221
extendyourselftothelabel;youshowallthislovetothelabel…onlyforthemtoturn
aroundandtrytodisrespectyou.”161 DefJam’smovestodismissolderartistsin
ordertoadapttoachangingmarketplaceweremarginallysuccessful,butthey
neededtobereplacedbyyoungertalent.
RealizingthemistakesmadebytheunprofitableRushAssociatedLabels
fiasco,DefJamtweakeditsstrategywhenitcametosigningfutureacts.Insteadof
assigninganalreadyestablishedartistalabelforwhichtheycouldfindnew
performers,inessenceservingasadefactotalentscoutsforthelabel,DefJam
wouldinsteadfindpre-establishedsmallrecordlabelsandbecometheirdistributor.
ThepreviouslyindependentlabelwouldbecomeasubsidiaryofDefJamandtheir
parentcompanyPolygram,butwouldgainthedistributionandmarketingdollarsof
thelargercompany,aswellasbeingaffiliatedwiththeDefJamname.Thefirst
projectundertakenunderthisnewsystemwasthesigningofIrving“IrvGotti”
Lorenzo,whomanagedastableofartistsknownastheCashMoneyClick.Lorenzo
wassignedbyCoheninlater1995inordertoreachCashMoneyClick’sstarartist,a
youngrapperfromHollis,QueensnamedJeffery“JaRule”Atkins.AlthoughAtkins
wasalreadyundercontractwiththeindependentTVTrecords,Lorenzo’sscouting
abilitiesimpressedCohen.CohenchargedLorenzotoscoutoutmoreactsand
independentlabelsthatcouldbesignedtoDefJam.
Lorenzo’sabilitiesdidnotdisappoint.ThefirstartistLorenzobroughttothe
attentionofDefJamwasaBrooklyn-bornformerdrugdealernamedShawnCarter,
whoadopted“Jay-Z”ashisstagename.Carterhadformedhisownrecordlabel,Roc
161Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.255.
222
a-FellaRecords,in1995withtwootherpartners:Kareem“Biggs”Burke,another
formerdrugdealerwhofrontedmuchofthemoneyfortherecordlabeland
otherwisestayedlargelysilentandelusive,andDamonDash,aboisterousfrontman
whosoughttomonetizeandcommercializetheRoc-a-Fellanameasostentatiously
aspossible.TheyfoundedthecompanywiththesoleintentofinsuringCarter’s
musicwouldgetasmuchdistributionbyanymeansnecessary,andtherebybe
lucrativeforthefounders.Thefounders’firstmeetingwithDefJamexecutiveKevin
Lilesin1996beganwiththeRoc-a-Fellatrioplacingashoppingbagfullofcashon
Liles’deskinordertoserveasabribetoensuredistribution.Lilesrecallsrebuffing
theofferandstating,“insteadofmelookinginthebag,letmehearthe
records…causeIcan’tpromisetogetdogshitplayedontheradio.”162Thebribewas
ultimatelyunnecessarysinceLileswasimpressedbyCarter’srhymesandofferedto
signhimasanartisttoDefJam.However,Carterrespondedtotheoffernegatively
andsaid:“Idon’trapforarecordcompany.Iownarecordcompany.”163Stunnedby
Carter’scandor,Lilesofferedtoaidinhelpingthecompanysignadistributiondeal
withDefJam.TheagreementbetweenRoc-a-FellaandDefJamwaseventually
signedonApril8,1997,andgaveRoc-a-Fellacompleteautonomytohireandfire
artists,aswellaslimitedassociationwiththeirnewparentcompany.164Thedeal
wouldbemassivelysuccessfulforbothcompanies,asCarterwouldbecomeamulti-
162Whisler.DefJamRecordings.188.
163Ibid.188.
164Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.267.
223
platinum-sellingartist,andRoc-a-FellaRecordswouldlikewisesignnumerous
successfulacts,mostnotablytherapper-producerKanyeWest.
Lorenzo’sothersigningsweresimilarlysuccessful.Shortlyafterbringing
CartertoDefJam,LorenzoalsobroughtEarl“DMX”Simmonstothelabel.165
OriginallyfromYonkers,DMX’sgravellyvoiceandexplicitpain-filledrhymeswere
unlikeanythingpreviouslyheardinHip-Hop,andLorenzowascertainDMXwould
beamassivehit.Lorenzo’sbeliefwasmockedbyhisbossesatDefJam,whodoubted
DMX’spersonawouldbesuccessful.JulieGreenwald,aseniorexecutiveatDefJam,
rememberedLorenzowritingthreethingsonawhiteboardbehindherdesk:DMX,a
triangle(thesymbolusedtodenoteplatinumalbumsales),andthenumberfive.She
recalledherdisbelief:“Getouttahere,Irv!Thiskidain’tgonnasellfivemillion
records.”166However,GreenwaldwasmistakenaboutLorenzo’spredictionaswell
asDMX’ssales.DMX’sfirstalbumalone,It’sDark&HellisHot,releasedinMayof
1998,debutedatnumberoneontheBillboardchartsenroutetogoingfourtimes
platinum.167DMXfollowedupthisalbum’ssuccesswithasecondalbumthesame
year.FleshofMyFlesh,BloodofMyBloodwasreleasedinDecemberof1998and
similarlydebutedatnumberoneonBillboard.AlthoughFleshofMyFleshonlywent
threetimesplatinumasopposedtoitspredecessor’sfour,DMX’simpressivesales
165EarlSimmonsisnorelationtoRussellSimmonsandwillbecalledDMXinthisworkinorderto
easilydistinguishbetweenthetwomen.
166Whisler.DefJamRecordings.200.
167http://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php
224
demonstratedLorenzo’scapacitytofindartistsandwasthecapstoneto1998,Def
Jam’smostprofitableyearasacompany.168
DefJam’ssuccessin1998alsocorrespondedtochangesinSimmons’
personallife.OnDecember20,1998,SimmonsmarriedmodelKimoraLeeata
privateceremonyontheislandSt.BarthélemyperformedbySimmons’brotherRun,
whohadbecomeanordainedministerfollowingthedownturnofRun-DMC’s
popularity.ThemarriagewastheculminationofseveralchangesinSimmons’life.
Simmonshadbecomeavegan,embracedEasternspiritualismandphilosophy,and
hadbecomeanardentpractitionerofyogainthetenyearssincebecomingsoberin
thelate1980s.AlthoughSimmonswasstillasdrivenashehadeverbeenwhileon
drugsinDefJam’sformativeyears,heviewedmarriageandthechangesinhislifeas
amaturationofhisearlierhustle.Hewouldwrite,“myfirstfortyyearswereabout
consumptionandmoneyandpower,Iamhopefulthatyearstocomewillbeabout
service.”169Hewouldlikewiseremarkhewantedhistombstonetoread
“Philanthropist,”not“GreedyEntrepreneur.”170
RegardlessofthechangesinSimmons’personalviewsonmoney,itremained
that1998wasincrediblyprofitableforDefJam,and1999wouldbringaneven
largerpersonalpaydayforSimmons.InMayof1998,Seagram’s,aCanadian
beverageandentertainmentconglomeratethatalreadyownedMCA,Interscope,and
GeffenRecordsunderitsUniversalMusicumbrella,purchasedPolygramandallits
168Whisler.DefJamRecordings.212.
169Simmons,LifeandDef.219.
170Ibid.219.
225
assetsfor$10.6billion.171ThedealalsostatedUniversalwouldpurchasePolygram’s
fiftypercentstakeinDefJamin1999ataratedeterminedbyanequationbased
uponDefJam’ssalesnumbersfortheprioryear.Because1998wasan
unprecedentedlysuccessfulyearforthelabel,DefJampocketed$135millionfrom
thedeal.172Inaddition,SimmonsnegotiatedwithUniversaltosellhisremaining
fortypercentstakeinDefJam,leavinghimnoequityinthecompany.Thedeal,
completedinAprilof1999andthenumbersofwhicharestillprivate,earned
Simmonsintheneighborhoodof130milliondollars.173Withthesale,DefJam
becametheblackmusicarmofUniversal’sIslandDefJamgroup,whichkeptLyor
Cohenasitsco-president.Asco-president,Cohenwouldalsooverseerockacts
signedtoIsland,aswellastherapgroupsonDefJam.Ironically,Cohenalsobecame
thebossofRickRubin,whoseAmericanRecordslabelwasnowpartoftheIsland
DefJamgroupthankstoUniversal’sreorganization.174EventhoughRubinleftDef
JamtoescapeCohen’sinfluence,hewasultimatelyunabletopermanentlyavoidhis
adversaryatthelabel.
SimmonsremainedatIslandDefJamforatimeashonorarychairmanofDef
Jam,buthisinterestwasfirmlyinhisotherenterprises.By2004,Simmons’Rush
171“SeagrambuysPolyGram:CompanywilltakeTropicanapublictohelpfinance$10.6billiondeal”
May21,1998.CNN.
http://money.cnn.com/1998/05/21/deals/tropicana/
172Whisler.DefJamRecordings.214.
173TheexactnumberthatSimmonssoldhisstakeinDefJamtoUniversalforwasfairlyfluid.Most
biographiesofSimmonsstatedthesalewasaround$100million,butStacyGueraseva’sDefJam,Inc.,
whichisthemostexhaustivebookpreviouslywrittenaboutDefJam’sexistence,claimedSimmons
earned$250milliondollarsforthedeal.Theclaimof$130millionforfortypercentofDefJamcomes
fromSimmons’autobiography,werehementionsthenumber,butisotherwiseuncharacteristically
coyonthedetailsofthepurchasebyUniversal.
174Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.275.
226
Communicationsbusinesshadseveralfirmsinenterprisesasdiverseasreality
television,poetryslams,andpre-paiddebitcards.Inaddition,hesoldPhatFarmto
theKellwoodCompanyfor$140millioninearly2004.175Simmonswouldutilizethe
proceedsfromthesemassivesalestostartotherbusinesses.Althoughmanyofhis
start-upsfailed,suchastheRushModelingAgency,RushBroadcasting,and
OneWorldMagazine,heremainedunafraidinpioneeringHip-Hopcultureinother
industries.Althoughnolongerdirectlyinvolvedinthecreationofrapmusic
recordings,SimmonsembodiedtheHip-Hopculturehehelpedtocreatelongafter
histimeasheadofDefJam.
DefJaminitiallyhadsuccessfollowingitssaletoUniversal.Thenew
millenniumbeganwiththelabelexpandedintonewmarkets,includinganR&Blabel
(DefSoul),alabeldedicatedtoSouthernRap(DefJamSouth,headlinedbyChris
“Ludacris”BridgesandhisDisturbingThaPeaceposse),DefJamGermany,andeven
videogames(thecompany’sfirstreleasewas2003’sDefJamVendettawhich
depictedrappersfightingasprofessionalwrestlers).Inaddition,Lorenzowas
rewardedwithhisownimprintonIslandDefJam,whichhenamedMurderInc.,and
wassimilarlysuccessful.CohenalsoexpandedIslandDefJam’sinfluenceonother
genres,offeringanexecutivepositiontoFredDurst,theleadsingeroftherap-metal
groupLimpBizkit,andsigningdivaMariaCareytoalavish$28milliondealin2002.
IslandDefJamwasmassivelysuccessfulandbroughtin$100millioninprofits
175TracieRozhon.“PhatFashionsIsBeingSoldToKellwoodfor$140Million”NewYorkTimes.
January9,2004.http://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/09/business/phat-fashions-is-being-sold-tokellwood-for-140-million.html?_r=0
227
duringtheyear2001alone.176RickRubinevenreturnedtoIslandDefJamtoserve
asaproduceronCarter’s2003releaseTheBlackAlbum.Thesong“99Problems”
markedRubin’sreturntoproducingrapmusicforthefirsttimesince1989.
Despitethesuccess,CohengrewlistlessatIslandDefJam.Thesplashymoves
hehadmade,suchassigningMariahCarey,hadnotpannedoutasexpected.In
addition,Lorenzo’sMurderInc.labelwasunderfederalinvestigationformoney
laundering.UnwillingtocorrecttheissuesatIslandDefJam,Cohenleftthecompany
inearly2004totakeapositionasCEOofWarnerMusicGroup,TimeWarner’s
recorddivision.CohenstayedatWarnerBrothersuntilSeptemberof2012,whenhe
suddenlyleftthecompanyforpersonalreasons.177
CohenwasreplacedatIslandDefJambyAntonio“L.A.”Reid,whoappointed
long-timeDefJamstafferKevinLilesaspresidentofDefJaminthespringof2004.
LileswasfiredbyReidinAugustofthesameyear,andalmostimmediatelyjoined
CohenatWarnerMusicGroup.LilesdepartureleftavacancyatDefJam’spresident
thatwasultimatelyfilledbyShawnCarteraspartofhisretirementfromrapping
andthe“Jay-Z”persona.CarterwouldonlystaypresidentofDefJamuntil2007,
whenhequitthepositiontoreturntorappingfulltime.InthetimesinceCarter’s
departure,DefJamremainedasubsidiaryofUniversal’smusicgroupandnever
returnedtotheprominenceitonceheldduringitsfounders’tenure.
176Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.281.
177RandyLewis.“LyorCohenresignsaschairman,CEOofWMG'srecordedmusicdivision”
September25,2012.LosAngelesTimes.
http://articles.latimes.com/2012/sep/25/entertainment/la-et-ms-lyor-cohen-resign-warner-musicgroup-20120925.
228
LikeMotown,muchofDefJam’scommercialappealcamefromitsnameand
theimageryprovoked.Simmons,Rubin,andDefJam’sartistswereabletocrafta
depictionofadamantandunapologeticblackness,whileremainingcommercially
viableandappealingtothemainstream.DespiteSimmons’lackofinterestin
directlyhelmingarecordlabel,histruepassionwasfoundinaidinginthecreation
ofaHip-Hopaestheticthatwasequallyobtainableandaspirational.Simmons
creationofarapculturalwashisultimatelegacy,andhewascentralintheresulting
culture’sfoundation.Hip-HophadgrownfromayouthmovementlocalizedinNew
YorkCityintoabona-fideinternationalphenomenonbaseduponthemessage
purveyedbySimmonsthroughcommercialmeans.
229
CHAPTERSIX:THEECONOMICANDCULTURALDECISIONSOFRUSSELL
SIMMONS
“Washington:1963,”thenarratorconcluded,“Democracyspeakswitha
mightyvoice,”summarizinganewsreeloftheMarchonWashington.1Lasting
aroundaminute,thefilmhighlightedthecivilityandrespectabilityofthe
demonstratorsatthe1963MarchonWashington.Butatthecloseofthenewsreel,
thevoiceofCharles“ChuckD”Ridenhourcamein.“Checkthisoutman,”Ridenhour
began,“Werollingthisway.Thatmarchin1963?That’sabitofnonsense.Weain’t
rollinglikethatnomore.Matterfact,theyoungblackAmerica?Werollingupwith
seminars,pressconferences,andstraightuprallies,amIright?”2Acrowdcheered
Ridenhour’sassessment,echoingthebeliefthatthecivilityof1963wasindeed
“nonsense.”SobegantheSpikeLee-directedmusicvideofor“FightthePower.”The
videowasatie-inwithLee’supcomingsummerof1989releaseDotheRightThing,
whichfocusedonracialissuesinAmericainapost-CivilRightssociety.Althoughthe
CivilRightsMovementofthe1960shadbeenlabeledatriumph,therewasagreat
dealofresentmentintheAfrican-Americancommunitythatthemovementfailedto
createlastingsocialchange.Facingincreasedeconomicdisparityandincidentsof
racialviolencethatgarnerednationalattention,therewasagrowingsentiment
amongyoungblackAmericansthatifchangeweregoingtocome,itwouldhaveto
bethroughmeanslesspolitethanthe“nonsense”of1963.Withsuchvolatilesubject
1“FightthePower”.PublicEnemy.1989.MusicVideo
2Ibid.
230
matter,PublicEnemyseemedanaturalchoicetoembodythedefiance,bravado,and
downrightangerfeltwithinmuchoftheAfrican-Americancommunity.
YetevenasPublicEnemywasonthecuspofincreasednationalexposurefor
theirracialaudacity,thegroup’spossiblesuccesswaspotentiallyunderminedby
oneoftheirown.OnMay22,1989,aninterviewwithmemberRichard“Professor
Griff”GriffinwaspublishedintheWashingtonPost.Whatwassupposedtobea
discussionofthegroup’smusicdevolvedintoananti-Semitictirade.Griffinclaimed,
“Jewsareresponsibleforthewickednessoftheworld,”beforelaunchingintoa
diatribeonthesupposedJewishcontroloverthemusicbusiness.3Griffinfurther
claimedthat“JewshaveagripofAmerica,”andthatthey“haveahistoryofkilling
blackmen.”4AlthoughseeminglyinlinewithPublicEnemy’spenchantfor
eschewingpoliticalcorrectness,thecommentscausedagreatdealofpublicoutcry.
Facingboycottsandpicketing,RidenhourquicklydismissedGriffinfromthegroup
inordertopreserveitsreputation.
ButRidenhourdidnotmakethesedecisionsindividually,butinsteadbowed
tothewishesofRussellSimmons,whofearedGriffin’scommentswouldundercut
thegroup’spopularity.ButtheMay22ndcommentswerenotanisolatedincident.
Indeed,asPublicEnemy’s“MinisterofInformation,”Griffinhadmadeacareerof
makingmanycontroversialstatements,whichwereoftenanti-Semitic.Yetafter
earlieroccurrences,RidenhourhaddefendedGriffin’sbeliefsaspartofPublic
3StacyGueraseva.DefJam,Inc.:RussellSimmons,RickRubin,andtheExtraordinaryStoryofthe
World'sMostInfluentialHipHopLabel.(NewYork:OneWorldBallantine,2005)170.
4GregBaker.“TheEducationofProfessorGriff”MiamiNewTimes.July11,1990.
http://www.miaminewtimes.com/news/the-education-of-professor-griff-6362502.
231
Enemy’slargerstanceasapro-blackmusicalgroup.Butnowwithamuchlarger
publicplatform,andfacingprotestthatcouldpotentiallyirreversiblydamagePublic
Enemy’scommercialappeal,condoningGriffin’scommentswouldnolongersuffice.
Politicaldefiancewasallowedtocontinueonlyaslongasitdidnotinterferewith
profits.
Griffin’sdismissalfromPublicEnemyforhisanti-Semiticcomments,with
muchofthegroup’sattractivenessstemmingfromtheirpoliticaldefiance,was
indicativeofthemanagementandownershipstyleofRussellSimmons.Simmons
couldbeaconundruminregardstohisrunningofhisenterprises.Simmonswasan
ardentbelieverthattherebellionespousedbyrapmusicwasthemostauthentic
andgenuineincomparisontoallothergenres.Simmonspackagedthisrebellionin
ordertobeasappealingaspossibleformainstreamconsumption.Underthehelmof
Simmons’leadership,Hip-Hopculturespreadandbecameanationalforce,
embodyingyouthcultureforallraces.Yetinsellingrebelliouscontenttoa
mainstreamaudience,Simmonshadaveryconservativeintent.Althoughheknew
rebelliousmusicwasimmediatelylucrative,hesoughttoexpandhismusicand
businessempireinordertosustainhiswealthshouldthegenrebecomepassé.The
economicandculturaldecisionsmadebySimmonsasheadofDefJam,aswellashis
othercompanies,illuminatedthedevelopmentsinblack-ownedrecordlabelssince
theCivilRightsmovement,aswellasAfrican-Americansocietyingeneral.
Theoreticallyspeaking,theCivilRightsmovementofthe1960swasasuccess
forAfrican-Americans.Legislationsuchasthe1964CivilRightsActand1968Fair
HousingActbannedracialdiscriminationinemploymentandhousing.Butthe
232
passageoflegislationdidnotcorrelatewithimprovedeconomicprospects.
Particularlydevastatingwasthedownturninmanufacturing.Forinstance,HipHop’sbirthplace,theSouthBronx,alonehadlost600,000manufacturingjobs,about
40percentofalljobsinthesectorbythelate1970s.Thiscorrespondedtoadropin
theaveragepercapitaincomeintheborough,fallingto$2,430ayear:40percentof
thenationwideaverageandabouthalfoftheNewYorkCityaverage.5Thistrend
continuedinthe1980s,withPresidentReagan’spolicyofsupply-sideortrickledowneconomicswideningthegapbetweenrichandpoor,particularlyforfamilies
ofcolor.In1983,themediumblackfamilyhadone-elevenththewealthofthe
mediumwhitefamily,withthisgapdoublingby1989.6
Yetdespitediminishedeconomicprospectsintraditionalemployment,the
musicbusinessstillappearedlucrativeforAfrican-Americanartistsintheearly
1980s.ThanksinlargeparttothesuccessofMotown,blackmusicianshad
successfullycrossedoverintothemainstream.Blackactswereabletofindsuccess
onthepopchartsandhadbecomeregularatoptheBillboardcharts.Byall
appearances,blackartistshadengrainedthemselvesintomainstreamconsumer
culture.However,changeswereoccurringintheradioindustrythathad
ramificationsfortheprospectsforblackmusicalacts.Asnationalconglomerates
suchasClearChannelbegantobuystationsacrossthecountry,programming
changedinorderto“superserve”specificaudiences.Inparticular,advertisers
5JeffChang.Can'tStop,Won'tStop:AHistoryoftheHip-hopGeneration.(NewYork:St.Martin'sPress,
2005)13.
6EdwardWolff.TopHeavy:AStudyoftheIncreasingInequalityofWealthinAmerica.(NewYork:The
TwentiethCenturyFundPress,1995).2,17-18.
233
especiallydesiredwhitemalelistenersbetweentheagesoftwelveandtwenty-four.
LeeAbrams,aconsultantandpioneerof“psychographics,”craftedhis“Superstarsof
RockandRoll”format,whichcatereddirectlytothisdesireddemographicbytotally
eschewingblackgenres,suchassoulandfunk,infavorofwhiterockacts.7The
“Superstars”formatwasdifficultforAfrican-Americanartists,withevenblackrock
groupslikeParliamentFunkadelicandTheGapBandfindingthemselvesshutout.
Blackactscouldreceiveairplayon“UrbanContemporary”stations,acatch-all
monikerdesignedtoreplace“black,”outoffearstheracialtermcouldscareaway
potentialadvertisers.Theprogrammersoftheseurbanstationsduringthelate
1970sandearly80stendedtofavorR&Bacts,sincetheytendedtobelessdefiantly
racial.
BlackartistsalsowereinitiallyshutoutofMTV.MTVhadrevolutionizedthe
musicbusiness,withmusicvideosbecominganessentialpartofalabel’soverall
packagingofanartist.Labelscouldnotexpecthitrecordswithouttheexposureand
publicitygeneratedbymusicvideosairedonMTV.Whenthetelevisionnetwork
beganbroadcastingin1981followingaprogrammingscheduleakintothe
“Superstars”format.Thisresultedinacolorbarrieragainstairingmusicvideosof
blackartiststhatlasteduntil1983,whenWalterYetnikoff,thepresidentofCBS
threatenedtopullthemusicvideosfromallCBS-signedartistsuntilthenetwork
agreedtoairMichaelJackson’s“BillieJean”musicvideo.Yetnikoffrecalled,“Isaidto
MTV,‘I’mpullingeverythingwehaveofftheair,allourproduct.I’mnotgoingto
giveyouanymorevideos.AndI’mgoingtogopublicandfuckingtellthemaboutthe
7DanCharnas.TheBigPayback:TheHistoryoftheBusinessofHip-hop.NewYork,NY:NewAmerican
Library,2010.296.
234
factyoudon’twanttoplaymusicbyablackguy.’”8Thenetworkrelentedtothe
externalpressureandonMarch2,1983,agreedtoadd“BillieJean”tothenetwork’s
rotation.Theadditionof“BillieJean”sparkedtheinclusionofmusicvideosbymore
blackartistsonthechannel’sprogramming.BythetimeofDefJam’sfoundingin
1984,thenetworkhadasmallstableofblackartists,likePrince,DianaRoss,and
Jackson,receivingairtime.Inall,althoughthemusicbusinessseeminglyoffered
opportunityforAfrican-Americans,thesuccessofMTVandthe“Superstars”format
limitedprospectsforblackartists.
Yetdespitetheseseeminglydismalprospects,RussellSimmonsbelievedthe
musicbusinesscouldbelucrative.However,despiteaspirationsofaffluencethrough
hiscompanies,Simmons’initialeffortswereshapedbythefacthesimplydidnot
havemucheducationorexperiencebeforestartingRushManagementandDefJam.
Byhisownadmission,Simmonswasneveraverygoodstudent,andquitCity
Collegepriortoreceivinghissociologydegree.Likewise,hisworkexperienceprior
tohismusicventureswaslimitedtoashortstintinfastfood,aswellasafewyears
sporadicallysellingmarijuanaandfakecocaineonthestreets.DisgruntledDefJam
stafferssingledoutSimmonslimitedbusinessknowledgeattimes.Forinstance,
aftera1988memoairinghisgrievancestoRubinandSimmonswentunanswered,
DefJammarketingemployeeBillStephneyunleashedhisfrustrationinacomicstrip
entitled“Deftoons.”ThecomicwascirculatedaroundDefJam’sofficeandstatedthat
RubinandSimmonshad,“thecombinedworkexperienceoftendaysatanOrange
8BruceSwedien.IntheStudiowithMichaelJackson(NewYork:HalLeonardCorporation,2009)37.
235
Julius.”9TobefairtoSimmons,almosteverybodyintherapworldwasveryyoung
andmakingitupastheywentalong.Indeed,Rubinwouldlaterstateitwas
remarkablethatanyoftheirmusicwaspopularduetotherawnessofeveryone
involved:“Thefactwehadanysuccessatallisremarkableandarealtestamentto
howgoodtheworkwas,becauseeverythingelsewaspoorlyhandled--outof
ignoranceandinexperience.”10Indeed,thatSimmonscouldbeconsideredanelder
statesmanevenatthefoundingofDefJamin1984demonstratedjusthowyoung
andamateurisheveryoneelsecreatingrapmusicwas.Simmons’lackofknowledge
meshedwellwiththenaivetyoftheartistshemanaged.AlthoughSimmonshada
clearvisionformainstreamacceptabilityandprofitability,hehadnocoherentidea
astohowtheycouldbereached.ThefactthatSimmonsachievedthelevelofsuccess
hedidsaidmoreabouthisdriveandpersistencethaningenuityorskillasan
administrator.
AsaresultofSimmons’inexperience,severalmistakesweremadeinthe
foundingofDefJam.Thelargestofwhichwasitsintermixedandcomplicated
relationshipwithRushManagement.Therewasnocleardistinctionbetweenthe
twoenterprises,withartistsandstaffersconfusedastothelinebetweenthetwo
entities.Thisconfusionwasfurtherexasperatedbythefactthatbothcompanies
wouldeventuallysharethesameofficebuilding.BeastieBoymemberAdam
Horovitzrecalled,“theDefJam/Rushthingwasweird.Itdidn’tfeellikeDefJamwas
thisplace.ItwastheRushofficewheretherewereallthesepeople.TheDefJam
9CharnasTheBigPayback,197.
10Ibid.xvii
236
officeIdon’tevenknow…like,wherewastheDefJamoffice?Itwasinthesame
building,right?”11OthermembersofDefJam’sstaffpraisedthecorporatesynergy,
evenpreviouslydisgruntledemployees,likeStephney,admittedthat“RushandDef
Jamachievedworkplacediversityinaverynatural,unforcedway…..thiswasinstark
contrasttotherestofthemusicworldduringthatperiod…ifyougototheR&B
departmentofamajorlabel,it’sallblackpeople,andifyougotothepopandrock
department,it’sallwhitepeople.”12Stephneywouldcontinue,“ButyougotoDef
Jamand…it’sthiswonderfuluniverseoffolks,wherethesethingsjustdon’tmatter.
Everybodyjustcametogetherbasedonthemusicandtheculture.”13Rubinwould
alsopraisetheblurredlinesbetweencompanies,notbecauseofthemixtureof
styles,butbecauseitwouldgivehimmorecontactwithanincreasinglyabsentee
Simmons:“Iwasconcernedthetwoofuswerespendinglessandlesstimetogether.
Webuilt298ElizabethStreetforustoliveintogether‘causetherewasalwaystoo
muchtodo,anditfeltlikeRussellwaslessandlessavailabletotalkaboutit.”14
Althoughconfusing,mostemployeesandartistsappreciatedthecloseproximity
betweenthecompaniesasamethodtofostercreativityandauniquecorporate
environment.
ThelackofdistinctionbetweenRushManagementandDefJamoften
confoundedotherrecordlabels,whowereneverquitesureofSimmons’motives.In
11LeahWhisler.DefJamRecordings:TheFirst25YearsoftheLastGreatRecordLabel.(NewYork:
Rizzoli,2011)90.
12Ibid.90-94.
13Ibid.94.
14Ibid.94.
237
general,othercompanieswonderedwhetherSimmonswasbeinghonestand
straightforwardwithhisdealings,orwashetryingtoplaytheotherlabelsinorder
tohavepotentialartistssigntoDefJam.Theconcernswerewarranted,sinceofthe
twenty-sevenactssignedtoRushManagementin1988,elevenwerealsoonDef
Jam.15Additionally,withtheloneexceptionofRun-DMC,themostpopularactson
RushManagementwouldinevitablyfindtheirwaytoDefJam,eitherformallyasa
signedartistsorinformallyastouringpartners.
However,theclosenessbetweenthetwocompanieswasaliabilitywhenit
cametotheiraccountingpractices.Mostegregiously,bothcompaniessharedasetof
booksformanyyears.Becauseofthelackofasoliddivisionbetweenthetwo
companies,itwasallbutimpossibletotracksales,income,andotherbasic
accountingpracticesnecessaryforabusiness.Thislackadaisicalapproachto
accountingwassimilarlymirroredintheotherbusinesselementsofDefJamand
Simmons.AlthoughBillStephneywouldlaterappreciatetheuniquecorporate
cultureatDefJam,inJanuaryof1988,hewrotealettertoSimmonsdecryingDef
Jam’s“’fuckit’attitudetowardsmanagement,administration,signing,spending,
hiring,artists,andteamwork.”16Stephney’saccusationswerewarranted.DefJam’s
jointofficeswithRushManagementdidnothaveenoughdesksfortheentirestaff.
Additionally,thelackoftruejobdescriptionsandtitlesresultedinalacking
corporatehierarchy.AccordingtoStephney’smemo,positionsatDefJamweregiven
15StacyGueraseva.DefJam,Inc.:RussellSimmons,RickRubin,andtheExtraordinaryStoryofthe
World'sMostInfluentialHipHopLabel.(NewYork:OneWorldBallantine,2005)147.
16Ibid.140.
238
notonmerit,butratherforpersonalreasons,writing:“peoplearebeinghired
becausetheywerecool,notbecausetheyarecapable.”17
DespitethebooksbeingsharedwithRushManagement,anditbeingallbut
impossibletodistinguishbetweenthefinancesofthetwocompanies,theexpenses
thatcouldbediscernedbyDefJamalsoappalledStephney.DefJamhadspent
$100,000recordinganalbumforTashan,anR&BsingerwhowasoneofSimmons’
petprojects,whichhadonlysold15,000copies.18Thecompanyalsoregularlygave
advancesandstudiofundstoartistswithoutreceivingassurancethattheirexpenses
wouldbecoveredbyColumbia.ForexampleSimmonsoncegavehischildhood
friendsDavyDandLarryGreen$18,000fromDefJam’scoffersfornodiscernable
reason.Thetwowerenotmusiciansorotherwiseemployeesofthelabel,yet
Simmonsstillgavethemfundsfromthelabel.19Furthermore,whenthelabelwas
givenparametersbyColumbia,DefJamwouldregularlyexceedtheirbudgeting.It
wasnotuncommonforaDefJamalbumtobetensofthousandsofdollarsover
budgetwithnosongsorsinglestootherwiseshowforit.
FurtherexasperatingDefJam’sfinancialwoeswasthatformanyyears,the
companywasnotreceivingitsdueroyaltiesfromsalesoftheirrecordsbecauseof
simpleoversight.UntilthehireofFaithNewmanbyLyorCohenin1988,noneofthe
songsrecordedbyDefJamwereproperlyregisteredwiththeAmericanSocietyof
Composers,Authors,andPublishers(ASCAP)orBroadcastMusicInc.(BMI).20
17Ibid.140.
18Charnas,TheBigPayback.196.
19Ibid.196.
239
Registrationintheorganizationsguaranteedthatpublishersandwriterswould
receiveroyaltiesfromeachperformanceoftheirsongs.Theprocesstojoineither
organizationwasnotdifficult:itonlyrequiredthefillingoutofamembership
packetandpayingtendollarsannually,butnooneinDefJam’sofficesknewthe
procedureortheimportanceofjoiningeitherorganizationuntilNewman’sarrival.
Inessence,althoughDefJamwaspopularandmakingmoneythroughrecordsales,
itanditsartistweremissingoutonasignificantportionofthemoneyduetothem.
Coupledwiththemismanagementofthemoneythatwasreceived,itwaslittle
surprisethatDefJamcouldbe$17millionindebtatthetimeofitssaletoPolygram
in1994.21
Perhapsbecauseofhisinexperience,ormaybebecauseofhisdesiretolive
leisurely,Simmonswaspronetodelegatingtoothers.WhileSimmonswas
ostensiblytheleaderofDefJamandhadagreatdealofcontrolshouldhechooseto
wieldit,histenureaspresidentofthecompanywasmarkedbyhisgivingawayhis
dutiestosubordinates.Indeed,althoughSimmonshadagreatmanytitlesandmuch
powerathisbusinesses,itcouldbedifficulttodiscernwhatexactlyhiswork
entailedonadailybasis.AlthoughSimmonsdidindeedhaveagreatdealofpower
overhisenterprisesandwasultimatelythechiefexecutive,herarelychosetoyield
thatpowerwithinthecompany,andinsteadallocatedsuchcontroltosubordinates.
20Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.121.
21DefJam’sfinancialdocumentsarehousedatCornellUniversity’sBillAdlerarchive.Adler,Along
timeDefJampublicist,donatedhispapers,whichincludedfinancialdocumentsandinternalmemos
fromDefJamandRushManagementaswellaspressreleasesandothermaterialsfromthelabel.
Whilemostofthearchiveisavailableforpublicviewing,thefinancialdocumentsaresealeduntil
2050.Untilthattime,itcanbedifficulttospeakoneithercompany’sfinanceswithanycertainty.
However,itisevidentthatmismanagementwasrampant.
240
Itwaslittlewonderthatintheearly1990sformerDefJamstafferBillStephney
likenedSimmonstoSpudsMacKenzie,thecaninemascotfromBudweiserads.22
Simmonskeptupapersonaofglamourandaffluencethroughhislifestyleand
existedasthepublicfaceforDefJam,hisotherenterprises,andHip-Hopculturein
general,buthadlittletodowiththeactualdecisionmakingathiscompanies.For
Stephney,Simmonswaslittlemorethanamascotwhoutilizedhisnotorietyfor
personalgain,butwaseitherunwillingorunabletoactuallymanageDefJam.
ThetworecipientsofmostofSimmons’powerwere,ashecalledthem,“his
Jews:”RickRubinandLyorCohen.Simmons’initialpartnershipwithRubinworked
becauseofthedifferentinterestsofthetwomen.Priortohispartnershipwith
Rubin,Simmonshadtoserveasbusinesspersonandmusicalproducerforhisacts.
Althoughfinanciallywelloffthankstohisparents,Rubinhadlittleinterestforthe
commercialsideoftherecordbusiness.Financesandensuringartistsgotexposure
heldlimitedappealforRubin,whowasmoreinterestedinthecreationofsongsand
theirartisticmerit,aswellasdevelopingartists.ThedesiresofRubinmeshedwell
withSimmons,whowasmuchmoreadeptatsalesandhustlingtomakesureDef
Jamartistsmadeitontheradio.AlthoughSimmonshadthecapacitytobevery
interestedinartistandmusicaldevelopment,asevidencedbyhiscontroloverRunDMCandhisR&Bpetprojects,hewasmorepronetousehischarismatoensure
recordswereplayedratherthantrulybelievingintheart.Inthemostsimplistic
terms,thepartnershipallowedRubintofocusontheart,whileSimmonsfocusedon
thebusiness.
22Charnas,TheBigPayback.544.
241
However,thisdynamicwasflippedwithSimmons’relationshipand
increasedrelianceuponLyorCohen.DespiteSimmons’ambition,itwasclearly
evidentthathislackoftruebusinessknowledgewasimpedingtheoverallfinancial
wellbeingofDefJam.InCohen,Simmonsfoundanindividualwhowasmoreskilled
andknowledgeableintheareasinwherehelackedskills,namelytheconventional
abilitiesneededtorunacompanydaytoday.Inaddition,Cohenwasnotonlyfixing
thefoundationalissuesinDefJam,butalsobringinginnewrevenuestreamsforDef
Jam,aswellasRushManagementartists,suchashisfacilitationofRun-DMC’s
endorsementdealwithAdidasandimplementationof1-900numbersasanew
sourceofincome.Cohencouldalsobetoughandabrasivewithemployees,which
suitedSimmonswellbecauseherarelylikedbeingthe“mean”boss.WithCohenin
controloverthebusinesssideofDefJam,Simmonswasgiventhefreedomtofocus
ondevelopingnewbusinesses,artists,andtheoverallHip-Hopculture.Ironically,
thisrelationshipwithCohenmirroredhisinitialrelationshipwithRubin,justwith
therolesreversed.
WithboththeartisticandbusinesssidesofDefJamgiventoindividualswith
moreskillsandinterest,Simmonsfoundhimselfwithoutmanytrueresponsibilities.
Inessence,Simmonshadefficientlydelegatedhimselfoutofajob.However,
Simmonsfilledthetimethatmightotherwisebespentworkingwithdrugsand
nightclubs.WhenSimmonsfelttheneedtotakemeetings,hetypicallydidsooutof
hisapartment.Simmonsalsodidagreatdealofbusinessonhisapartment’sphone,
typicallycallingradiostationsinordertoensurehisartistsgotairtimeorColumbia
tocomplainabouttheirlackofpublicity.SimmonswouldalsocheckinonDefJam
242
viathephone,typicallytotalktoCohen,butwouldoccasionallyleavemessagesfor
allemployees.Forinstance,intheFebruaryof1991,Simmonsleftafurious
voicemailforDefJam’spromotiondepartmentafterdiscoveringthattheBlack
Flamessingle“WatchingYou”wasnotreceivingtheairplayhebelievedit
warranted.Inthemessage,Simmonsscreamed,“Idon’tknowwhatthefucky’allare
doing,butifwedon’tfuckingchartthisBlackFlamesrecordthisweek,everybody’s
fired!Everybody!”23Despitebeinganabsenteeowner,Simmons’threatwasnot
receivedashollow,asthepromotionsteamworkedovertimecallingradioprogram
directorstoensurethatthesongeventuallychartedwithBillboard.
EvenonceSimmonseschewedhisinterestindrugsandnightclubsinthe
early1990sinfavorofcreatingmorebusinesses,alongwithEasternphilosophyand
yoga,henevertookbackthecontrolhehaddelegated.Inparticular,during
Simmons’virtualabsence,CohenhadengrainedhimselfdeeplywithinDefJam’s
corporateculture.InsteadofresistingCohen’spresenceinhisenterprises,Simmons
shiftedhisperspectiveonthematter.Inessence,Simmonsframedhimselfasa
visionary,whowoulddreamupambitiousplansandleavetheparticularstoCohen.
Simmonshimselfdetailsthisdescription,aswellasCohen’somnipresenceinhis
ventures,inhisautobiography.SimmonsstatedCoheninitiallydid“thedetailwork
onallmymanagement-relatedbusinessandwouldgrowtobeanindispensiblepart
ofallmymusic-relatedactivities…[aswellas]…allmyventures,fromclothingtothe
Internetandtelevision.”24Simmonsdoesnotexaggeratetherelationship;since
23Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.187.
243
followingRubin’sdeparturein1988,Cohenwasindeedeitherapartner,ormajor
participant,inallofSimmons’businessendeavors.
PerhapsnoneofSimmons’economicdecisionsembodiedhismindsetof
delegationmorethantheRushAssociatedLabelfiasco.Uponbecomingsoberand
takingmoreofaninterestinDefJamfollowingyearsofvirtualabsence,Simmons
devisedaplanwithCoheninordertoaidthelabel’ssaggingfinancialprospects.
FacedwiththerealityofgivingagreatdealoftheirrecordsalestoColumbia,in
1990theduodecidedtheanswertotheirproblemwastocreateRushAssociated
Labels,orRAL.Inessence,DefJamwouldbeoutsourcingtheirA&Rtoboutique
labelscreatedbyalreadysuccessfulDefJamandRushManagementartistsandtake
apercentageofthesuccessfulrecordsakintotheoneColumbiatookfromDefJam.
Onpaper,theplanwouldcreatenewprofitsforDefJamandallowthecompanyto
payitsfinancialobligationstoColumbia.Inaddition,thecreationofRALgave
Cohen,agrowingpresenceinSimmons’empire,afinancialstakeandownershipin
Hip-HopmusicsinceSimmonswasunwillingtosharehissharesinDefJam.
Whatresultedwascontrarytotheinitialgoals.LabelingRALa“mistake,”
Simmonswouldrecallthedrainthattheenterprisebecame,“Weattemptedto
replicatethe[Columbia]structurewithusbeingthemotherlabeltoseveralsmaller
ones,butallofthemwereunsuccessful.”25Simmonsnevercappedthenumberof
smalllabelstobeundertheRALbanner,andtheamountsurgedtoovereightinthe
firstyear:Fever,DooDewMan,NoFace,PRO-Division,JMJ,TrueBlue,DGF,and
24RussellSimmons.LifeandDef:Sex,Drugs,Money,andGod.(NewYork,NY:CrownPublishers,2001)
94.
25Ibid.111.
244
PumpUp.26Eachoneoftheseassociatedrecordlabelsreleasedasmanyasthree
albumsayear,witheveryalbumrequiringmoneyforstudiotime,production,and
promotion.Inaddition,DefJamwasstillcommittedtoreleasingtheirownrecords
undertheirownlabel,aswellasfinancingtheproductionofthesesmallerrecord
labels.Withsomanyrecordsfloodingthemarket,eventhefewhitsongscouldnot
recouptheinvestmentsmadetosomanyothers.Ofallthelabelscreatedthrough
RAL,onlyonebreakthroughartistwasdiscovered:thegroupOnyxonJMJRecords,
whowassoonsignedtoDefJamproperaftertheirinitialrecord.Inaddition,the
infrastructureofseveralsmallerlabelsunderneathDefJam,whowasalreadyina
verymixedcorporateenvironmentwithRushManagement,furtherconfused
staffersofthevariouscompanies.DefJam’sletterheadchangedtoincludeallthe
smallerlabelsaswellasDefJam’slogounderneaththebannerofRAL.Thisupset
stafferandlaterDefJamexecutiveJulieGreenwald,whorecalledtheconfusion,“It
wasn’tsexy…HereI’mworkingforthisgreatasscompany,DefJam…andthenIgotta
sendthemshitwithRALonit.I’mthinkingI’mthecoolestmotherfuckerinthe
world.AndmybusinesscardsaysRAL.”27Inadditiontotheconfusioncausedbythe
numerouslabelsundertheRALbanner,theactsthatweresignedtothelabelswere
notgeneratingtheexpectedrevenue.Partoftheblameliesupontheshouldersof
Cohen.AlthoughCohenwasmorethancapableinturningaroundDefJam’sfinances
andlogistics,hisabilitytodiscovernewtalentwasseverelylacking.Asbadas
Simmonswasinchoosinghispetprojects,Cohenwasevenworse.Cohenwould
26Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.187.
27CharnasTheBigPayback.208-209.
245
laterlament,“Isignedtheworstartists,oneworsethanthelast.”28Thelabels
associatedwithRALbecamebloatedandadrainonDefJam’sresources.
By1994,DefJamwas$17millionindebttoColumbia,whoseparent
companySonywasstartingtotalkwithDefJam’sfewprofitableartists,likeLLCool
JandPublicEnemy,aboutsigningdirectlywithSony,bypassingDefJamentirely.
ThismoveinfuriatedSimmons,wholaterstated,“Sonywaspreparingtorapemeof
mycompany...becausewewereasmallentitydistributedbyamajorcorporation,
wewereneverreallyabletopay[PublicEnemy]or[LLCoolJ]inacompetitiveway.
Wepaidthemmorethananindie…butlessthaniftheyweresignedtoSony
directly.”29SonyalsodiscussedbuyingSimmonsoutcompletely,butultimately
decidedbecauseofhishighprofilethanksinparttothesuccessofDefComedyJam
andhisotherenterprises.Still,Simmonssoughtoutapartnershipwithanother
distributor,ultimatelysigningadealwithPolygramfor$33millioninexchangefor
50percentofthecompanylaterin1994.RALanditsassociatedlabelswere
disbandedshortlythereafter,endingDefJam’sfirstexperimentwithoutsourcingits
Artist&Repertoire.Additionally,apartofthedealwithPolygramofficially
dissolvedRushManagement,endingthelong-timeintermixingandcorporate
confusionbetweenitandDefJam.30
DefJamwouldreturnoncemoretotheconceptofsmalllabelsunderneathits
largerparentumbrellawithmoresuccessinthelate1990s.Buttheseboutique
28LeahWhisler.DefJamRecordings:TheFirst25YearsoftheLastGreatRecordLabel.(NewYork:
Rizzoli,2011)124.
29Simmons,LifeandDef.112.
30Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.245.
246
labelsdifferedfromtheirRALpredecessorssincetheywerefewerinnumberand
weregiventomorecapableindividuals.Forinstance,ofthesevenRALlabels,only
onewashelmedbyaproducerorindividualotherwisefamiliarwiththebehindthe
scenesnecessitiesofmakingmusic:PrincePaul’sDewDooManRecords.Prince
Paul’sbackgroundasaproducerdidnothelpDewDooMan’ssales,whichfaltered
akintothebulkofotherRALlabels.Thiscontrastedwiththeassociatedlabels
createdbyDefJaminthelate90s.Forinstance,Irving“IrvGotti”Lorenzo,had
alreadyprovenhimselfasanexpertinA&RandsigningnewtalenttoDefJamprior
tobeinggivenhisownlabel:Murder,Inc.Records.ThefoundersofRoc-A-Fella
Recordswereasimilarcircumstance.Althoughtheyhadlimitedmusicbusiness
experiencepriortotheirdealwithDefJam,theyhadshownthemselvescapableof
generatingpublicityandputtingoutanalbumontheirownmerits.Plus,Roc-A-Fella
didnothavetoseekoutabuddingartisttosigntotheirlabelinordertobolsterits
prospects,sinceShawn“Jay-Z”Carterwasone-thirdofitsownership.Inshort,the
labelsDefJamsigneddistributiondealswithinthelate1990sdifferedfromthoseof
theRALerabecausetheywerebetterequippedtoproducehitrecordsrightoffthe
batanddidnotrequirethestart-upcostsandtimeneededforartistdevelopment.
SimmonsandtheDefJamleadershiphadlearnedfromtheRALfiascoandapplied
thoselessonsinordertocreateamuchmorestableandprofitablelabel.
AsidefromDefJamandRushManagement,Simmonsfoundedanumberof
companiesthatfedintohisvisionofHip-Hopculture.Hisfirstmajorventureoutside
ofthemusicbusinesswasPhatFarm,aclothinglinefoundedbySimmonsin1992.
Themoveintofashionwasnotsurprising,givenSimmons’penchantformeticulous
247
controloverhisartists’attire,aswellasmakingsureaudiencescouldcopythe
stylesoftheirfavoriterappers.Simmonsalsoadmitted,“myinterestinsix-foot,
long-leggedwomenhadalottodowiththestartofthePhatFarmclothingline.”31
Additionally,CrossColoursandKarlKaniweresuccessfulHip-Hopinspiredclothing
lines,anddemonstratedthatamarketexistedfordesignsthatreplicatedthe
culture’sstyle.SimmonsinitiallypartneredwithMarkBeguda,ownerofaSoho
clothingboutique,toaidhiminbreakingintoabusinesswithwhichhewas
unfamiliar.Althoughwellacquaintedwithfashionanddesign,Simmonswas
admittedlyignorantwiththeprocessoffindingmanufacturersandensuringthe
productwasdeliveredtostores.SimmonsstartedPhatFarmwithhalfamillion
dollarsofcapitalin1992,andittookthecompanysixyearstomakeaprofit.
However,thanksinlargeparttoSimmonspressinghisartiststowearPhatFarm
fashions,theclothingline’snotorietyincreased.Intime,PhatFarmwouldgrow
dramaticallyinrevenue.Althoughittookthecompanyuntil1998tomakeaprofit,
by2001,itwasgenerating$225millioninwholesalerevenue.32
PhatFarmmighthavebeenthemostvisibleofSimmons’non-musicrelated
businesses,buttheywerefarfromhisonlyventure.Forinstance,foundedin1996,
RushAdvertisingcompanyproducedcommercialsforCoca-Cola,ESPN,HBO,and
eventheDemocraticNationalConventionbeforemergingwiththeDeutschAgency
toformdRushin1999.HisSimmons-LathanMediagroup,ajointventurewith
producer/directorStanLathan,foundtelevisionsuccesswiththeDefComedyand
31Simmons.LifeandDef.151.
32Ibid.161.
248
DefPoetryJamfranchises,aswellasinrealitytelevisionwithRun’sHouse,which
starredSimmons’brotherRunandfamily.In2003,SimmonslaunchedUniRush,
whose“RushCard,”aprepaidVisadebitcardheclaimedwasdesignedtohelp
“thosethatfoundthemselvesleftbehindbytraditionalbanks[tofind]anon-ramp
tobetterfinancialservices.”33Simmonsalsostartedcommunityaffairs
organizations,suchashisRushPhilanthropicArtsFoundationin1994andtheHipHopSummitActionNetworkin2001.Therewerealsolesssuccessfulventures,such
ashisRushModelingAgency,RushBroadcasting,OneWorldmagazine,andmultiple
filmproductioncompanies.
SimmonsclaimedthesecompaniesembodiedaHip-Hopmindset,whichhe
definedas“modernmainstreamyoungurbanAmericanculture.”34Withsucha
broadandflexibledefinition,Simmonscouldmarketaproductasbeing“Hip-Hop”
despiteitsnotbeingreallyallthatdifferentfrommainstreamproducts.For
instance,asidefromtheRushlabeling,therewasnodifferencebetweenaRushCard
andanyotherVisaprepaiddebitcard.However,becauseoftheRushname,and
Simmons’personaasaHip-Hopmogul,theproductsupposedlytranscendedits
identityandbecameapartoftheHip-Hopculture.WhileRushAdvertising’s
commercialsforCoca-ColafeaturedMethodManandMaryJ.Blige,whichendeared
ittoHip-Hopadherents,thesodaadvertisedwasthesameasinatraditional
commercial.Additionally,Simmons’ownershipofthesecompanieswasmarkedby
thesamelevelofdelegationtosubordinatesfoundinDefJamandRush
33“AboutUs”RushCardhomepage.AccessedJanuary16,2016.https://www.rushcard.com/aboutus.
34Simmons.LifeandDef.4.
249
Management.Simmonsmighthavebeenthefaceofthecompanies,andalargepart
oftheircommercialappeal,buthehadlittletodowiththeiractualrunning.
DespiteSimmons’ambivalencetowardstheadministrativeelementsofhis
businesses,hetypicallyheldthemostsustainedinterestinmanaginghisartists.
DependingonSimmons’attitudetowardstheindividualartist,hecouldeitherbe
micro-managingtheireverydetailorcompletelydetachedanddisinterested.In
general,Simmonspaidmoreattentiontohisactsearlierinhiscareer.Actssuchas
Run-DMCandWhodinitendedtoholdmoreofSimmons’attentionthanlaterDef
JamandRushManagementsignees.Partofthislevelofattentionisduesimplyto
thefactthatSimmonshadfeweractstomanagewhenRushManagementandDef
Jamweresmallcompaniesandhecouldspendmoretimewiththem.However,
regardlessofthenumberofactssignedtoSimmons,certaingroupsheldmoreofhis
attention.
OfallthegroupssignedtoDefJamandRushManagement,Simmonsbyfar
spentthemostattentionondetailwithRun-DMC.Simmonsmadesurehisbrother’s
groupreceivedthemostexposureandpositivepressamongallofhisearlyacts.
Likewise,SimmonspaidanenormousamountofconsiderationtoinsureRun-DMC
receivedthebestbeatsandwasinsistentabouttweakingevenminordetailsoftheir
records.HealsoactuallymadeRun-DMC’searlierrecordsandwasmoreintimately
involvedintherecordingprocessthanhisotheracts.ThereasonforSimmons’
attentionwasmanifold,butwasdueinlargeparttothefactthathisbrotherwasa
member.AlthoughSimmonswasnottheperformeronstage,norwashepartofthe
faceofRun-DMC,hewasconsideredbythegroupasanintegralmemberandonthe
250
samelevelaseveryoneelse.Indeed,Runwouldlaterclaimtherewerefivemembers
inRun-DMC:“Run,DMC,JamMasterJay,RussellSimmons,andGod.”35
AlthoughSimmonswasinterestedintheminutedetailsofRun-DMC,they
werenottheonlygroupatRushManagementorDefJamrecordstoreceivesuch
intensescrutinyandhands-onattentionfromSimmons.ThemostnotablewasOran
“Juice”Jones,anR&BactofmiddlingsuccesssignedtoDefJamwhoSimmonswas
utterlyconvincedwouldbeastar,despitelimitedcommercialsuccess.Simmons
believedR&BwouldbecomeasteadierbaseforDefJam’sfutureviabilitythanHipHop.AlthoughSimmonsneverpublicallycameouttosayrapmusicwasafad,his
decisionintryingtoensurethevisibilityofJonesandotherR&Bactsdemonstrate
heatleastfeltthesamewayasmusicexecutivesinchargeofprogrammingofblack
actsatlargerlabelsinseeingHip-Hopaslimitedincommercialscope.
However,ashandsonasSimmonswaswithRun-DMC,Oran“Juice”Jones,
andhispetR&Bprojects,hewasequallydistantandanon-factorwiththe
appearanceandmusicalityofotherDefJamandRushManagementacts,evensome
ofhiscompanies’biggestandearlieststars.Theprimeexampleofthisneglectwas
theBeastieBoys,oneofDefJam’sfirstcrossoversuccesses.Thegroupwasalmost
entirelyunderthedirectionofRickRubin,whodiscoveredtheband,convinced
themtogiveuptheirinstrumentsandpunkrockinordertosolelyfocusonrap,
programmedtheirbeats,andwasevenconsideredthegroup’sfourthmemberfora
35God’sinclusioninthegrouphasnotbeenthatwelldocumented,asidefromRun’slater
transformationtoReverendRunandthehighamountofreligiousundertonesontheir1993album
“DownwiththeKing.”Indeed,atthetimeoftherecordingof“DownwiththeKing,”DMCrecalls
Run’sdesiretochangetheirstagenamesto“ReverendRunandDeaconDMC.”Needlesstosay,sucha
switchwasnevermade.RoninRo.RaisingHell:TheReign,Ruin,andRedemptionofRun-D.M.C.and
JamMasterJay.(NewYork:Amistad,2005)264.
251
time.TheonlyrecordedinstancewhereSimmonsutilizedhisauthorityoverthe
groupwasearlyonwhenSimmonssuggestedtheBeastieBoysstopdressingin“red
sweatsuitswithredPumastomatch,tryingtolookhip-hop”andinsteadwearjeans
andt-shirtsmoreinlinewiththeirusualattire.36Asidefromthisinstance,Simmons
seemedcontenttoletRubintakepointoverthegroup’sdirection.Although
SimmonswasclearlyenamoredoftheBeastieBoy’spopularityandsoughttoget
themasmuchexposureaspossible,hedidnotfeeltheneedtomicro-managethem
totheextentofRun-DMCandhispetprojects.
Despitebeinguninterestedorunwillingtodictateeveryelementofthe
BeastieBoys’persona,Simmonswasproactiveinbookingandpromotingtheband.
Simmons’wasinstrumentalingettingtheBeastieBoysbookedtoopenforMadonna
onhertour.AlthoughtheanticsoftheBeastieBoysinitiallydidnotmeshwellwith
thepredominantlyyoungwhitefemalefansofMadonna,theexposuregarnered
fromthetourgreatlyincreasedtheband’snotoriety.SimmonspickedtheBeastie
Boysamongallhisotheractsbecausehefiguredtheywouldbenefitthemostfrom
thepublicity,hopingthatwhiteaudienceswouldrespondbesttoawhiterapact.
DespitebeingdriventoinsuretheBeastieBoyswereinfrontofalargeaudience,
Simmonsdidlittletocurtailthegroup’slimitedstagepresenceandbrashconduct.
UnlikeRun-DMC,whereSimmonsstrictlykeptcontrolovereventheminutest
details,theBeastieBoyswereunderthedirectionofRubin.Simmonsrecalledtheir
behaviorontour:“TheyusedtogooutinfrontofMadonna’sfansandrunaround
onstageandlip-sync.They’dbejokingandfallingoverwhilethelipsyncingwas
36Simmons,LifeandDef.92.
252
supposedtobegoingon…theyusedtodothingslikethattoirritatethecrowd.”37
Theirritationofthecrowdwasnotpartoftheinnatebehaviorofthegroup’s
members,butratherwasgreatlyencouragedbyRubin,whobelievedapurposefully
upsettingperformancewouldcausetheaudiencetoreactstronglytothegroup.
Rubinlikenedthissortofbehaviortoprofessionalwrestling,whereinthevillainous
wrestlerwouldneedlethecrowdintobooinghimthroughunscrupulousbehavioras
partoftheoverallspectacle.AsRubinwouldlaterexplain,“Ireallylovedwrestling
andtheideaofthebadguyscomingandgettingtheaudienceexcitedandthrowing
stuff….Iknewitwasfunnyandridiculous…andultimatelyentertaining.Thatwasthe
goal-tobeentertaining.”38AdamHorovitzrememberedRubincoachingthegroupto
bepurposefullyantagonistictothepopaudience.Rubinwouldsay,“‘Yougottago
outthereandtellthesepeoplethattheycanburnthishousedownwhenweleave
becausewe’retheBeastieBoysandthisisourshow.’Iwaslike,‘That’sreallyfunny.
I’mgonnagooutthereanddoit.’”39ButHorovitzcontinuedthatRubin’ssuggestions
didnotpanoutinthegroup’sfavor,“Everynightitwastheseparentswiththeir
littlekidsdresseduplikeMadonna.Theywerelike…‘Cutitout.Stopcursingatmy
kids.’”40CriticsweresimilarlynotamusedbytheBeastieBoys.IntheJune22,1985,
issueofMelodyMaker,DavidFrickelabeledtheBeastieBoys’as“threefoulmouthed
whiterappunks,whopackinmoreX-ratedgigglesintheir20-minutespotwithjust
afewtoiletjokes,aridiculousdancecalledtheJerryLewisandtwoturntables
37Simmons.LifeandDef.93.
38Whisler.DefJamRecordings,80.
39Ibid.80.
40Ibid.80.
253
spinningcrunchyheavymetalrhythmtracks.”41TheSeattlePost-Intelligencer
similarlypannedthegroup,statingtheband“gotofftoabadstart…bymakingthe
pro-Madonnaaudiencefeellikeaswarmofhillbillies.”42
ButRubin’sgambitultimatelypaidoffwiththeBeastieBoys.Althoughthe
groupwasbooedandjeeredthroughoutthetourwithMadonna,theirprofilewas
raisedhighenoughtogetairplayonMTVandincreasedrecordsales.Thismindset
oflettingtheBeastieBoysstayunderthedirectionofRubinworkedwellaslongas
thegroupwaswithDefJam.Indeed,itwasonlyafterRubin’sattentionwasplaced
moreonothergroupsthatthebanddriftedawayfromthelabelandultimatelyleft
forCapital.
Despiteitslaterinclusionasasubsidiaryofalargemulti-national
conglomerate,DefJamwasabletostayinbusinessforfifteenyearsasan
independentrecordlabel.Likewise,althoughSimmonsandotherDefJamexecutives
werenotthemostknowledgeableaboutbusinessaffairs,theystillmanagedtokeep
thecompanyafloatandproduceverypopularrecords.Evenwhenmajorfinancial
mistakesweremade,suchasthefailuretoregisterwiththeASCAPandBMIorthe
RALfiasco,thelabelwasabletosurvivemainlybecauseofitsimageandthesheer
tenacityofSimmons.Althoughhetendedtoeschewtheactuallaborofrunninga
business,SimmonsaidedDefJambygeneratingcommercialinterestintheHip-Hop
culturethroughhisalternatebusinessendeavorsandevenhislifestyle.Ifnothing
41DavidFricke.‘ImmaterialGirl’MelodyMaker,June22,1985.
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/defjam/exhibition/rockhard/index.html
42GeneStout.SeattlePost-Intelligencer.April11,1985.
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/defjam/exhibition/rockhard/index.html
254
else,SimmonswassteadfastinhisbeliefthatHip-Hopculturewasmainstream
youthculture,andhemarketeditinsuchawayastogarnerasmuchexposureas
possible.ThefactthatDefJamwasabletosurvivethroughsuchfinancialineptitude
demonstrateshowpervasiveofanappealSimmonswasabletogiveHip-Hop
cultureandhisenterprises.AlthoughDefJam’sbusinessdecisionsweresuspectand
oftentimesdetrimental,itstillremainedthatSimmonsgeneratedinterestina
lifestyle,andcommoditifiedthatlifestyleintoaproductreadyforconsumer
consumption.
AsbigastheBeastieBoys,Run-DMC,andotheractsassociatedwith
Simmonswere,PublicEnemyhadthecapabilitytobecomeevenbigger.Thegroup
tappedintoaveinofresentmentthatwasstrongamongyoungmembersofthe
African-Americancommunityinthelate1980sandearly1990s.AlthoughtheCivil
RightsMovementhadbeenheraldedasasuccesswithcivilandvotingrights
legislation,schooldesegregation,andothervictories,manyblackyoungpeoplefelt
nothinghadreallychanged.Theriseofnewrightconservatism,bornoutofa
backlashagainstthevarioussocialmovementsofthe1960sand1970sand
symbolizedbytheelectionofRonaldReagan,threatenedtoerasethe
accomplishmentsmade.Trickle-downeconomicsandtaxcutsresultedinlocal
governmentsendingprogramstoaidcitizensofcolorobtainfinancialequality,such
astheanti-povertyCommunityDevelopmentBlockGrantprogram,publicservice
jobs,andjobtraining.Additionally,theprevalenceofwhiteflightfurther
deterioratedthetaxbaseofcitiesalreadystrappedforrevenue.Whiteflightalso
affectededucation,whichwasreturningtoasegregatedstatedespitelegalvictories
255
fordesegregation.Forinstance,a1993Harvardstudyontherateofschool
segregationandpovertyfoundsixtypercentofblackandLatinostudentsattended
predominantlyminorityschools.Thisnumberwasconsistentwithwhitestudents,
whothestudyfoundonaveragewereenrolledinschoolsthatwereeightypercent
white.43
Alongwiththeincreasedseparationcameeventsofracialviolenceinthe
1980sthatgarnerednationalattention.NewYorkCity,thehomeofHip-Hop,was
thelocationforseveralofthem.IntheGravesendareaofBrooklyn,agroupofwhite
youthschasedagroupofblacktransitworkersandbeatthirty-four-yearold
WilliamTurkstodeath.44In1986,MichaelGriffith,atwenty-three-yearold
Trinidadianimmigrant,waskilledbyapassingcarafterfleeingfromawhitemob
thathadseverelybeatenhimwhenhiscarbrokedowninthecommunityofHoward
BeachinQueens.45Fifteen-year-oldTawanaBrawleyclaimedin1987thatshewas
thevictimofagangrapebysixwhitemen,wholeftherinatrashbagwithracial
slursandfecescoveringherbody.46Facedwithsuchincidentsofviolence,therewas
agroundswellofresistancebrewingamongtheyoungblackpeople.AndPublic
Enemyseemedprimedtoleadthecharge.
43GaryOrfield.“TheGrowthofSegregationinAmericanSchools:ChangingPatternsofSeparation
andPovertySince1968.”AReportoftheHavardProjectonSchoolDesegreationtotheNational
SchoolBoardsAssociation.1993.20,29.
44BarbaraBasler."BlackManisKilledbyMobinBrooklyn:AttackCalledRacial.”TheNewYork
Times.June23,1982.http://www.nytimes.com/1982/06/23/nyregion/black-man-is-killed-bymob-in-brooklyn-attack-called-racial.html.
45SamuelG.Freedman."InHowardBeach,PrideandFearina‘Paradise’”TheNewYorkTimes.
December22,1986.http://www.nytimes.com/1986/12/23/nyregion/in-howard-beach-pride-andfear-in-a-paradise.html.
46EstherIverem."BiasCasesFuelAngerOfBlacks."TheNewYorkTimes.December13,1987.
http://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/14/nyregion/bias-cases-fuel-anger-of-blacks.html.
256
PartofPublicEnemy’scentralityinthisloomingrevolutionwasduetothe
factthatthereseemedtobeapowervacuuminregardstonationalblackleadership.
Thepost-CivilRightsmovementhadnotproducedacentralfigure,likeMartin
LutherKingorMalcolmX,abletoserveassingularhead.Variouscivilrights
organizationsstillexisted,buttheywerenotunifiedbehindasingleissueorleader.
Theoretically,inheritorsofthe1960smovementwereactiveinthe1980s,butthey
wereneverabletosolidifytheirpositionasheadsofthisnewresistance.Although
JesseJackson,AlSharpton,LouisFarrakhan,andothershadnationalrecognition,
theywereneverabletoparleythisexposureintoaunifiedcollationofAfricanAmericanscapableofcombatingtheracialissuesofthe1980s.Inthisvoidof
leadership,sociallyandpoliticallyconsciousrapwasaunitingfactoramongthe
dispersedAfrican-Americaninterests.IfblackAmericacouldnolongerrallybehind
aleader,perhapsHip-HopwasalegitimatemethodbywhichtheAfrican-American
communitycouldunifyagainstseriousracialissues.Ofalltherapactsprevalent
duringthe1980s,PublicEnemywasthebestpoisedtobecomeleadersofthisnew
movement.Theirdefiantpro-blackandAfrocentricimageryresonatedwiththeir
audience,whofeltthegroupwascapableofbeingsuchaunifyingforce.Yetthe
reasonbehindPublicEnemy’sprevalencewastheactionsofRussellSimmons.
PublicEnemyhadnotcometopublicawarenessbytheirowndevices,ratheritwas
Simmonswhoensuredthegroupgarneredpublicity.PublicEnemyfitintoSimmons’
visioninthemarketabilityofblackrebelliontonotjustanAfrican-American
audience,butamainstreamaudienceaswell.AlthoughmanyofSimmons’economic
decisionsweremadeoutofignoranceandpotentiallydisastrousforhisenterprises,
257
hisculturaldecisionsforDefJam,RushManagement,andhisartistsweremade
morepurposefully.
SimmonshadafairlyconsistentideaforhowheviewedHip-Hopcultureand
itsplacewithinthewidersociety.AccordingtoSimmons,“mylifehaslargelybeen
aboutpromotingtheanger,style,aggression,andattitudeofurbanAmericatoa
worldwideaudience.”47Inseekingtosellthisrebelliontoconsumers,Simmons
craftedalegacyfornotonlyhiscompanies,butalsoforhimself.Themannerby
whichSimmonsmarketedhimself,inadditiontohisrecordlabelandHip-Hop
culture,impactedtheperceptionofhowblackbusinesspeopleareperceivedandset
newexceptionsforaspiringmoguls.
Simmonswasobsessedwithgettinghisgroupsmainstreamexposurebyany
meansnecessary.Inparticular,mostofSimmons’earlytimeinmarketingDefJam
andRushManagementactswasspentinanattempttolinktheirimagetothelevel
ofyouthrebellionprevalentinthemainstream.Inessence,Simmonsbelievedonce
whiteteen-agedaudiencessawhisrapacts,theywouldbelievethemtobeamore
authenticembodimentoftheirangstthanrockandrollacts.Simmonsfeltthatrock
androllmusic’saesthetic,althoughfoundedby“blackmenwhoworeflysuits,had
theirhairslick,anddidn’tgiveafuck,”hadchangedtoomuchsincebecoming
prevalentinthemainstreamculture.48Inhisautobiography,Simmonsbemoaned
howRock“becameaboutrebellionforrebellion’ssake.Itwasnolongerabout
gettingmoneyandlookingfly;itbecameabouttakingdrugsandwearingdirty
47Simmons,LifeandDef.xiii
48Ibid.5.
258
jeans.”49WhatisintriguingaboutthisdescriptionbySimmonsishowitcontends
thatlosinginterestinone’sappearanceandmakingmoneyequatedtoalossof
authenticity.AtleastforSimmons,thepursuitofprofitandaflashyappearancewas
themostgenuineformofartisticexpression.However,SimmonsbelievedHip-Hop
embodiedamorepureformoftherebellionthathadbeenlostinthedevelopment
ofrockmusic:
“[Rappers]doallthethingsrockstarsusedtodoandtheydoevenmore
dangerous,outrageousthings…[arapper]isdoingitbecausehehasaserious
reason-discrimination,personalanger,orghettoconditions.Andontopof
allthat,arapstarwantstomakemoneyandenjoysuccess,andisfearlessin
doingit.Theresultisthekindofattitudeofauthenticrebellionthatrockwas
alwayssupposedtohave.”50
Simmonsalsofoundrap’spotentialforrebellionwasincreasedthroughthe
universalityofitscontent:“Eventhoughrapwasbornintheghetto,itaddresses
issuesalotofkidsacrossAmerica(andtheworld)aredealingwith--anger,
alienation,hypocrisy,sex,drugs.Allthebasics.”51Inessence,Simmonsbelievedrap
heldanimmenseappealtoamainstreamaudiencethroughitsmessageofrebellion,
amessagehefeltwasmoreauthenticthanthatfoundinrockmusic.Furthermore,
Simmonsfeltthatanartistbeingbluntabouttheirdesiretobecomewealthywould
increasetheirauthenticity.Ultimately,unlikeGordy,whobelievedfinancial
49Ibid.5.
50Ibid.7.
51Ibid.8.
259
sustainabilitywouldcomethroughprojectinganimageofblackrespectability,
Simmonsheldthelong-termsuccessforhisendeavorswouldcomethrough
presentinghisimageof“authentic”blackrebelliontoaslargeofanaudienceas
possible.ThisinconsistentvisionofracewaspartofSimmons’flexibility.This
fluidityallowedSimmonsnottonarrowtheaudienceofthisrebelliousmusictoa
singlerace.
Byallaccounts,whitepersonsmadeupabout75to80percentofthe
consumersofDefJamandRushManagementartists’records.ButSimmonswould
initallyclaimthatwhitepersonswerenothistargetedaudience.Instead,heclaimed
hisactualtargetwasthepeoplehecalledthe“tastemakers.”Simmonsiteratedthe
identityofthesetastemakerswasnotdependentuponrace,butratherupontheir
abilitytogeneratesubsequentsalesfrompersonsemulatingthem.Accordingto
Simmons,“thepeopleonlineoutsidetheclubthatseconddaydon’tmeanshit.…they
wereonlinebecausethey’dhearitwascoolfromsomeonewho’dbeentherethe
firstday.It’sthefirst-dayaudiencethat’sthecore--that’swhoyoumustbesensitive
to.”52Simmonssoughttojustifyhisactionsbystatingoncethetastemakersdeema
productcool,therestofworldwouldfollowtheirexample.Althoughnotpublically
disparagingwhitepersonsforbuyinghisrecords,heclaimedthatthewidespread
popularityofDefJamanditsartistwasnotduetohisactionsinmarketing,but
ratherthattherightlistenersconvincedtherestoftheconsumerpublicthrough
their“coolness.”
52Ibid.81.
260
Earlyon,SimmonsbelievedthatRun-DMCheldthemostappealofallhisacts
andsoughttohavethemmarketedtoaswideofanaudienceaspossible.Simmons
insistedthatthebandwasarockgroup,notjustarapgroup,inordertogenerate
mainstreamexposure.EventhoughSimmonsfeltrockwaslessauthenticinits
depictionthanrebellion,herecognizeditspopularityandhopedtoparleyitinto
coverageforthegroup.Thisconceptwasprevalentintheimageryof“RockBox,”the
group’sfirstmusicvideo,aswellasoneofthefirstHip-Hopvideostoreceiveairplay
onMTV.Thevideobeginswithascholar,humorouslyportrayedbycomedianIrwin
Corey,lecturingonthehistoryofrapmusicmuchtothechagrinofayoungwhite
maleappearingtobearoundeightornineyearsofage.53Astheprofessorcontinues,
imagesofRun-DMCdrivingtotheDanceteria,apunkrockclubinNewYorkCity,are
intermixed.Eventually,Run-DMCemergesfromthecar,fullybreakingoffthe
professor’smonologue,astheboynodshisheadinapproval.Therestofthevideo
showedthegroupperformingalongsideguitars,keyboards,andotherrock
instrumentsinfrontofaraciallymixedcrowd.Themessagepurveyedwasclear:
Run-DMCwasmarketedasequivalenttopopularrockmusic.Thisiscontinuedin
thegroup’snextmajorvideo,“KingofRock.”54ThisvideobeginswithRunandDMC
arrivingatthefictitious“MuseumofRockandRoll,”beforebeingstoppedatthe
entrancebyasecurityguard.Theguardinformstheduothattheydonotbelongat
suchamuseum.However,theguardiscutoffbyadefiantDMC,whobeginsthesong
withabold“I’mthekingofrock,thereisnonehigher.”Therestofthevideo
53RockBox.Perf.Run-DMC.Profile,1984.MusicVideo.
54KingofRock.Perf.Run-DMC.Profile,1985.MusicVideo.
261
portraysthegroupwreckingthemuseum’sexhibits.Althoughtheimageryofyoung
blackmendestroyingtheartifactsofRockandRollcouldbeconstruedasviolent
andoppositional,thevideo’smeaningwasmoreofinclusion.IfRockandRollwasto
betheembodimentofteenagedangstandrebellion,Run-DMCwasdemonstrating
withtheirdestructionthattheywereanequalpersonification.Thiswasalsofeltin
Run-DMC’smostpopularvideo,“WalkthisWay”withtherockgroupAerosmith.55
Thevideostartedwiththetwogroupsonseparatesidesofawallwiththeir
respectivemusicinterruptingtheother’spracticesession.Thevideocontinuedwith
thewallbeingdestroyedandthetwogroupsperformingtogetherinfrontofan
arenaaudiencemadeupprimarilyofwhitepeople.Theimageryofthisvideowas
evenmoreblatant:Run-DMCandAerosmithhadknockeddownthewallsbetween
racesandgenresbeforeemerginginfrontofanadoringcrowd.ByportrayingRunDMCasarockgroup,Simmonshopedtoendearthegrouptothewhitemainstream
audienceandensureprofitability.
AnothermannerbywhichSimmonssoughttoincreaseRun-DMC’snotoriety
wasthroughtheaccessablityoftheirimage.PriortoRun-DMC,mostrappersand
Hip-Hopgroupsdressedinamannerakintodiscowithgarishcolors,leather,and
excessivezippersbeingpartofthenorm.Incontrast,Simmonswasinsistentto
makeRun-DMC’sclothing,aswellastheiroverallimage,sparseinordertobuildthe
perceptionofrealism.Indoingso,Simmonsbelievedthegroupwouldendear
themselvestoacoreblackaudiencethatwouldexpandtothewhitemainstream.
Simmonsexpandsuponthispointinhisautobiography:“Someoftheartistsback
55WalkThisWay.Perf.Run-DMCfeaturingAerosmith.Profile.1986.MusicVideo
262
thenlookeddownatrapassuchaghettophenomenonthattheyfelttheneedto
toneitdownandmakeitslickerforthemasses.WhatRickandIpreachedwas‘Fuck
beingacceptable!Takethatghettoattitudeandshoveitdowntheirthroats.’”56
UnlikeGordy,whosoughttomarketanimageofblackrespectabilityinorderto
ensurethesuccessofhisMotownartists,Simmonswasinthebusinessofselling
rebellion.Inordertobestsellthisrebellion,SimmonsneededtomakesureRunDMClookedthepart.ThisiswhySimmonseschewedthegroupwearingthe
“cowboyboots,feathers,andstuddedjackets”commonwithotherrapgroupsin
favorof“leathersuitswithvelourhatsandshell-toeAdidasshoes,”alookthat
Simmonsclaimed:“that’saghettouniform,notacostume.”57Simmons’emphasison
Run-DMC’sattirewouldculminateina$1milliondollarendorsementdealwith
Adidas.ThisdealfurtherincreasedtheexposureforRun-DMCandotherRush
Managementartists.
AlthoughSimmonswascentralincultivatingthelookandexposureofRun-
DMC,heleftmostofthedecisionsforDefJam’sartiststoRickRubin.Indeed,much
ofDefJam’slegacyasanembodimentofauthenticblackrebellionwasduetothe
presenceandcentralityofRickRubin.ItwasRubin,notSimmonswhofoundedthe
labelandevengaveitthemoniker“DefJam.”Likewise,itwasRubinwhohadto
convinceSimmonsofthemeritsofformingsuchalabel,sinceSimmonswasmore
interestedinhavinghisownimprintatalargermusicconglomerateandbelieved
hisaffiliationwithanindependentrecordlabelwouldunderminehisnegotiations
56Simmons,LifeandDef.70.
57Ibid.69-70.
263
withEMIRecords.Additionally,itwasRubinwhocraftedthesoundformostofDef
Jam’searlyartistsandcontinueditsemphasisonrapmusicafterSimmonshadall
butabandonedthegenrebelievingR&Bwouldultimatelyledthelabeltomore
success.Intheseandothercircumstances,itcanbearguedthatRubin,aJewishkid
fromanaffluentsectionofLongIsland,wasmoreimportanttoDefJam’sghetto
aestheticthanSimmons.
TheseissueswerenotlostonearlycriticsofDefJam,whowerekeenlyaware
oftheimportanceofawhitemaninthissupposedlyblackmusiclabel.A1985
articleinRockAmericamagazinebyCarolynK.Martinentitled“DefJam:BlackMusic
forWhitePeopleorWhiteMusicforBlackPeople?”exploredthisdynamic.The
articlewasuniqueinthatitdoesnotmentionSimmonsatallorhisroleasco-owner
ofDefJam.Instead,thearticleclaimedthatRubin’spartneratDefJamwasGeorg
Drakoulis.Drakoulis,acollegefriendofRubin,wasindeedapartofDefJam,but
servedthelabelasanunpaidandunaccreditedinterninsteadoftheco-proprietor
asassertedinthearticle.DespitedownplayingSimmons’involvementwiththe
label,thearticlementionedthecommercialappealoftherebelliondisplayedbyDef
Jamanditsassociatedartists.AsRubintoldMartin:“peoplelikeme-comingfroma
wealthyfamilyinLongIsland,orlikeRun-DMCwhosefatherrunsaschooldistrict
anddrivesaMercedes-arethrilledbytheideaofbeinggangstersbecauseit’s
furtherremovedfromus.It’sreallycooltobethebadguy,aslongasyouaremaking
264
thatchoice.”58Rubincontinuedbyacknowledgingtheracialissueinthemusic
businesswithhisfutureplans:““I’llbeco-producingthenewRun-DMC…andthe
BeastieBoys’album.It’sgreatbecauseitgivesustheopportunitytocalleveryone
racist:thewhitestationsthatwon’tplayRun-DMC,theblackstationsthatwon’tplay
theBeastieBoys.”59Whenaskedaboutthefutureofrapmusic,Rubintookapage
outofSimmons’bookandturnedtoself-promotion:“Thefutureofrapmusicis
quitesimplyME–meandDefJam,RushProductions,alltheartistsonourroster.
Thatisthefutureofrapmusic!”60AlthoughSimmonswasnotmentionedinthe
article,whichgavetheimpressionthatthefutureofrapmusicassolelyinthehands
ofayoungJewishbraggadocio,Rubinwasgivingthesametalkingpointsutilizedby
Simmons.RubinhighlightedDefJam’sauthenticrebellion,aswellasequatedtheir
groupstorockacts.Simmonsandotherartistsreactedmuchmoreharshlytothe
1986articleintheVillageVoicethatclaimedRubinwasthetruekingofrapthanto
Rubin’scentralityinRockAmerica’stellingoftheDefJamnarrative.Thiswas
possiblybecauseRockAmericawasamuchsmallerpublication,orperhapsSimmons
feltitspresumablywhitereadershipwouldbemoreinterestedinlisteningtoDef
Jamiftheywereundertheimpressionthelabelwashelmedbyawhiteman.
Fromacreativestandpoint,RubindidindeedrunDefJamatitsonset.Hewas
theprimaryproducerandbroughtinprofitableactsfromavarietyofgenres.While
SimmonswasineffectiveinturningOran“Juice”JonesandhisotherR&Bpet
58CarolynK.Martin.“DefJam:BlackMusicforWhitePeopleorWhiteMusicforBlackPeople?”
RockAmerica.June1985.
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/defjam/exhibition/simmonsrush/index.html.
59Ibid.
60Ibid.
265
projectsintosuperstars,RubinsucceededwithLLCoolJandtheBeastieBoysinrap,
aswellasSlayerintheheavymetalgenre.Yet,asimportantasRubinwasincrafting
DefJam’sinitialsoundandculture,heonlyremainedwiththecompanyuntil1988,
fouryearsafterhisinitialpartnershipwithSimmons.Despitehavingagreatdealof
initialcreativecontroloverDefJamanditsartists,Rubinleftthelabeldueto
resentmentoverSimmons’relianceuponCohenandagrowingdisenchantment
withtheHip-Hopgenre.AlthoughRubinwastheguidinginfluenceoverDefJam’s
earliestartists,hisdeparturedidnotequateadownturnforDefJam’spopularityor
artisticexpression.Indeed,artistslikePublicEnemyreachedtheirpeakof
popularityonlyafterRubin’sdeparture.DespiteRubin’simmenseearlyinfluenceon
DefJam,itwasnotlonglasting.AlthoughSimmonswasanabsenteeownerformost
ofDefJam’sexistenceasanindependentrecordlabel,heremainedapresenceanda
guidingforce,albeitahands-offone,untilthelabel’ssaletoUniversalin1999.
AsmuchasSimmonsembodiedblackentrepreneurialismandthepersuasive
natureofAmericancapitalismtocrossracialboundaries,therewasamajorelement
ofSimmons’personathatranseeminglycontrarytosuchideals.Followinghis
abandonmentofnightclublivinganddruguse,Simmonsbecameincrediblytaken
withYogainparticular,andEasternPhilosophyingeneral.Sincehissobriety,
Simmonsmadearegularhabitofdailymeditation,veganism,andgeneraladherence
toEasternreligiousbeliefs.Granted,Simmons’beliefsarenotentirelyconventional,
andhaveelementsofhispersonalityembedded.Forinstance,Simmonsclaimedthat
hepostedpicturesofLouisFarrakhan,GlendatheGoodWitchfromTheWizardof
Oz,andrapperDMXonhisyogaaltarsincehefoundtheyrepresentedthe
266
personificationofgoodnessintheworld.61Byallaccounts,Simmons’devotion
appearedtobegenuineandcontinuestothisday.62Eventhefinalchapterof
Simmons’autobiographyisfilledwithplatitudesdesignedtosendthereader
towardsbettermentalhealthandclarity.
YetSimmons’adherencetoYogaandthelikerunconcurrenttohisintense
capitalisticstreak.Simmonslaunchednumerousenterprises,suchasPhatFarm,
RushProductions,RushCommunications,RushModeling,andawholehostof
otherssinceturningtothesebeliefs.Althoughhisbeliefsystemwouldseeminglyto
runcontrarytoseekingmaterialpossessionsandfinancialgain,ifanything,Yoga
andmeditationmadeSimmonsmorematerialistic.Hebecamemoreprolificthan
everinhisdesiretoearnasmuchmoneyaspossiblethroughstartingseveral
businesses.Simmonsalsobecameaspokespersonfornon-profits,suchasPETA,yet
intheirads,wasusuallyclearlywearingclothingfromhisownlines,asjudgedby
theprevalentPhatFarmlogos.Inessence,Simmonswasutilizingthesamemedium
toadvertisehisproducts,aswellasbringawarenesstoanimalcruelty.Thisalso
appliedtoSimmons’effortsasapoliticalorganizer,inwhichSimmonssoughtto
organizethesameconsumerbasetowhomhepanderedhiswares,intoengagingin
civicbehaviorandthelike.Additionally,Simmons’definitionof“Eastern
Philosophy”wasverybroad.AsidefromYoga,Simmonsnevergaveparticularsasto
whatdisciplineshefollowed,insteadcherry-pickingwhateverelementshedeemed
61Simmons,LifeandDef.202.
62SimmonswasnottheonlyDefJamfoundertoturntoNon-WesternPhilosophy.Followinghis
departurefromthelabelin1988,RubinbecameincreasinglydevotedtoBuddhismandShamanistic
elementsoffaith.However,RubinhasnotbeenaswillingtocommodifyhisfaithasSimmons.
267
useful.Simmons’religiousbeliefswerebroadprimarilybecausemostofSimmons’
otherbeliefsweresimilarlybroad.
Althoughsuchbehaviormightseemhypocriticalandhasbeenlabeledas
“Compa$$onateCapitalism”byTa-NehisiCoates, itwasnotagainstSimmons’
nature.63Indeed,mostofSimmons’actionsasownerofDefJamfitintothissortof
mentality.Simmonscouldbeequalpartsover-bearingmicromanagerandabsentee
owner.HecouldbothchampionHip-Hopculture,yetbelievehislongtermfinancial
viabilitycamethroughR&BMusic.Hewaswillingtosellrebellionanddefiance
againstthestatusquo,yetpurposefullymadesurehisactshadmainstreamappeal
andcontinuallycourtedwhiteaudiences.Inessence,theconflictedandseemingly
duplicitousnatureofSimmonsactuallyaccuratelyembodiedthepervasivenatureof
capitalism.OnceblacknessandrebellionwascommodifiedbySimmonsandsoldas
aproductforconsumerconsumption,itsultimatenaturewasthatofaproductlike
anyother.Additionally,sincetherewasapowervacuuminregardstopost-Civil
Rightsblackleadership,therewasnoauthoritytodecidewhatdidanddidnot
constituteanactofrebellion.Insuchanenvironment,thepurchasingofarecord
couldbeconsideredarebelliousactivity,eventhoughitultimatelywassimply
buyingaproduct.Simmonshadtotoethelinebetweenadvertisinghisproductsas
embodyingthe“black”aesthetic,sincethatwasamajorelementofitsappealtothe
mainstream,yetnotlimithisconsumersbyallowingbehaviorswouldnarrowhis
63S.CraigWatkins.HipHopMatters:Politics,PopCulture,andtheStrugglefortheSoulofaMovement.
(Boston,MA:BeaconPress,2005)156-157.
268
productstoasinglerace.Inessence,Simmons’waresneededtobe“pro-black,”but
not“anti-white.”
PerhapsnootheractionmadebySimmonsdemonstratedthisbalance
betweeneconomicandculturalconsiderationsthanhisdecisiontobootGriffinfrom
PublicEnemy.PriortoPublicEnemy’ssurgeinpopularity,Simmonshadahands-off
approachtothegroup’smusicaldirection.Indeed,Simmonswouldlateradmithe
initiallydidnotfindthegroupveryimpressive,andonlysignedthemtoDefJam
afterRickRubininsisted.64OncethegroupwassignedtoDefJam,theyresistedthe
tweaksthelabelsoughttomaketotheirimage.Carlton“ChuckD”Ridenhour
presentedPublicEnemytoDefJamasacompletepackage,whichincludeda
paramilitarydrillteamcalledthe“Securityofthe1stWorld”or“S1Ws”andWilliam
“FlavorFlav”Drayton,aclock-wearing,minstrel-esquemascotforthegroup.Rubin
foundtheS1Wsacceptable,buttotallyrejectedtheinclusionofDrayton,the
imageryofwhichhefoundtooracialtomakethegroupsuccessful.However,
Ridenhourwasinsistent,anddemandedDraytonremainedinthegroup.Rubin
acquiesced,seeingthatthepotentialofPublicEnemyandtheirpersonalchemistry
couldonlybetamperedwith,notimproved,throughmeddling.LikewiseSimmons,
whohadlowexpectationsforthegroup,triedhisbesttomakesuretheywere
properlybooked,butotherwisedidnotfeeltheymeritedhisinvolvement.
However,oncePublicEnemybecamepopular,Simmonsbegantosingtheir
praises,aswellasinserthimselfintothenarrativeoftheirsuccess.Hewouldlater
state:“Iknewwhattheywereabout,buteveryonemightnotgetit.Iwantedastory
64Simmons,LifeandDef.97.
269
totell.I’mnotevensureifthestorywasmoreaboutmyframingthemthatwayto
liketheminmyheadormygettingeverybodyelsetoberebelliousforareason.”65
HewouldalsopublicallystatethatPublicEnemywashis“favoritegroup”afterthe
successof“RebelWithoutaPause.”66Simmonswouldalsolavishpraiseupon
RidenhourfollowingPublicEnemy’scommercialsuccess,claiming“ChuckDwasa
guyIlikedfromthefirsttimeImethim…Hespentallhistimelookingfornew
soundsandwaystomakeoldsoundsfeelnew…Itwasapointofviewsimilarto
whatwe’dbeendoingwithRun-DMC.”67ItwasintriguingthatSimmonstempered
hishighestcomplimentofRidenhourbylikeningittohisownworkwithRun-DMC.
ButitfitintoSimmons’viewofPublicEnemyoncethegroupbecamepopular.In
essence,Simmonsthoughtthegroupbestembodiedhisbeliefinthelucrativenature
ofpromotingblackrebelliontoamainstreamaudience.
PublicEnemyembodiedthespiritofadefiantlyAfrocentricandBlackPower
personaintheirlyrics.Forinstance,in“RebelWithoutaPause,”Ridenhourrapped
“Hard-mycallingcard/Recordedandordered-supporterofChesimard”
referencingJoAnneChesimard,theformerBlackPantherandBlackLiberationArmy
memberwhoescapedaprisonsentenceforkillingapoliceofficerbyfleeingto
Cuba.68RidenhourwasparticularlysupportiveofLouisFarrakhaninhislyrics.In
“Don’tBelievetheHype,”Ridenhourstated“ThefollowerofFarrakhan/don’ttellme
65Ibid.98.
66Ibid.98.
67Simmons.LifeandDef.88.
68PublicEnemy“RebelWithoutaPause”ItTakesaNationofMillionstoHoldUsBack.DefJam
Records.1988.
270
youunderstanduntilyouheartheman.”69“BringtheNoise”wassimilarly
unequivocalinitspraise,“Farrakhan'saprophet,andIthinkyououghttolisten
to/Whathecansaytoyou/whatyouwannadoisfollowfornow."70Althoughnot
directlyaffiliatedwiththeNationofIslam,thegroupseemedtoespousethesame
aspirationsasFarrakhan.Unlikemostotherraprecords,whichtendedtofocuson
partyingandrelationships,PublicEnemy’slyricswerestridentintheirpolitical
aims.
Thisdefiantmentalitywaspresentintheirmusicvideos.Perhapsnoother
PublicEnemymusicvideodemonstratedthispoliticalnatureasclearlyas1989’s
“FightthePower.”Thevideo,directedbySpikeLeeasapartofhislargerpublicity
campaignforDotheRightThing,leftnoroomforsubtletyinitsmessage.Fromthe
openingnewsreeloftheMarchonWashingtontothefinalshotofbannerdepicting
thegroupwiththecaption“Ittakesanationofmillionstoholdusback,”thevideo
wasdesignedtonotonlyunifyblackyouthswhofeltalienatedbythelegacyofthe
CivilRightsMovement,butalsofirmlyestablishPublicEnemyastheembodimentof
modernblackresistance.Thesong’scontentalsodemonstratedthisdynamic.Inthe
song,Ridenhourlambaststhehypocrisyandtoxicnatureofwhiteoppression.
Arguably,thesong’smostnotoriouslyrics,Ridenhourclaimed:“Elvis/Wasaheroto
most/Buthenevermeantshittome/Straightupracistthatsuckerwassimpleand
69PublicEnemy“Don’tBelievetheHype”.ItTakesaNationofMillionstoHoldUsBack.DefJam
Records.1988.
70PublicEnemy“BringtheNoise”ItTakesaNationofMillionstoHoldUsBack.DefJamRecords.
1988.
271
plain”withDraytonchimingin:“MotherfuckhimandJohnWayne!”71Although
Ridenhourclaimedheonlywantedtoprovokeamovement,notleadone,thesong
andcorrespondingvideocatapultedPublicEnemytotheforefrontofrepresenting
blackrebellion.AsstatedbyDefJamstafferBillStephney,PublicEnemywent“from
arapgroupplayingtheLatinQuarterwithBizandShanandRunandWhodinito
nowbeingthesaviorsoftheBlackcommunity.”72Thisriseinprofilepleased
Simmons,whocorrelatedanincreaseinexposuretoprofitability.Whetherornot
PublicEnemycouldsucceedinleadinganewcivilrightsmovementwasirrelevant,
eitherway,itwouldgeneraterecordsales.
ButthisincreaseinprofilemeantthatPublicEnemy’spreviousmethodsof
generatinginterestthroughcontroversyhadtochange.Previously,allowingGriffin
tomakescandalouscommentswasastandardpartofPublicEnemy’smodus
operandi.Griffin,whotypicallydidnotrapactedasthegroup’s“ministerof
information”andregularlygaveinterviews.Intheseinterviews,Anti-Semitic
statementswerenotunusualforGriffin.Forinstance,oneyearprior,Griffinstated
inaninterviewwithMelodyMakermagazinethat“TheysaythewhiteJewsbuiltthe
pyramids.Shit.TheJewscan’tevenbuildhousesthatstandupnowadays.Howthe
helldidtheybuildthepyramids?”Griffincontinuedhisvitriolwith“Ifthe
Palestinianstookuparms,wentintoIsrael,andkilledalltheJews,it’dbealright.”73
RidenhoursupportedGriffin,tellingjournalistJohnLelandinSeptemberof1988,“I
71PublicEnemy.FightthePower.DefJam,1989.MP3.
72JeffChang.Can’tStop,Won’tStop:AHistoryoftheHip-HopGeneration.NewYork:St.MartinPress,
2005)280.
73“BeliefStructuresandPhysicalRealities”Spin.April2000.152.
272
backGriff.Whateverhesays,hecanprove”74Whenpressedabouttheanti-Semitic
comments,Ridenhouradmittedthatthestatementshadbeentakenoutofcontext
andthatthegroupwasnotspecificallyanti-Semitic,butthat98percentofblack
peopledidnotseeadifferencebetweenJewsandwhitepeople.Inessence,
RidenhourarguedthatGriffin’scomment,albeitpoorlyworded,waspro-black,not
anti-Semitic.
Theoretically,thecontentoftheMay1989interviewwaslittledifferentthan
anyofGriffin’searlierinterviews.Butbecauseofincreasedpublicawarenessofthe
group,thanksto“FightthePower,”theybecametoocontroversial.Griffinwould
laterclaimthewriter,DavidMills,hadtrickedhimintosayingtheraciststatements,
“Itwassupposedtobeamusicalinterview.…Itwasmusic,music,music,andthenhe
slipsinaquestionaboutwhocontrolsthemusicindustry.Iwascaughtoff
guard.…HemadeitsoundlikeIwaslashingout.Iwasunderalotofstress.”75
RegardlessofGriffin’sclaims,theinterviewwasdamningforPublicEnemy.
Inresponse,theJewishDefenseOrganizationbegantoprotestagainstthe
groupasawholeandbeganpicketingscreeningsofDotheRightThing.TheJDOalso
attackedJewishmembersofDefJam’sstaffforenablingthehatredofPublicEnemy,
particularlyRubin,althoughhewasnolongerwithDefJam.JDOspokesperson
LeonardFinebergclaimedRubinwas“self-hatingJewishtrash”andthat“hecould
haveputacrimpon[PublicEnemy]inthefirstplace.”Finebergcontinued,“We’re
74Ibid.152.
75Ibid.152.
273
goingtopunishhimforhislackofmoralitythroughstrongbutlegalandeffective
means.”76
FacedwithpressurefromDefJam,Columbia,theJDO,andgeneralpublic
outcry,RidenhourwasforcedtoaddressGriffin’scommentsandtrytoappeasethe
situation.RidenhourannouncedthatGriffinwasfiredfromthegroup.However,the
moveupsetthegroup’smorestridentAfrican-Americanfans,whofeltthedismissal
ofGriffinwasevidencethatPublicEnemywasnotasstrongonBlackPowerasthey
claimed.ThissentimentwasfeltinArmondWhie,whowroteinBrooklyn’sCitySun,
“Nowinapology,Chuck…isn’tgoodforanythingexceptrecordingmindless,
pointless,confections.…ThisisthefirsttoughfightPublicEnemyhashadtofaceand
they’vecrumbledlikechalk.”77Regardless,“FightthePower”becameananthem
duringthesummerof1989.Inaddition,onAugust1,RidenhourannouncedGriffin
wouldbereturningtoPublicEnemywiththenewtitleofSupremeAlliedChiefof
CommunityRelations.78ThenewpositionallowedGriffintostayinthegroupto
appeaseitshardcoreBlackPowerfans,butundertheassumptionhewouldnotbe
allowedtointerviewinordernottoupsetthegroup’scritics.Griffin’sreturntothe
grouphelpedtheirthirdalbumFearofaBlackPlanetgoplatinum,continuingtheir
priorsuccess.
Despitebeingonaleashwhenitcametohispublicappearance,Griffin’s
inclusionbackinPublicEnemywasupsettingtosomeDefJamartists.This
76Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.171.
77MarcusReeves.SomebodyScream!:RapMusic'sRisetoProminenceintheAftershockofBlackPower.
(NewYork:FaberandFaber,2008)82.
78Ibid.84.
274
resentmentcametoaheadinearly1990withafightbetweenGriffinandmembers
of3rdBass,allofwhomwereJewish.ThecommotionbeganwhenGriffincalledone
membera“fuckingJewbastard”andculminatedwithadestructivemeleeinDef
Jam’soffices.Griffin’sbehaviorforcedRussellSimmons,whohadpreviouslystayed
handsoffwithartistaffairs,tomakeapublicstatement.Simmons’statement
bannedGriffinfromDefJamgroundsandforcedhimtoleavethelabel.Simmons
wrote:“Idon'tlikeProfessorGriffandIhatewhathestandsfor,”andcontinued
“Griff’swildestimaginaryJewishconspiracycouldnothavedonemoredamageto
PublicEnemythanhasGriffhimself.”79However,Simmonsdefendedtheother
membersofthegroup:“PublicEnemyhashadamorepositiveinfluenceontoday’s
youngblackAmericansthanhasanyoneelse.”80WithSimmons’finaldecision,
GriffinwasexpelledfromDefJamandPublicEnemy.
DespitelabelingPublicEnemyhisfavoritegroup,Simmonsultimatelywas
notlenientongroupmemberRichard“ProfessorGriff”Griffin’santi-Semitic
commentsin1989.Simmonswasinitiallyhands-offwiththesituation,makingno
publiccommentsafterbeingpressuredbytheJewishDefenseOrganization.Indeed,
althoughSimmonsforcedRidenhourtodismissGriffinfromthegroup,heallowed
RidenhourtogivethepublicstatementregardingGriffin’sdismissalinorderto
perpetuatetheimpressionthattheremovalwasRidenhour’sownidea.Simmons
wassimilarlyquietwhenRidenhourreintroducedGriffinasPublicEnemy’s
SupremeAlliedChiefofCommunityRelationsinAugustof1989.However,when
79SteveDoughty.“ChargesofAnti-SemitismGivePublicEnemyaRepThat'sToughtoRapAway”
People.March5,1990.http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20116974,00.html
80Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.180.
275
GriffinbeganharassingJewishartistssignedtoDefJam,Simmonscouldnolonger
remainsilentandbannedGriffin.However,Simmonswasquicktodefendtherestof
PublicEnemy,whowerestillacommerciallyviableandpopulargroup,statingthat
theothermembersofthegrouphadhad“…amorepositiveinfluenceontoday’s
youngblackAmericansthanhasanyoneelse.”81Simmonshopeddifferentiating
betweenGriffinandtherestofPublicEnemywoulddemonstratealthoughhewasin
agreementofthemessageoftheband,itwouldnotbeconstruedascondoning
Griffin’sextremism.Simmonskeptupthispolicyevenafterthecontroversydied
down.EveninSimmons’2001autobiography,SimmonslabeledPublicEnemy
“…myfavoriteDefJamgroup,rightalongsideJay-ZandDMX”butdoesnotmention
anymemberofthegroupoutsideofRidenhour.82AlthoughPublicEnemywas
outspokenintheirdefiantattitudetowardsblackrights,itstoodinstarkcontrastto
therestofDefJam’sofferings,whowereconstructedtoappealtothemainstream.
IncludingPublicEnemyonDefJam’srostergavetherestofthelabel’sgroupsan
elementofedgeandcredibilitytheymightnototherwisehave.Simmonsallowed
PublicEnemytoserveasalightningrodforoutsidecontroversy,butdrewtheline
whenthebeliefsofGriffinaffectedthosewithinthecompany.Eventhoughblack
fansofPublicEnemymayhaveseenthedismissalofGriffinashypocritical,
Simmonswasinthebusinessofmakingmoneythroughprofitingofftheappearance
ofblackrebellion,notintheactualrebellionitself.
81Gueraseva.DefJam,Inc.180.
82Simmons,LifeandDef.88.
276
ConsideringSimmons’treatmentofGriffin,aswellashisothercultural
decisionsinrunningDefJam,thequestionstillremainedifDefJamcouldbe
consideredatrulyblackrecordlabel.Bysomereckoning,itcouldnot.Strictly
speaking,DefJamwasinitiallycreatedbyRickRubin,awhiteman,tomakemusic
thatappealedprimarilytohisownsensibilities.Afterthisinitialmanifestationwas
abandoneduponRubin’spartnershipwithSimmonsandDefJamtransformedinto
labelhometoHip-Hopartistsandblackrebellion,theincarnationbestknownto
consumers,thelabelwasstillnottotally“black.”DefJamcouldneverliveuptothe
imagecreatedofalabeldedicatedsolelytothecreationofrapmusicthatwas
defiant,raciallyandpoliticallycharged,fullyblack,andaggressivewithlittleregard
forpoliticalcorrectness.Evenfromitsonset,SimmonspurposefullymarketedDef
Jam’sartistsandtheirpersonatothewhitemainstream,hopingwhiteaudiences
wouldflocktoaseeminglymoreauthenticpresentationofrebellionthanfoundin
contemporaryrockmusic.Simmonsalsopromotedhisactsasrockersinorderto
increasecrossoverappeal.Inaddition,onceartiststooktheirlevelofrebelliontoan
extremethatwasdetrimentaltothecompany’sbottomline,suchasGriffin’santiSemiticremarksin1989,Simmonswasquicktodismissthem.Furthermore,
Simmons’attemptstoturnOran“Juice”JonesandotherR&Bpetprojects
demonstratehislackoffaithinrapalonetobringaboutlong-termviabilityforhis
enterprises.DefJamwasneverthehomejustofrapacts,althoughtheywould
becometheperformerswiththemostnotorietyandsettheperceptionforthelabel
asawhole.
277
Despitetheseproblematicdecisions,Simmonswasmeticulousin
maintaininghispublicimage.Ultimately,itwasthispersonathatbecamehismost
enduringlegacy.Simmonswouldcometohavetheperceptionofbeingwealthy,a
savvybusinessperson,andindirectcontroloverhiscompanies,whichretroactively
vindicatedhispreviouswork.Inessence,althoughSimmons’actualrunningofDef
Jamwasproblematic:primarilydenotedbydelegationandabsenteeismverging
uponapathy,sincethelabelultimatelybecameprofitable,andSimmonswas
portrayedastheguidingforcebehindDefJam,Simmonsmusthavebeenanintegral
part.TherewasnodenyingthatSimmonswaswealthyandseeminglyomnipresent
inhisvariousventures,soitwouldonlyfollowthathewaskeytohisownsuccess.
Likewise,theHip-Hopculture,whichwasgrownandmarketedoutsideofNewYork
bySimmons,becameatrulyglobalphenomenon,whichonlygavemoreveracityto
Simmons’claims.Inshort,Simmonsbecameaniconofblackentrepreneurialism
andsuccess,despitespendingmostofhisrisetoaffluenceoutsidetheoffice.
Simmons’risetothezenithofpersonalwealthandnotorietycorresponded
withachangeinthemusicbusiness.In1999,thesameyearthatUniversal
purchasedDefJaminablockbuster$130milliondollardeal,anInternetpeer-topeermusicsharingservicecalledNapsterwasreleasedtothegeneralpublic.
Althoughtheservicewouldshutdownayearlateradmitcourtordersandcopyright
violations,theimpactofNapsterwasevident.NotonlydidNapsterpopularize
onlinedistribution,italsoloweredthepricepointofacompactdiscfrom$14to
free.Althoughlistenerswerestillinterestedinlisteningtotheirfavoritegroupsand
discoveringnewgenres,theywerelesslikelytopayasmuchforthemedium.The
278
financialimpactupontherecordbusinesswasdramatic.Forinstance,in1999,
revenuefromallthemajorlabelscombinedwasaround14.6billiondollars.Ten
yearslater,thatnumberhadfallento6.3billion.83Thisfallinrevenueappliedtoall
genres,includingrapmusic.
Facedwithdecreasedincomefromalbumsales,diversificationintoother
mediafields,akintothosedonebySimmons,becamethenormformanyrappers
andHip-Hopexecutives.Theperceptionofalevelofbusinesssavvy,demonstrated
throughaplethoraofotherenterprisesoutsideofmakingrecords,becamethe
expectationasthenewmillenniumcontinued.Inessence,notonlyhadSimmons
changedyouthculturearoundtheworldthroughhiscommodificationofrebellion,
hehadalsochangedbusinessculturethroughthemannerbywhichheportrayedto
helmhisenterprises.Subsequentrapmoguls,suchasSean“PuffDaddy”Combsand
Percy“MasterP”Miller,fashionedthemselvesafterSimmonsbecauseheprovided
themostreadilyaccessibleandreplicabletemplateforlucrativesuccess.Simmons’
influencewasnotsolelyfeltwithinblackmusic,asmusiciansandexecutivesof
numerousgenresalsosoughttoemulateSimmons’techniquesinordertocultivate
successintheirownrespectivefields.
Inall,thelegacyofRussellSimmonswasascomplicatedasthemanhimself.
HewasbothardentcapitalistandEasternphilosophyadherent.Equalparts
demandingmicro-managerwhocultivatedeventhemostminutedetailsofhisearly
83DavidGoldman."Music'sLostDecade:SalesCutinHalf."CNNMoney.February3,2010.Accessed
January14,2016.http://money.cnn.com/2010/02/02/news/companies/napster_music_industry/.
279
actsandapatheticabsenteeownerwhospenthistimehighinanightclubwho
delegatedhisresponsibilitiestoothers,hecraftedanimageofdefiantand
unapologeticblacknessanddeliberatelymarketedittoamainstreamwhite
audience.Yetdespitehiscontradictorynature,heembodiedapersonathat
ultimatelybecamehismostlastinglegacy.Inessence,thewayRussellSimmons
claimedtohaverunhiscompaniesandachievefinancialsuccessbecameparamount
inimportancetotheactionsheactuallytook.Itwasthisimagethatinspired
subsequentaspiringmogulsofnotjustrapmusic,butallgenres,anddemonstrated
thefinaldevelopmentofblackmusicintegratingitselfintothemainstream
consumerculture.
280
CONCLUSION
Intheearly2000s,abrandofpotatochipswithuniquepackagingcouldbe
foundonconveniencestoreshelvesinAfrican-Americancommunities.RapSnacks,
withitsbrightlycoloredbagsemblazonedwiththefacesofrapperssuchasMack10,
Magic,PrettyWillie,amongahostofothers,beckonedconsumerstobuytheir
wares.Inaddition,eachbagofRapSnacksalsocontainedashortpositivemessage
designedtohelp"dealwiththesocialaspectsoftheinnercity."1Mostofthese
messageswerethesortofgeneraladagestypicallygivenasadvicetoyouths
regardlessofrace.Forinstance,Lil’Romeo’sBar-B-QuingwithmyHoney”chips
advisedsnackingindividualsto“StayinSchool,”whileWarrenG’s“CheezieNacho”
flavorextolledyoungersto“RespectYourElders.”Afewofthemessageswere
specifictotheAfrican-Americanaesthetic:MurphyLee’s“ExtraHotRedHotRiplets”
chipscounseledyouthsto“PimpEducation,”TheBigTymer’s“SourCream&Dill”
stated“Wehavecomealongway,”whereastheYoungbloodz’s“SouthernCrunk
Barbeque”simplyopined“GetCrunk.”
YetofallofthevariousflavorsandmessagesfoundonRapSnacks,onestood
apartfromtherestofthegenericplatitudes.MasterP’s“PlatiniumBar-B-Que”
flavordirectedbuyersto“Startyourownbusiness.”Althoughmostoftheother
advicewasbroadandgeneralized,thismessageisdirectinitsintentofencouraging
moreblackentrepreneurialismandenterprise.Evenoveracenturyafterthefirst
meetingoftheNationalNegroBusinessLeague,theideathatAfrican-American
1ReidKanaley."ChippinginforUrbanYouthHip-hopIconsonRapSnacksBagsSpreadtheOwner's
PositiveMessages."Philly-archives.2002.
http://articles.philly.com/2002-10-14/business/25351039_1_chips-bags-corner-stores.
281
socialupliftcouldcorrespondtoindividualeconomicsuccesswasnotonlystillin
existencebutalso,asevidencedbyRapSnackpackaging,activelyperpetuated.
MasterPwasanidealspokespersonforsuchabelief.BornPercyRobert
MillerintheCalliopeprojectsofNewOrleans,Millerwasabletotakea$10,000
malpracticesettlementfromthedeathofhisgrandfatherin1990andby1998turn
itintoalucrativebusinessempirewithMiller’spersonalnetworthinexcessof$400
million.2AsidefromNoLimitRecords,MilleralsoownedNoLimitPictures,NoLimit
SportsManagement,NoLimitGear,aphone-sexcompany,andahostofother
enterprises,manywiththe“NoLimit”moniker.Millerwasespeciallysuccessful
becauseheownedmultiplelevelsofdistributionforhisproducts.Millernotonly
ownedthelabel,helikewiseprintedhisownmedia,hadanin-houseartistic
department,manufacturedandshippedhisownCDs,andevenownedseveralofthe
recordstoresinwhichNoLimit’smusicwassold.Additionally,althoughNoLimit
hadadistributiondealwithPriorityRecordsstartingin1996(aswellasUniversal
Recordsafter2003),Millermaintainedownershipofthemasters,aswellas
received85%oftheprofitsfromrecordsales.EventhoughNoLimitalbumsnever
chartedasmuchasMotownorDefJamacts,Millerwasabletomakemoremoneyon
musicsalesthaneitherGordyorSimmonsbecausehereceivedahigherpercentage
oftheprofitsfromtherecordsalesandheownedmultiplelevelsofthemusic’s
production,distribution,andsale.
Althoughtherecordingmusicindustrychangedtremendouslythroughout
thetwentiethcentury,itretainedmuchofitsattractivenessthatmadeitinitially
2KevinChappell.“TheCEO$”JetJanuary2001.116.
282
appealingtoproponentsofblackentrepreneurialism.Asaresultoftechnological
progress,suchasthedevelopmentfromthevinylrecordtothecassettetape,
compactdisc,andMP3asthepreferredmediumforconsumption,therecording
industrymaintainedanelementofnoveltydespiteanovercentury-longexistence.
Likewise,thecreationofnewgenresalsoperpetuatedthisperceptionoffreshness.
Furthermore,despiteasteepdrop-offatthedawnofthenewmillennium,themusic
industryremainedfinanciallylucrativethroughoutmostofthetwentiethcentury.
Althoughgenresandperformersinevitablywaxedandwanedinpopularity,as
trendsarewonttodo,consumerdemandformusiccontinuedatastablelevel.This
sustainedconsumerdemandalsocontinuedthemusicbusiness’capacitytocreate
prevalentpublicimagesofmusicians.Althoughtherelativebenefitordetrimentof
thisimagerywasdebatable,nonecoulddenyitsomnipresenceintheAmerican
culturallandscape.
Inall,therecordingindustryanditswareswereinstalledasafixturein
Americanpopculture.Performersofallsortsofbackgroundbecamefamousand
enteredintoAmerica’scollectiveculturalmemory.Additionally,theperpetual
consumerdemandformusicresultedinsomemusiciansbecomingquitewealthy,
andtheirrecordingcompaniessimilarlyreapingthefinancialbenefits.Millerwas
notaloneinfindingimmensewealthinsaleofrecordedmusic,withnumerous
companiessimilarlyachievingsuchsuccess.
Fromaconsumerculturestandpoint,musicperformedbyblackartistshad
becomethoroughlymainstream.Althoughmajorracialissuesstillexistedfor
African-Americansasawhole,byanyreckoningblackperformerscouldnotonly
283
becomepopular,butalsobecomeveryfinanciallysuccessfulwithinthemass
market.Rapmusicespeciallymergedthebeliefsofentrepreneurialismand
economicupliftwithitslyricsandimagery.Inparticular,theideaoftherapperasa
mogulwhoownedseveralcompanieswithdiverserevenuestreamsbecame
commonplace.Rapperswereexpectedtonotonlyrap,butalsoownarecordlabel,
clothingline,andahostofotherbusinessesattheveryleast.Inessence,the
expectationbecameforarappertonotonlybeaperformerofmusicbutalsoa
successfulbusinessowner.
Thisexpectationofmergingculturalendeavorswitheconomicenterprise
cameinlargepartbecauseofthelegacyofRussellSimmons.Themannerbywhich
SimmonswasperceivedtohaverunDefJamultimatelybecamehismostlasting
legacy.AlthoughSimmonswasnothimselfaperformer,hispenchantforselfpromotiongavehimalegacyequivalentto,ifnotsurpassing,theartistssignedto
DefJam.TheseinheritorsofSimmons’legacywerekeenlyawareofhisinfluenceon
theircareers.Sean“Puffy”Combsiteratedthissentimentin1998:“Ifitweren’tfor
RussellSimmons,Iwouldn’tbeinthegame….hetaughtusthatyoucangooutthere,
getyourmoneyandbeyourself,andyoudon’thavetothrowonyourtapdancing
shoes.”3Combs’assessmentofSimmons’influencealsoilluminatedhowenduring
thebeliefofracialupliftthrougheconomicenterprisehadbeenthroughoutthe
twentiethcentury.ForCombsandotherlatermoguls,Simmonsdemonstratedthat
blackperformersdidnothavetoyieldtostereotypesorexpectationsinorderto
becomesuccessful.Moreover,theomnipresenceofhip-hopcultureamongallraces
3KevinChappell.“TheCEO$”JetJanuary2001.120.
284
withinAmericademonstratedthatnotonlydidblackperformersrefusetocomply
withpredeterminedlabels,butalsotheycouldindeedchangethemainstream
consumerculturetotheirowndesires.Yetaboveall,suchsubversionofracial
expectationscouldbeprofitable.Miller,Combs,andtheotherrapmogulsbelieved
thattheirsellingofmusicandotherproductswasultimatelybeneficialtotheblack
communitybecauseitwassolucrative.Althoughseeminglyfollowingtheimmigrant
modelofstartingsmallmenialbusinessesandthroughpersistentlaborgaining
enoughmoneyandrespecttobeacceptedfullyintothemainstreamsociety,the
developmentofblackrecordlabelssubvertssuchanidealbecauseofthealmost
immediateemphasisonnationaldistribution.Essentially,theserecordlabelowners
believedthatthebiggertheircompany,thegreaterthepositiveimpacttheycould
haveupontheAfrican-Americancommunity.
Butdespitetheclaimsofthesemoguls,thecorrelationbetweenindividual
blackentrepreneurialsuccessandbettermentfortheracenevermaterialized.This
ideal,championedfirstbyHarryPaceandlaterbyBerryGordyandRussell
Simmons,waslong-lasting,yetwasneverobtaineddueinlargeparttothevery
natureofconsumerculture.Insellingrecordsthatclaimedtoembodyauthentic
blackculture,thecultureitselfbecamecommodifiedandavailableforsale.
Additionally,asdemonstratedbythemannerinwhichPace,Gordy,andSimmons
marketedtheirlabels,theirartistsweretypicallynotasfreetoexpressradicalracial
orpoliticalsentimentsasblackartistsonwhite-ownedlabels,forfearsuch
radicalismwouldharmrecordsales.Subsequently,theresultinglabelsdidlittleto
285
elevatecommunaleconomicsuccess,andtendedtostayconservativeintheir
artists’publicpersonas.
Yetdespitetheseshortcomings,onecannotcalltheselabelsfailures.Black
Swan,Motown,andDefJamsucceededingivingblackmusicians(andblackculture
asawhole)mainstreamexposure,publicity,andprovidedalivelihoodforartists
andemployeesalike.Morethananythingelse,theselabelsdemonstratedthatthe
mainstreammarketwaswillingtobuymediafromblackartists.Asthetwentieth
centurycontinued,African-Americanperformersbecamemoreengrainedin
Americanpopculture,culminatingatthepointwheretherewasnodistinction
betweenmusicmadeforablackaudienceandmusicmadeforauniversalaudience.
AsMilleroncestated,“AllI’mdoingismakinghitrecords.Idon’tcarewhobuysit.”4
Theemergenceofmusicperformedbyblackartistsasaviablemainstream
genreisdueinlargeparttothesuccessofthesethreeentrepreneurs.Thethree
ownerswereabletonotonlysellrecords,butalsofoundvaryingdegreesofsuccess
inthemanufactureofadepictionofblacklifestylealongsidetheirwares.ForPace,
thisvisionwasdecidedlyupperclass:highlightingtheabilityofAfrican-Americanto
appreciateandfinanciallysupporthigh-culturedmusicalgenres.Pacedesiredto
proveblackaudiencescouldbejustassophisticatedaswhiteaudiences.Although
PacewasnotaseconomicallyorculturallyassuccessfulasGordyandSimmons,he
providedatemplateforsellinglifestyleaswellasrecords.Gordy’saspirationsfor
Motownweremiddleclass.Byemphasizingtherespectabilityandnon-threatening
natureofMotown’sartists,GordywasabletosellmainstreamAmericaontheidea
4Ibid.122.
286
thatblackperformerswereakinintheiraspirationstothoseofconventional
audiences.EventhroughtheturbulentCivilRightsMovement,Gordywasableto
preserveavisionofdecorumforMotown.SimmonsdesiredDefJamandhisartists
torepresentunderclassrebellion.Hisimageofrapperswassteepedinputtingona
depictionofrebellionhebelievedaudienceswouldfindmostauthenticbecausea
blackpersonperformedit.Simmonsalsorepresentedthemostcompletemethodof
monetizingthislifestyleoutsideofmusic.AlthoughGordyfoundmiddlingsuccessin
expandingMotown’sbrandtoincludemoviesandothermedia,Simmonswasable
toparlayhissuccessfulmarketingofDefJam’sdepictionofblackrebellioninto
numerousotherproducts,includingclothinglines,pre-paidcreditcards,andother
enterprises.Byexpandinghisbusinessintootherfields,Simmonswasabletofind
themostfinancialsuccess,andsettheexpectationforsubsequentblack
entrepreneurs.
UndertheguidanceofPace,Gordy,andSimmons,African-American
performerswereabletofindfinancialsuccess,yetprofitabilitycameatacost.As
demonstratedbythedecisionoftheserecordlabelsowners,theeconomicconcerns
ofkeepingarecordlabelprofitableoverranconsiderationsofmusic’sculturalvalue.
BlackSwanRecordsmayhavebeenformedtoprovetheAfrican-Americanaudience
wascapableofappreciatingclassicalmusicandotherhighculture,yetdespitethese
loftygoals,therecordcompanyfoldedin1923.Noamountofhighobjectivesfor
BlackSwancouldcoverforitsexistencebeingbasedupontheprofitabilityofselling
records.Subsequentblack-ownedlabels,asdemonstratedbyGordy’sMotown,
learnedfromthefailureofBlackSwananddidnotlimittheirconsumerbaseby
287
race.Theexpansionfromanichetoamainstreammarketmadeiteasiertofind
financialsustainability,butforcedtheresultingrecordstomaintainauniversal
appeal.AlthoughSimmonseschewedtheveneerofblackrespectabilityinfavorof
blackrebellion,thetransitionwasbaseduponthechangingdemandsofmainstream
consumers,notaningraineddesiretobemoretruthfultotheAfrican-American
experience.ThesecompaniesweresellingadepictionofblackAmerica,yetin
packagingthisvision,itultimatelybecameinauthentic.Althoughtheresultingmusic
mayhavebeenpopular,itlostmuchofitsabilitytogenuinelyaffectsocialchange
forAfrican-Americans.Duetotheseowners’actions,blackmusicsimplybecame
anotherproducttopurchasewithinthelargermainstreamconsumerculture
insteadofadistinctentitytobeappreciatedonitsownmerit,orabletogenerate
answersforracialproblemsfacingAfrican-Americansthroughoutthetwentieth
century.Racebecameasellingpoint,yetasidefromthatraciallabel,themusic
availableforpublicconsumptionwasfundamentallynodifferentthananyother.
MuchlikethelaterRapSnacks,whichwereessentiallyidenticaltoanyotherbrand
ofpotatochipsasidefrompackaging,therewasnodifferencebetweenrecordsbya
blackperformerfromablack-ownedcompanyasopposedtoarecordofablack
performerfromawhite-ownedcompany.InordertobuyintotheAmerican
marketplace,African-Americanrecordlabelownershadtosellouttheirhigher
aspirationsfortheblackcommunity.Althoughsellingoutwasultimatelylucrative,
asevidencedbythefinancialsuccesstheyachieved,theywereunabletoparleythis
successintoasimilarcollectiveupliftfortheAfrican-Americancommunity,aswas
thepromiseofblackentrepreneurialism.
288
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Discography
BlackSwanRecords
ThefollowingBlackSwansongsareavailablefordownloadthroughtheOrganization
ofAmericanHistorians’website,whichhasaselectionofMP3sforpublicuse.
http://archive.oah.org/special-issues/teaching/2004_03/sources.html
AlbertaHunterwithHenderson'sNoveltyOrchestra,"BringBacktheJoys"(Black
Swan2008)
________,"HowLong,SweetDaddy,HowLong"(BlackSwan2008)
C.CarrollClark,"NobodyKnowsdeTroubleI'veSeen"(BlackSwan2006)
_________,"BytheWatersofMinnetonka"(BlackSwan2006)
EthelWatersandCordyWilliams'JazzMasters,"OhDaddy"(BlackSwan2010)
_________,"DownHomeBlues"(BlackSwan2010)
FlorenceCole-Talbert,"TheBellSong,"fromtheoperaLakmé(BlackSwan7103)
FourHarmonyKings,"Ain'tItaShame"(BlackSwan2016)
290
IsabelleWashington,"IWantTo"(BlackSwan14141)
MamieJones,"HoneyRose"(BlackSwan14116)
________,"Many'n'Me"(BlackSwan14116)
MariannaJohnson,"TheRosary"(BlackSwan2015)
MaryStraine,"Ain'tGotNothingBlues"(BlackSwan14115)
RevellaE.HughesandtheBlackSwanTrio,"WiththeComingofTo-Morrow"(Black
Swan2012)
_________,"Ah!WondrousMorn"(BlackSwan2012)
TrixieSmith,"DesperateBlues"(BlackSwan2039)
________,"HeMayBeYourMan:ButHeComestoSeeMeSometimes"(BlackSwan
14114)
________,"Long,LostWearyBlues"(BlackSwan2044)
_________,"MyManRocksMe"(BlackSwan14127)
________,"PensacolaBlues"(BlackSwan14114)
_________,"Trixie'sBlues"(BlackSwan2039)
________,"YouMissedaGoodWomanWhenYouPickedAllOverMe"(BlackSwan
2044)
TrixieSmithandherDownHomeSyncopaters,"LogCabinBlues"(BlackSwan
14112)
_________,"VooDooBlues"(BlackSwan14112)
MotownRecords
Unlessnotedotherwise,thefollowingalbumsareavailabletostreamonSpotify.
DianaRoss,DianaRoss.Motown.1970.
_________,LadySingstheBlues.Motown.1972.
DianaRoss&TheSupremes,LettheSunshineIn.Motown.1969.
291
________,LoveChild.Motown.1968.
________,Reflections.Motown.1968.
EddieHolland,EddieHolland.Motown.1962.
FourTops,FourTops.Motown.1964.
_________.ReachOut.Motown.1967.
_________,SecondAlbum.Motown.1965.
TheJackson5,ABC.Motown.1970.
_________,DianaRossPresentsTheJackson5.Motown.1969
_________,GoingBacktoIndiana.Motown.1971.
_________,ThirdAlbum.Motown.1970.
JamesBrown.“SayItLoud-I’mBlackandI’mProud.”KingRecords.1968.
MarthaandtheVandellas,HeatWave.Gordy.1963.
_________,DanceParty.Gordy.1965.
TheMiracles,ChristmaswiththeMiracles.Tamla.1963.
________,Cookin'withTheMiracles.Tamla.1961.
________,TheFabulousMiracles.Tamla.1963.
________,Hi...We'reTheMiracles.Tamla.1961.
_______,“ICareAboutDetroit”.MotownRecords.1968.
________,I’llTrySomethingNew.Tamla.1962.
________,MakeItHappen.Tamla.1967.
________,TheMiraclesDoingMickey’sMonkey.Tamla.1963.
MartinLutherKingJr.,GreatMarchonWashington.Gordy.1963.Phonograph
________,GreatMarchtoFreedom.Gordy.1963.Phonograph
292
TheMarvelettes,Playboy.Tamla.1962.
_________,PleaseMr.Postman.Tamla.1961.
MarvinGaye,Here,MyDear.Tamla.1978.
__________,HowSweetItIstoBeLovedByYou.Tamla.1965.
__________,IHeardItThroughtheGrapevine.Tamla.1968.
__________,Let’sGetItOn.Tamla.1973.
__________,MarvinGayeattheCopa.Tamla.1966.
__________,M.P.G.Tamla.1969.
__________,TheSoulfulMoodsofMarvinGaye.Tamla.1961
__________,ThatStubbornKindaFella.Tamla.1963.
__________,That’stheWayLoveIs.Tamla.1970.
_________,What’sGoingOn?Tamla.1971.
__________.WhenI’mAloneICry.Tamla.1964.
MarvinGayeandMaryWells,Together.Motown.1964.
MarvinGayeandTammiTerrell,Easy.Tamla.1969.
________.United.Tamla.1967.
________,You’reAllINeed.Tamla.1968.
MaryWells,ByeByeBabyIDon'tWanttoTakeaChanceMotown.1961
________,TheOneWhoReallyLovesYou.Motown.1962.
________,TwoLoversandOtherGreatHits.Motown.1963.
StevieWonder,DowntoEarth.Tamla.1966.
_________,IWasMadetoLoveHer.1967.
_________,TheJazzSoulofLittleStevieWonder.Tamla.1962.
293
_________,MyCherieAmour.Tamla.1969.
__________,Signed,Sealed,&Delivered.Motown.1970.
__________,Up-Tight.Motown.1965.
__________,WithaSonginMyHeart.Tamla.1963.
StokleyCarmichael.“FreeHuey!”Motown.1970.
TheSupremes,MeettheSupremes.Motown.1962.
__________,MoreHitsbytheSupremes.Motown.1965.
__________,TheSupremesA’Go-Go.Motown.1966.
__________,WhereDidOurLoveGo?Motown.1964.
TheSupremesandWillieHorton“DetroitisHappening”.MotownRecords.1968.
TheTemptations,MeettheTemptations.Gordy.1964.
___________,TheTemptin’Temptations.Gordy.1965.
DefJamRecords
Unlessnoted,recordsareeitheravailableonSpotifyorarepartoftheauthor’s
personalcollection.Additionally,recordsbyRushManagementartistsnoton
DefJamwillbeincludedinthissection.
3rdBass.TheCactusAlbum.DefJam.1989.
_______.DerelictsofDialect.DefJam.1991.
BeastieBoys.LicensedtoIll.DefJam.1986.
DMX.AndThenThereWasX.DefJam.1999.
_______.FleshofMyFlesh,BloodofMyBlood.DefJam.1998.
_______.It’sDarkandHellIsHot.DefJam.1998.
JaRule.Venni.Vetti.Vecci.DefJam.1999.
Jay-Z.HardKnockLife:Vol.2.DefJam.1998.
294
________.InMyLifetime,Vol.1.DefJam.1997.
________.ReasonableDoubt.Priority.1996.
________.Vol.3:LifeandTimesofS.Carter.DefJam.1999.
LLCoolJ,14ShotstotheDome.
________.AllWorld.DefJam.1996.
________.BiggerandDeffer.DefJam.1987.
________.“INeedaBeat”.DefJam.1984.
________.MamaSaidKnockYouOut.DefJam.1990.
________.Mr.Smith.DefJam.1995.
________.Phenomenon.DefJam.1997.
________,Radio.DefJam.1985.
________.WalkingwithaPanther.DefJam.1989.
MontellWilliams.More…DefJam.1996.
_______.ThisisHowWeDoIt.DefJam.1995.
Oran“Juice”Jones.GTP(GangstasTakin’Over).DefJam.DefJam.1987.
_______.Oran“Juice”Jones.DefJam.1986.
_______.ToBeImmortal.DefJam.1989.
Onyx.Bacdafucup.DefJam.1993.
PublicEnemy.Apocalypse’91…TheEnemyStrikesBack.DefJam.1991.
_______.FearofaBlackPlanet.DefJam.1990.
_______.GreatestMisses.DefJam.1992.
_______.HeGotGame.DefJam.1998.
_______.ItTakesaNationofMillionstoHoldUsBack.DefJam.1988.
295
_______.MuseSick-n-HourMessAge.DefJam.1994.
_______.Yo!BumRushtheShow.DefJam.1987.
Run-DMC.BackFromHell.Profile.1990.
_______.CrownRoyaleAristaRecords.2001.
_______.DownwiththeKing.Profile.1993.
_______.KingofRock.Profile/Arista.1985.
_______.RaisingHell:DeluxeEdition.Profile/Arista.2005.
_______.Run-DMC.Profile/Arista.1984.
_______.TougherThanLeather.Profile.1988.
Slayer.ReigninBlood.DefJam.1986.
SlickRick.ArtofStorytelling.DefJam.1999.
_______.BehindBars.DefJam.1994.
_______.TheGreatAdventuresofSlickRick.DefJam.1988.
_______.TheRuler’sBack.DefJam.1991.
VariousArtists.LessThanZero(Soundtrack).DefJam.1987.
________.TheNuttyProfessor(Soundtrack.DefJam.1996.
________.RushHour(Soundtrack).DefJam.1998.
WarrenG.Regulate…G-FunkEra.DefJam.1994.
Videography
“BillieJean”.MichaelJackson.1983
“FightthePower”.PublicEnemy.1989.
“KingofRock”.Run-DMC.1985.
KrushGroove.DirectedbyMichaelSchultz.1985.
296
LadySingstheBlues.DirectedbySidneyJ.Furie.1972.
Mahogany.DirectedbyBerryGordy.1975.
“RockBox”.Run-DMC.1984.
TougherThanLeather.DirectedbyRickRubin.1988.
“WalkThisWay.”Run-DMC&Aerosmith.1986.
TheWiz.DirectedbySidneyLumet.1978.
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VITA
StuartTullywasborninBatonRouge,Louisiana.HereceivedhisBachelorof
SciencedegreefromMississippiCollegein2006.In2009,heearnedaMaster’s
degreefromLouisianaStateUniversity.HisMaster’sThesisanalyzedtheprevalence
ofentrepreneurialisminrapmusic.HecurrentlyresidesinHammond,Louisiana.
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