RM Application Worksheet: Attachment
Topic: Interactional Synchrony (Meltzoff and Moore, 1977)
Researchers wanted to investigate whether or not an imitation of a caregiver was
innate or learned. To do this, they used a sample of babies and put them in a
controlled observation.
An adult model would display one of three different facial expressions and the babies’
responses were recorded and then analysed.
PL
RM Application Questions
E
It was found that the babies would imitate the adults, supporting the idea that babies
have evolved to have interactional synchrony to help develop attachments.
This finding was discovered again in a replication of the study which used babies only
three days old.
1. Suggest how the responses of the babies could be recorded. (2 marks)
2. Outline two reasons for recording the responses of the babies. (2 marks)
3. The researchers recorded the number of times the babies smiled. What level of
measurement is this data? Justify your answer. (3 marks)
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4. Outline one example of nominal data that could have been obtained in this study. (2
marks)
5. Outline two reasons why the researchers chose to use a controlled observation
rather than an uncontrolled observation. (4 marks)
6. Using the text, explain why the conclusion of the study is likely to be valid. (3 marks)
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Questions – Suggested Answers
1. Suggest how the responses of the babies could be recorded. (2 marks)
A video recording device, such as a video camera or a camera phone, could be used to
record the facial expressions of the children.
2. Outline two reasons for recording the responses of the babies. (2 marks)
These would be recorded so that nothing is missed by the observers. They could rewatch the footage and ensure they have reliable results. Furthermore, inter-rater
reliability can be assessed by sharing the footage with other observers and comparing
their answers.
E
3. The researchers recorded the number of times the babies smiled. What level of
measurement is this data? Justify your answer. (3 marks)
The data is interval because there is an equal distance between each of the scores (e.g.
one smile and two smiles).
PL
4. Outline one example of nominal data that could have been obtained in this study. (2
marks)
The researchers could count the number of babies who smiled more than five times vs.
the number of babies who smile less than five times. This would create two categories
of data.
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5. Outline two reasons why the researchers chose to use a controlled observation
rather than an uncontrolled observation. (4 marks)
A controlled observation would be used to isolate the independent variable, to make
sure that the study is valid and is not affected by extraneous variables and also to ensure
that the method is replicable so that reliability can be assessed. If the study was
conducted in the field, then the conclusions may not be valid; for instance, the babies
may be looking at other people and not the adults in front of them.
6. Using the text, explain why the conclusion of the study is likely to be valid. (3 marks)
Studies are likely to be valid if their findings are supported by other studies investigating
the same thing. If one study concludes that interactional synchrony is innate, then the
trustworthiness of that conclusion is strengthened when another study finds the same
thing, using a similar method. In this instance, the finding was also found in infants only
three days old, supporting Meltzoff and Moore’s claim that interactional synchrony is
innate.
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Worksheet: Attachment
Topic: Stages of attachment (Schaffer and Emerson, 1964)
Schaffer suggested that babies’ attachment types moved through a series of stages:
AGE
Asocial
Indiscriminate attachment
Discriminate attachment
Multiple attachments
ATTACHMENT TYPE
0-6 weeks
6 weeks – 6 months
7-12 months
12 months onwards
E
To test this, Schaffer and Emerson used a sample of 60 Glaswegian babies and their
mothers. The babies’ interactions with their mothers were studied in a controlled
observation, and the mothers were then interviewed separately.
PL
Schaffer and Emerson found that 30 of the babies showed separation anxiety at 2532 weeks, 80% of babies had a discriminate attachment at 40 weeks, with 30%
progressing ahead to the multiple attachment stage.
This supports the stage theory to an extent, showing that the babies move through
the stages in the order that Schaffer suggested; however, maybe their progression
will vary in time from child to child.
RM Application Questions
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1. Explain one possible ethical issue with this study. (2 marks)
2. What percentage of the babies showed separation anxiety after 30 weeks? Show
your working. (2 marks)
3. The mothers were interviewed afterwards about their relationships with their
babies. Write one open question that could be used to get information from the
mothers. (1 mark)
4. The observation was a non-participant observation. Explain what this means. (2
marks)
5. Outline one strength and one limitation of a non-participant observation in this
study. (6 marks)
6. Explain how demand characteristics may have affected the validity of this study. (3
marks)
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Questions
1. Explain one possible ethical issue with this study. (2 marks)
One possible issue is informed consent. The babies cannot consent; therefore, consent
must be sought from the parent.
Other possible ethical issues include psychological harm or distress when observing for
separation anxiety, but this can be justified as it is likely to be no higher risk than in
everyday life.
E
2. What percentage of the babies showed separation anxiety after 30 weeks? Show
your working. (2 marks)
30 of the 60 babies displayed separation anxiety. 30 divided by 60 is 0.5. Multiply this
by 100 to get 50%.
PL
3. The mothers were interviewed afterwards about their relationships with their
babies. Write one open question that could be used to get information from the
mothers. (1 mark)
An open question is a question without a choice of fixed responses. One example of a
question may be:
“How would you describe your relationship with your child?”
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4. The observation was a non-participant observation. Explain what this means. (2
marks)
This means that the observers weren’t involved in the observation itself, by interacting
with the mothers and their babies. They were merely bystanders.
5. Outline one strength and one limitation of a non-participant observation in this
study. (6 marks)
The main advantage of using a non-participant observation is that the observers are less
likely to influence the behaviour of the people being observed. In this instance, they may
have encouraged the mothers to act more or less caring, depending on their hypotheses.
The main disadvantage is that the observers cannot get as close to the people they are
observing so they may miss behaviours and are less likely to be able to get a feel for the
situation, as they are merely bystanders. They also have less opportunity to ask further
questions to develop their understanding.
6. Explain how demand characteristics may have affected the validity of this study. (3
marks)
In this study the mothers knew they were being observed and they knew they were
being interviewed as part of a psychological study. They may have been keen to appear
like ‘good mothers’ so may have paid more attention to their children in the observation,
or answered with less truthful answers in the interview, in order to appear more socially
desirable.
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Worksheet: Attachment
Topic: Attachment in rhesus monkeys (Harlow and Zimmerman, 1959)
Harlow and Zimmerman removed eight rhesus monkeys from their mothers as soon
as they were born.
The monkeys were placed with artificial mothers made of either wire or cloth. Half
the monkeys had their food attached to the wire mother, whilst the other half had
their food attached to the cloth mother.
E
Contrary to the learning theory of attachment, both groups of monkeys spent more
time with the cloth mother, suggesting that infants prefer warmth to food when it
comes to attachment.
*Note: There are different versions of the Harlow study
PL
RM Application Questions
1. How does the use of rhesus monkeys improve on Lorenz’s method of using goslings?
(2 marks)
2. Write a directional hypothesis which a learning theorist may have written for this
experiment, before it was conducted. (3 marks)
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3. How could the researchers have collected qualitative data in this study? (2 marks)
4. How could the researchers have collected quantitative data in this study? (2 marks)
5. In this observational study, how could event sampling have been used? (2 marks)
6. In contrast, how might the researchers have used time sampling to gather their
data? (2 marks)
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Questions – Suggested Answers
1. How does the use of rhesus monkeys improve on Lorenz’s method of using goslings?
(2 marks)
This is a large improvement in terms of generalisability. This is because rhesus monkeys
are much more genetically similar to humans than goslings. This means that similar
results are much more likely to be found in human infants.
E
2. Write a directional hypothesis which a learning theorist may have written for this
experiment, before it was conducted. (3 marks)
The rhesus monkeys who have food attached to the wire mother will spend significantly
more time with the wire mother, compared to the rhesus monkeys who have food
attached to the cloth mother.
PL
3. How could the researchers have collected qualitative data in this study? (2 marks)
Qualitative data is non-numerical, so they could have taken notes on what happens
when the monkeys get scared and which ‘mother’ they run to.
4. How could the researchers have collected quantitative data in this study? (2 marks)
Quantitative data is numerical, so they could have timed (in seconds) how long each
monkey spent on each ‘mother’ and compared this.
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5. In this observational study, how could event sampling have been used? (2 marks)
In event sampling, the whole observation is recorded and the observers make a note of
how many times an event occurs. In this study, the researchers may have made a note
of every time that the monkeys fell asleep on each mother.
6. In contrast, how might the researchers have used time sampling to gather their
data? (2 marks)
Time sampling is only making observations for shorter periods of a designated time and
recording everything that happens at this time. In this study, the researchers could have
recorded everything that happens in the 5 minutes following the monkeys being
provided with more food.
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RM Application Worksheet: Attachment
Topic: Imprinting (Lorenz, 1935)
Konrad Lorenz divided a group of goose eggs into two groups. One group of eggs were
taken and placed in an incubator, while the other half remained with their natural
mother.
Lorenz made sure that he was present when the incubated eggs hatched, ensuring
that he was the first thing that they all saw when they were born. He then marked
these geese and returned them to their natural mother.
PL
RM Application Questions
E
It was found that the incubated geese followed Lorenz around, whilst the other geese
followed their mother, suggesting that the geese were programmed to follow around
whomever they first see when they are born.
1. How do these findings support the validity of Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of
attachment? (3 marks)
2. Evaluate the use of non-human animals, such as the baby geese used by Lorenz, to
investigate human attachment theories. (4 marks)
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3. Explain what ethical issues researchers must consider when conducting non-human
animal studies. (4 marks)
4. Choose one of these ethical issues and state how Lorenz may have considered this.
(2 marks)
5. How did Lorenz ensure the control of extraneous variables? (2 marks)
6. How could the generalisability of these findings be tested? (2 marks)
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Questions – Suggested Answers
1. How do these findings support the validity of Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of
attachment?
These findings suggest that Bowlby’s evolutionary theory is valid because the geese
were innately programmed to respond to the first organism that they meet, suggesting
that it was present from birth and therefore had evolved.
E
2. Evaluate the use of non-human animals, such as the baby geese used by Lorenz, to
investigate human attachment theories. (4 marks)
A strength of conducting this study using geese is that siblings can be compared easily
to reduce individual differences, which would not be possible with humans. On the other
hand, using geese means we cannot necessarily generalise the results to human infants,
as they are qualitatively and quantitatively different and human infants may not be
programmed in the same way.
PL
3. Explain what ethical issues researchers must consider when conducting non-human
animal studies. (4 marks)
The researchers must consider the wellbeing of the animals used. The general guidelines
for the use of non-human animals suggest researchers should reduce their use, refine
their use (use the best possible methods) and replace their use (where possible, perhaps
using computer models).
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4. Choose one of these ethical issues and state how Lorenz may have considered this.
(2 marks)
Lorenz could have reduced the number of geese that he removed from the natural
mother. This would reduce the number of geese who had any issues with attachment or
their wellbeing, following their imprinting disruption.
5. How did Lorenz ensure the control of extraneous variables? (2 marks)
Lorenz used geese all from the same mother. This would ensure that any individual
differences would be minimised, as they would all have similar genes. Furthermore,
Lorenz returned the incubated geese to their natural mother so that he was just testing
the impact of imprinting, and not their whole life experience.
6. How could the generalisability of these findings be tested? (2 marks)
The generalisability of the results could be tested by repeating the study using other
animals and then observing whether the same results were found. It would be very
difficult to repeat this study ethically in humans. Perhaps a quasi-experiment could be
conducted by comparing the attachment of infants who did see their mothers first with
infants who didn’t see their mothers first (possibly due to health complications at birth).
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Worksheet: Attachment
Topic: Disruption of attachment (Bowlby, 1944)
John Bowlby was a psychoanalyst who believed that the early attachments formed in
childhood influenced the later behaviour of the child.
Whilst working at a clinic which helped juvenile delinquents, Bowlby set about testing
this theory that juvenile delinquency was caused by the deprivation of attachment in
childhood.
E
An independent groups study was used, comparing the attachment types of 44
‘affectionless psychopaths’ with 44 controls, who had been referred to the clinic
because of emotional problems but had not yet committed any crimes. The children
ranged in age from 5-16.
PL
Bowlby and his colleagues carried out interviews with the children themselves, as well
as the parent. Social workers also spoke to the parents about their children. Finally,
the children were given IQ tests by a psychologist, who also interviewed them about
their attitude towards the test.
It was found that more than half of the ‘affectionless psychopaths’ had been
separated from their mothers for six months or longer in their first five years. Only
two of the control group had experienced such a separation.
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Bowlby concluded that a disruption to attachment in the first five years was a clear
indicator of future social maladjustment.
RM Application Questions
1. Explain how Bowlby could have obtained informed consent. (2 marks)
2. Confidentiality is a very important ethical issue, particularly when working with
children. How might confidentiality be maintained in this study? (2 marks)
3. How could the participants in this study be protected from harm? (4 marks)
4. Identify the experimental method used in this investigation. Justify your answer. (2
marks)
5. Explain an advantage of the experimental method identified in question four. (2
marks)
6. This study supports Bowlby’s theory regarding a critical period. Explain how this
could be seen as problematic, with reference to validity. (2 marks)
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Questions – Suggested Answers
1. Explain how Bowlby could have obtained informed consent. (2 marks)
Informed consent cannot be given by juveniles so Bowlby’s team could have obtained
this from parents, carers or guardians.
2. Confidentiality is a very important ethical issue, particularly when working with
children. How might confidentiality be maintained in this study? (2 marks)
The children must not be identifiable. Therefore, Bowlby could have changed their
names to pseudonyms (like ‘Genie’) or initials (H.M.) or numbers. Any personal,
identifiable data must also be kept from the full report.
PL
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3. How could the participants in this study be protected from harm?
The children being studied must be protected from any psychological harm caused as a
result of intrusive questioning on their childhoods. Questions could have been checked
by an ethics committee or another psychologist before the study, to ensure they aren’t
invasive. Furthermore, the children may be given a debrief after the study and be
offered psychological support if necessary.
4. Identify the experimental method used in this investigation.
The study is looking at pre-existing differences (criminal or not a criminal) in the natural
environment. Therefore this would be a quasi-experiment. There is no control of the
independent variable.
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5. Explain an advantage of the experimental method identified in question four. (2
marks)
The advantage of using this method (quasi-experiment) is that there is very little control
and the differences have existed naturally, meaning that there is much higher ecological
validity, as there is very little interference from the researcher.
6. This study supports Bowlby’s theory regarding a critical period. Explain how this
could be seen as problematic, with reference to validity. (2 marks)
As qualitative data has been collected, this is open to subjective interpretation. Bowlby
(consciously or unconsciously) may look for evidence that supports his theory, ignoring
anything that contradicts his theory. This would decrease the validity of his conclusions.
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
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RM Application Worksheet: Attachment
Topic: The ‘Strange Situation’ (Ainsworth, 1971)
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In the 1970s Mary Ainsworth wished to investigate whether there are different types
of attachment between infant and caregiver. To do this, she spent many hours
devising a standardised procedure which could be repeated again and again, with
clear behaviour categories to look for when assessing attachment types. She invited
mothers to her laboratory, set up as a room filled with toys where mothers and their
infants could be studied covertly through one-way glass. The procedure was as
follows:
(1) Mother, baby and experimenter (lasts less than one minute)
(2) Mother and baby alone
(3) Stranger joins mother and infant
(4) Mother leaves baby and stranger alone
(5) Mother returns and stranger leaves
(6) Mother leaves; infant left completely alone
(7) Stranger returns
(8) Mother returns and stranger leaves
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The behaviour of the infant was assessed at key points, particularly; whether they
explored or not, how they acted when the caregiver left, how they interacted with the
stranger and how they reacted when the caregiver returned. Using this data,
Ainsworth established three main forms of attachment; secure (70% of the
participants), insecure-avoidant (15%) and insecure-resistant (15%). This
standardised procedure has provided a repeatable paradigm for assessing attachment
differences, most notably in the study of cross-cultural attachments done by Van
Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg in 1988.
RM Application Questions
1. Ainsworth used clearly defined behaviour categories in her observation. Give an
example of one behaviour category she may have used. (2 marks)
2. Explain why Ainsworth will have used a pilot study when planning this research. (3
marks)
3. Explain how the inter-rater reliability of this observational study could have been
assessed. (2 marks)
4. The study was a controlled observation. Explain what is meant by this. (2 marks)
5. Explain how the use of a controlled observation improved the scientific rigour of this
method. (2 marks)
6. This study has been repeated, assessing the attachment types of both cats and dogs
with their owners. Explain which statistical test would be used to determine if there
is a difference between cats and dogs in whether their attachment type is secure or
insecure. (3 marks)
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Questions – Suggested Answers
1. Ainsworth used clearly defined behaviour categories in her observation. Give an
example of one behaviour category she may have used. (2 marks)
Behavioural categories must be specific and operationalised. One example may be in
the reunion phase, for example, the child pushing the mother away.
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2. Explain why Ainsworth will have used a pilot study when planning this research. (3
marks)
A pilot study is used to check methodological issues, materials and ethical issues. The
pilot study in this investigation may be used to ensure the time of each episode was an
appropriate length, to check if there were any other behaviour categories that had not
been predicted and could also have been used to check that the infants in the study did
not become overly stressed by the situations they were presented with.
PL
3. Explain how the inter-rater reliability of this observational study could have been
assessed. (2 marks)
Inter-rater reliability could be assessed by comparing the scores of multiple observers
watching the same thing. For instance, in this study, they may have two observers
watching a stranger interaction stage. The could then compare how many times each
observer recorded the baby crying.
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4. The study was a controlled observation. Explain what is meant by this. (2 marks)
A controlled observation is normally conducted in a laboratory where the situations that
occur are heavily controlled by the experimenter. In this study, Ainsworth was in full
control of how long the parent stayed with the child and how long they were separated,
for example.
5. Explain how the use of a controlled observation improved the scientific rigour of this
method.
Because the study was very controlled, this meant that the study had high levels of
replicability. This is essential to assess whether a study has reliable findings and can also
be used to assess the generalisability of the findings, as other populations can be tested
in the same way.
6. This study has been repeated, assessing the attachment types of both cats and dogs
with their owners. Explain which statistical test would be used to determine if there
is a difference between cats and dogs in whether their attachment type is secure or
insecure. (3 marks)
As both variables are nominal (dog/cat, secure/insecure), it is a test of difference, and it
is an independent groups design (cat/dog), then the Chi-squared test would be most
appropriate. Interestingly, the study found that cats lack the secure attachment often
found in dogs.
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Worksheet: Attachment
Topic: Cultural variations of attachment (Rothbaum, 2000)
Following criticism of the ‘Strange Situation’ paradigm, and its use in assessing the
cross-cultural differences in attachment (seen in Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg,
1988), Rothbaum went about investigating these cultural differences further.
E
The research team conducted interviews with 14 mothers from Tokyo, Japan and 14
mothers from Boston, the USA about their attitudes towards attachment. It was found
that the mothers both agreed that a ‘secure’ attachment was the most desirable
attachment type, but there were significant differences in certain behaviours within
this attachment type.
PL
The Japanese mothers found exploration behaviour undesirable and would want to
discourage this element of Ainsworth’s original criteria for a ‘secure’ attachment. The
Boston mothers valued independence and wanted to encourage this exploring
behaviour.
Furthermore, the Japanese mothers suggested that crying was a desirable behaviour
to encourage ‘amae’ (a culture-specific concept showing the desire for love and
attention), whilst the Boston mothers seek to reduce crying behaviour as much as
possible.
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These findings suggest that using the ‘Strange Situation’ is an ethnocentric way of
measuring cross-cultural differences, as some cultures value different behaviours to
those that are looked for in Ainsworth’s definition of ‘secure attachment.'
RM Application Questions
1. Explain one advantage of using an interview to collect data in this study, in
comparison to a questionnaire. (2 marks)
2. Outline two disadvantages of using an interview to collect this data in this study, in
comparison to using a questionnaire. (4 marks)
3. Interviews are often recorded using audio or video recording devices. Explain the
advantage of recording interviews in this way. (2 marks)
4. How could content analysis be used to analyse the data collected in the interviews?
(3 marks)
5. Explain the advantage of using a semi-structured interview in this investigation, in
comparison to a structured interview. (2 marks)
6. Peer review is used to check the validity and quality of psychological research before
publication. Explain how peer review of this study may have taken place. (3 marks)
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Questions – Suggested Answers
1. Explain one advantage of using an interview to collect data in this study, in
comparison to a questionnaire. (2 marks)
An advantage of using an interview would be that richer data can be collected, especially
if the interview uses a semi-structured or unstructured format. The respondent can
answer in several different ways, rather than with just fixed responses. The responder
can also ask for clarification of the question(s), whereas there is no opportunity to do
this in questionnaires. This means that their responses are more likely to be accurate.
PL
E
2. Outline two disadvantages of using an interview to collect this data in this study, in
comparison to using a questionnaire. (4 marks)
A disadvantage of using an interview is that it collects data which is very hard to analyse
and compare quickly. Because the data is likely to be qualitative, this means that neat
conclusions are harder to produce and the interpretation of the result relies on
subjective measures. Furthermore, an interview may be more likely to suffer from
investigator effects (the presence of the interviewer influencing the responses of the
interviewee) and, because the interview is likely to take place face-to-face, social
desirability bias may come into play a little more as the mothers want to appear like
‘good mothers’. This is less likely to happen in an anonymous questionnaire situation.
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3. Interviews are often recorded using audio or video recording devices. Explain the
advantage of recording interviews in this way. (2 marks)
The advantage of recording the interviews is that the interviewer can focus on asking
follow-up questions and not just writing down responses. Another main advantage is
being able to listen back to the recordings and ensure nothing has been missed, ensuring
the interpretation is accurate. Furthermore, a recording can be shared with other
researchers who could analyse the data. Inter-rater reliability may then be assessed.
4. How could content analysis be used to analyse the data collected in the interviews?
(3 marks)
Content analysis is using pre-defined codes or categories to turn qualitative data into
quantitative data, so it can be analysed easier. To do this for this study the researchers
could produce fixed categories like “mother states crying is desirable” and then make a
tally of how many times this category is mentioned by each independent group (Japan
mothers and Boston mothers), for comparison.
5. Explain the advantage of using a semi-structured interview in this investigation, as
opposed to a structured interview. (2 marks)
A semi-structured interview has fixed questions, but with an opening for follow-up
questions, which is not possible with a structured interview. This means that the
researcher can gain an in-depth understanding of each answer and also means that the
interviews become more personalised. New information may inform the interviewer
and allow them to be more flexible with exactly what they are investigating.
6. Peer review is used to check the validity and quality of psychological research before
publication. Explain how peer review of this study may have taken place. (3 marks)
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
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PL
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Peer review is checking the validity of research by sending it to two peers in the field.
This study may have been sent to two experts in either attachment types or an expert
in cross-cultural research so that they can check the methodology of the study for errors
(or plagiarism). Following that, the research was either sent for review or recommended
for publication in the appropriate journal.
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Worksheet: Attachment
Topic: Cultural variations of attachment (Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg,
1988)
Using Ainsworth’s ‘Strange Situation’ as a paradigm of measuring attachment types,
this study wanted to investigate cultural differences in attachment types.
To do this the researchers used a meta-analysis, looking at 32 different studies using
the ‘Strange Situation’ in 8 different countries.
PL
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The findings are shown in the table below:
Percentage of each attachment type
Country (number
of studies)
Secure
Avoidant
Resistant
USA (18)
65
21
14
UK (1)
75
22
3
Holland (4)
67
26
7
Germany (3)
57
35
8
Japan (2)
68
5
27
China (1)
50
25
25
Israel (2)
64
7
29
Sweden (1)
74
22
4
They also found that differences within cultures were 1.5 times bigger than the
differences between cultures.
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RM Application Questions
1. What do these results suggest about attachment types in individualist cultures
(Europe and the United States) compared to collectivist cultures (Japan, Israel,
China)? (4 marks)
2. Explain one strength of using a meta-analysis to assess cross-cultural differences in
attachment. (2 marks)
3. Explain a problem with using secondary data in assessing cross-cultural differences
in attachment. (2 marks)
4. Which statistical test would be used to analyse if there is a significant difference
between the percentage of insecure-resistant children in Japan compared to
Sweden? Justify your decision. (3 marks)
5. How could research into cultural variations in attachment affect the economy in any
of these countries? (4 marks)
6. Many critics have argued that this study is ethnocentric. Explain what is meant by
this criticism. (4 marks)
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Questions – Suggested Answers
1. What do these results suggest about attachment types in individualist cultures
(Europe and the United States) compared to collectivist cultures (Japan, Israel,
China)? (4 marks)
These results suggest that insecure-avoidant attachments are more common in
individualistic cultures (e.g. Germany 35% and Netherlands 26% compared to Israel 7%
and Japan 5%), whilst insecure-resistant attachments are more common in collectivist
cultures (e.g. Israel 29% and Japan 27% compared to Germany 8% and Netherlands 7%).
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2. Explain one strength of using a meta-analysis to assess cross-cultural differences in
attachment. (2 marks)
A strength of a meta-analysis is that the population validity is usually high as the sample
size is much greater. This means the results are more likely to be generalisable to a large
number of people. Furthermore, any individual differences and anomalies are likely to
be reduced and minimised in such a large sample, enhancing the validity of the findings.
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3. Explain a problem with using secondary data in assessing cross-cultural differences
in attachment. (2 marks)
The problem with using secondary data is that the researchers cannot fully control all of
the variables in the study and they place a lot of trust in the original researchers’
methodology. There may have been some errors in the studies which have not been
recognised in the publication of their research. This will affect the validity of the final
meta-analysis conclusions.
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4. Which statistical test would be used to analyse if there is a significant difference
between the percentage of insecure-resistant children in Japan compared to
Sweden? Justify your decision. (3 marks)
This is a test of difference, using independent groups (Japan/Sweden) and the data is at
the interval level (percentages); therefore, an unrelated or independent t-test would be
the most appropriate test to use.
5. How could research into cultural variations in attachment affect the economy in any
of these countries? (4 marks)
Answers to this question are most likely to focus on implications for day care and
maternity/paternity pay and leave. It could be argued that the cultures with lowest
levels of secure attachments (China and Germany) may want to invest more money in
allowing longer maternity leave and extending maternity pay. This will affect the
number of people at work at any one time in the country, affecting productivity. On the
other hand, with more securely attached children this may increase productivity in the
long term as they are more likely to be happy, healthy and successful in education and
work.
6. Many critics have argued that this study is ethnocentric. Explain what is meant by
this criticism. (4 marks)
This study uses a Western method of measuring attachment types, designed by an
American researcher and first tested on American middle-class children. It may be that
this method lacks cultural relativism and so should not be used in cultures where the
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
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same values in caregiving are not as important. For instance, in Germany independence
is valued more highly and so this could explain why the children were less anxious in the
separation stage. Furthermore, the method does not account for differences in childrearing practices. For instance, in Japan mothers typically carry their children with them
a lot of the time. The study does not account for this, and the separation stage would
be a situation which the infants will be very unfamiliar with.
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Worksheet: Attachment
Topic: Disruption of attachment (Robertson and Robertson, 1948)
Robertson and Robertson were interested in the effect of both short and long-term
disruptions to attachment.
‘John’ was a seventeen-month-old child who was placed in residential care for nine
days, whilst his mother was giving birth to a second child. The residential care was
fairly ordinary and understaffed, meaning that ‘John’ did not get the attention he was
used to receiving at home.
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4 of the other five children in the care home had been there their entire lives. They
were noisy and demanding. ‘John’ was portrayed as shy and quiet. Initially ‘John’
protested to the carers and cried for attention. This was often ignored. ‘John’ then
began to refuse food, not sleep and sob with despair.
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Eventually, ‘John’ detached himself from the others in the care home and spent most
of his time alone, with only a large cuddly toy as company. He was even withdrawn
when his father came to visit.
The behaviour of ‘John’ over these nine days support Bowlby’s claims that deprivation
has a damaging impact on children, as well as supporting the ‘protest, despair and
detachment’ stage theory of deprivation.
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RM Application Questions
1. Was this a naturalistic or a controlled observation? Explain your answer. (2 marks)
2. Outline one advantage of using the type of observation identified in question one.
(2 marks)
3. Why was ‘John’ reported using a pseudonym (false name)? (2 marks)
4. Evaluate the temporal validity of this research. (2 marks)
5. Explain the economic implications of research into the disruption of attachment. (4
marks)
6. Does this method of study adopt the idiographic approach or the nomothetic
approach to investigating behaviour? Explain your answer. (3 marks)
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Questions – Suggested Answers
1. Was this a naturalistic or a controlled observation? Explain your answer. (2 marks)
This took place in the natural environment, without any manipulation or control from
the researchers, so it is a naturalistic observation.
2. Outline one advantage of using the type of observation identified in question one.
(2 marks)
An advantage of a naturalistic observation is that it has higher in ecological validity in
comparison to a controlled observation. The participants are less likely to be influenced
by an experimenter, so it is easier to generalise the results to real-life situations.
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3. Why was ‘John’ reported using a pseudonym (false name)? (2 marks)
This was done to ensure ‘John’ remained anonymous and to protect confidentiality so
that he would not have to worry about people finding out private details about his
childhood and his behaviour.
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4. Evaluate the temporal validity of this research. (4 marks)
Temporal validity is the extent to which results can be generalised to the modern day.
In one sense these results may lack temporal validity as childcare practices have changed
so that children are kept much closer to their mothers when they are hospitalised now,
so this situation is unlikely to happen again. On the other hand, it could be argued that
this supports an evolutionary explanation of attachment and these attachment
behaviours are still likely to be present in infants in this century, although not exactly in
this situation.
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5. Explain the economic implications of research into the disruption of attachment. (4
marks)
This research has led to a change in childcare practices where mothers who have been
hospitalised have the facilities to look after their children in the hospital, rather than
sending them off to residential care. In the short term, this is expensive for the NHS to
provide and means extra nurses and extra facilities must be paid for to cater for this. In
the long term, disruption to attachment is less likely to occur and this means that the
children who have received this extra care are likely to be happier and more successful
in their lives, increasing productivity and reducing any potential cost to the police or
prison service from criminal behaviour (as seen in Bowlby’s ‘44 thieves’ study).
6. Does this method of study adopt the idiographic approach or the nomothetic
approach to investigating behaviour? Explain your answer. (3 marks)
This study has adopted an idiographic approach, where an in-depth look has been taken
to view an individual. This provides rich data and has viewed the situation holistically. A
nomothetic approach would have looked at large cases of disruption to attachment and
used these to form general conclusions and assumptions about their effects.
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Worksheet: Attachment
Topic: Disruption of attachment (Rutter and Sonuga-Barke, 2010)
Under Communist politician Nicola Ceausescu, Romania banned contraception and
abortion in the 1960s. Combined with a struggling economy, these interventions led
to a massively overpopulated country with insufficient money to care for its children.
Couples were taxed for being childless, leading to an abundance of children being
born and then abandoned by their parents.
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The standard of orphanages ranged from poor to abysmal. The Nuffield Foundation
decided to monitor the impact of this poor care and absence of attachment
longitudinally, to measure its impact on these children. 165 Romanian orphans were
tracked longitudinally, 111 of which who were adopted before the age of 2 and 54
who were adopted after the age of 2. They were then compared to a control group of
52 British children.
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The results were extraordinary and have informed our knowledge of the effects of
privation (the absence of attachment) on the physical and mental development of
young people. The children were followed up at ages 4, 6, 11 and 15. The results were
shocking. The key findings included:
 Those adopted early quickly caught up with the British children
 Those not adopted early had significant cognitive, social and physical
development problems
 One-third of those adopted late had problems requiring the intervention of an
educational psychologist or psychiatrist
 These problems persisted in the group adopted later, all the way to the age of
15. These included symptoms very similar to autism
These findings supported the idea of Bowlby’s critical period, as those who did not
form an attachment in this period never seemed to recover fully.
RM Application Questions
1. This study collected both qualitative and quantitative data. Other than IQ, state one
form of quantitative data that may have been collected. (2 marks)
2. Evaluate the population validity of this study. (3 marks)
3. This study was a longitudinal study. Explain what is meant by the term longitudinal
study. (2 marks)
4. In this study, the IQ scores were measured using a standard IQ test. How could the
concurrent validity of the IQ test be ratified? (2 marks)
5. Explain the problem of control in this experiment. (4 marks)
6. A scientific report always includes a method section. Describe what is likely to be
found in the method section of this particular study. (4 marks)
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Questions – Suggested Answers
1. This study collected both qualitative and quantitative data. Other than IQ, state one
form of quantitative data that may have been collected. (2 marks)
Quantitative data is numerical data. The researchers measured physical development
so one form of quantitative data could be their height in centimetres.
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2. Evaluate the population validity of this study. (3 marks)
The population validity of this study is likely to be quite low as it examined Romanian
orphans. There may be something quantitatively or qualitatively different or unique
about these infants which meant that these findings are unlikely to be replicated in
other infants. One such example might be the poor nutrition or health of the mother, as
Romania was a very poor country at the time. This may have influenced the
development of the foetus thus affecting the results.
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3. This study was a longitudinal study. Explain what is meant by the term longitudinal
study. (2 marks)
This means that the study was done over a relatively long period, rather than at just one
individual moment in time. In this study the orphans were tracked and tested at several
different ages, to measure their progress over time.
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4. In this study, the IQ scores were measured using a standard IQ test. How could the
concurrent validity of the IQ test be ratified? (2 marks)
Concurrent validity is the extent to which the results agree with another, pre-existing
measure of the same thing. The standard IQ test results could be compared with the IQ
scores given to the orphans using a different form of IQ test.
5. Explain a problem with control in this experiment. (4 marks)
This study lacked control of the independent variable (when they were adopted). This
means that other factors may have affected the dependent variable (their progress). For
instance, it may be that the orphans who appeared to be developing more slowly were
not chosen for adoption. Therefore, the adoption was not causing the slow
development, but the slow development caused the lack of adoption.
6. A scientific report always includes a method section. Describe what is likely to be
found in the method section of this particular study. (4 marks)
A method section is a detailed report of how the study was done, written so the study
can be verified and possibly replicated. In this study the materials used in the testing
would be listed, as well as detail on the participants used. Furthermore, a detailed
procedure would be written explaining exactly how the children were assessed and the
justification for each of these design decisions (e.g. why they were monitored at the
ages of 4, 6, 11 and 15).
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Worksheet: Attachment
Topic: The internal working model (Hazan and Shaver, 1987)
The internal working model suggests that the attachments formed in childhood will
provide a template for all future relationships.
To test this theory, Hazan and Shaver went about creating a ‘Love Quiz’ questionnaire
which would produce data on both the respondents’ early attachments and their
adult relationships.
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The ‘Love Quiz’ was published in the ‘Rocky Mountain News’, and 620 people
responded, providing a large sample size for the researchers to gather data from.
The quantitative data produced was then analysed, and it was found that there was a
positive correlation between the early attachment type and adult love experiences.
Those with a secure attachment were significantly more likely to rate their adult
relationships as safe, secure and loving, and vice versa.
These results strongly support the idea that an internal working model is created by
our early attachments, affecting the nature of our romantic relationships later in life.
RM Application Questions
1. Explain the problem of using correlational analysis to make conclusions about the
internal working model. (4 marks)
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2. Evaluate the sampling method used in this study. (4 marks)
3. Some critics have argued that this study could have been heavily influenced by social
desirability bias. Explain what is meant by social desirability bias in the context of
this study. (3 marks)
4. This questionnaire used closed questions to gather quantitative data. Write one
example of a closed question that could be used in this study. (2 marks)
5. A good questionnaire should be consistent. Explain how the split-half reliability of
the questionnaire could be assessed. (4 marks)
6. Before publishing the questionnaire in the newspaper, the researchers would need
to assess the face validity of their questionnaire. Explain how they may have done
this. (4 marks)
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015
RM Application Questions – Suggested Answers
1. Explain the problem of using correlational analysis to make conclusions about the
internal working model. (4 marks)
The problem with correlational analysis is that correlation does not necessarily imply
causation. This means that the variables may be working independently of each other
and other factors may be influencing the result (the adult relationships). It is impossible
to rule out a factor such as socio-economic status, genetic makeup or physical
attractiveness causing both the secure attachment and the success of adult
relationships. Further studies would need to be done to isolate an independent variable
and establish a causal relationship.
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2. Evaluate the sampling method used in this study. (4 marks)
The use of volunteer sampling has led to a very large sample size, which will increase
the generalisability of the findings and will also minimise any anomalies in the sample.
However, this sample may not be generalisable as only people who read the paper and
have time on their hands will respond. These people may be unique (the unemployed
or the retired), and so the results may not be able to be generalised to other people in
society. Furthermore, the study’s validity could be compromised by the fact that some
people with more positive relationships will be more likely to respond than people with
negative relationships. This may skew the distribution of the results negatively.
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3. Some critics have argued that this study could have been heavily influenced by social
desirability bias. Explain what is meant by social desirability bias in the context of
this study. (3 marks)
Social desirability bias is the changing of participant behaviour to appear more desirable
(advantageous). It may be apparent in this study as people will not want to think of their
relationship with their mothers as insecure or imperfect and so may respond less
truthfully than they should. Similarly, people may be less honest (consciously or
unconsciously) about the quality of their adult relationships.
4. This questionnaire used closed questions to gather quantitative data. Write one
example of a closed question that could be used in this study. (2 marks)
A closed question must have a fixed response. An example may be:
Out of ten, how would you rate the level of intimacy in your current relationship?
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5. A good questionnaire should be consistent. Explain how the split-half reliability of
the questionnaire could be assessed. (4 marks)
The split-half method could be used here. The questionnaire could be divided into two
sections (top half questions vs. bottom half, odd vs. even) and then the scores on each
half of a selection of respondents’ questionnaires should be compared. A consistent
questionnaire would have similar scores on each half of the questions, whereas a big
discrepancy between the scores would indicate that the questionnaire is not assessing
a similar construct throughout.
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6. Before publishing the questionnaire in the newspaper, the researchers would need
to assess the face validity of their questionnaire. Explain how they may have done
this. (4 marks)
Face validity is the extent to which, on the face of it, the questionnaire is measuring
what it sets out to measure. Before publishing the questionnaire, the researchers may
have given it to researchers in the same field and asked them to discuss what the
questionnaire was measuring. If they said that it measured early attachments and
quality of adult relationships, then face validity would be high, but if they thought it was
assessing something else, then it would be low.
© tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology RM Application Worksheet (Edition 1)
Specification 7181, 7182 For Teaching from September 2015