Polity IV Country Report 2010: Democratic Republic of Congo
Score:
2009
2010
Change
Polity:
5
5
0
Democ:
6
6
0
Autoc:
1
1
0
Durable:
4
Tentative:
Yes
ZAI
SCODE
CCODE
490
Date of Report
1 June 2011
Polity IV Component Variables
XRREG
2
XRCOMP
2
XROPEN
4
XCONST
5
PARREG
3
PARCOMP
4
Date of Most Recent Polity Transition (3 or more point change)
End Date
6 December 1992
Begin Date
6 December 2006
Polity Fragmentation: Yes (10-25%)
Constitution
Executive(s)
Legislature
18 February 2006
President Joseph Kabila (PPRD); initially gained office following the
assassination of his father, Laurent Kabila, 16 January 2001; designated
head of transitional government on 30 June 2003; directly elected, 30
July (44.8%) and 29 October 2006 (58.1%)
Bicameral:
National Assembly (500 seats; 61 directly elected, 439 proportionally
elected; most recent elections, 30 July 2006)
People’s Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD): 111
Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC): 64
Unified Lumumbist Party (PALU): 34
Social Movement for Renewal (MSR): 27
Forces for Renewal (FR): 26
Other parties: 175
Non-partisans: 63
Senate (108 seats; indirectly elected by provincial assemblies; most
recent elections, 19 January 2007)
PPRD: 22
MLC: 14
Other parties: 46
Non-partisans: 26
Supreme Court
Narrative Description:
1
Executive Recruitment: Transitional or Restricted Elections (7)
The politics of the (renamed) Democratic Republic of Congo since the fall of President Mobutu in 1996
have been characterized by political instability, civil war, and state failure. Laurent Kabila, a man who
conducted an insignificant and largely ineffective 30-year guerrilla campaign against the authoritarian rule
of President Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire, assumed power in 1996 when state authority collapsed and
President Mobutu fled the country. Kabila came to power in Kinshasa as a result of the ineffectiveness of
President Mobutu to stop the descent of Zaire’s eastern provinces of North and South Kivu into civil war.
This civil violence was triggered by the 1994 Rwandan genocide that drove over one million Rwandan
Hutu refugees and Interhamwe militiamen into Kivu. This mass migration had the effect of exacerbating
pre-existing tensions between Tutsis and Hutus in the region. Fanning the fires in Kivu was Mobutu’s
decision to provide support to the Hutu rebels against the new Tutusi-dominated government in Rwanda. In
response to this decision, the Rwandan government provided the Banyamulenge (ethnic Tutsis of Rwandan
origin whose ancestors settled South Kivu province centuries ago) with support to stage an uprising in the
summer of 1996 against the Mobutu government. Within a few months the Banyamulenge, in alliance with
the Tutsi of North Kivu and followers of martyred Prime Minister Lumumba (headed by Kabila), had
gained control over most of eastern Zaire. After a brief seven-month military campaign Kabila and his
forces entered Kinshasa and assumed power.
While chosen by the Tutsi-government in Rwanda to act as a spokesperson for the Alliance of
Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL), this alliance of anti-Mobutu forces under
Kabila’s leadership quickly splintered after the fall of Mobutu. In the power vacuum that surrounded the
collapse of the AFDL, Kabila actively consolidated his political authority in Kinshasa as the rest of the
country rapidly descended into anarchy and civil war. Overlapping the domestic struggles for political
power, territory and resources inside the newly named Democratic Republic of Congo were increasing
military incursions by foreign actors. Since 1996 numerous African states (Angola, Namibia, Rwanda,
Uganda, Zimbabwe and others) have been involved in the conflict in the DRC, some pursuing political
agendas transcending their borders and some taking advantage of the chaos to enrich themselves through
control of valuable resources (or both). Despite international fanfare, the Lusaka Accords of August 1999
failed to bring an end to the brutal violence, chaos, and humanitarian disaster that had engulfed much of the
country.
On 16 January 2001 Laurent Kabila was assassinated, allegedly by a member of his presidential
bodyguard. Kabila’s son, Joseph, was designated as the new president of the DRC. Despite his relatively
narrow political base, Joseph Kabila has shown himself to be an adept political leader. Unlike his father,
Joseph appears committed to the establishment of both peace and democracy in the DRC. President Kabila
rekindled interest in the Lusaka Accords and began to liberalize the political arena in 2001-02. In early
2001 Uganda, Rwanda and Zimbabwe responded favorably to these peaceful overtures (and strong
international pressure) and began the gradual process of removing their troops from the frontlines of the
conflict. In May 2001 President Kabila lifted the ban on party political activity that had been in place since
1996. Kabila’s efforts led to the creation of an Inter-Congolese Dialogue (ICD), which created a
transitional government tasked with paving the road for democratic governance.
After many initial difficulties, on 17 December 2002 a comprehensive peace deal was signed at
talks in Pretoria. President Kabila agreed to remain in office and four new vice-presidents were drawn from
the government, RCD-Goma, the MLC and opposition groups. This national power-sharing government
was inaugurated on 30 June 2003, under the condition that it would rule the country for two years and all
former rebel groups would be authorized to function as legal political parties. By early 2004, however, the
government was continuing to drag its feet on efforts to move the country toward national elections within
the negotiated timetable. In response to several unsettling events that year and a general lack of cooperation
between regional and national leaders, the UN extended its peacekeeping mandate in October 2004 for an
additional six months.
Despite these difficulties the legislature of the transitional government succeeded in promulgating
a new Constitution of the Third Republic in 2006, which was approved by national referendum and
1
The research described in this report was sponsored by the Political Instability Task Force (PITF). The
PITF is funded by the Central Intelligence Agency. The views expressed herein are the authors' alone and
do not represent the views of the US Government.
Polity IV Country Report 2010: Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire)
2
implemented 18 February 2006. Successful general elections followed on 30 July 2006. Presidential
elections involved sixty candidates and resulted in a run-off election between Joseph Kabila and JeanPierre Bemba (Congloese Liberation Movement, MLC). Kabila received 58% of the vote in the October 29
run-off to win the presidency. The collection of election results proved chaotic and after allegations of
fraud and violence continued, the Supreme Court certified the election on November 26.
Under the new constitution the president shares power with a prime minister, whom he appoints
from the majority party in the National Assembly. Although officially running as an independent candidate,
Kabila is associated with the People’s Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) which won the
most legislative seats (111) in the 500 member National Assembly; the coalition “Alliance for a
Presidential Majority” secured 316 seats. Kabila appointed Antoine Gizenga (PALU) as prime minister and
asked him to form a government.
Executive Constraints: Substantial Limitations (5)
One of the first achievements of the transitional government’s legislature was the creation of a new
constitution, which decentralized political power with the creation of twenty-six provincial governments
and created a separation of powers system within the national government. Although the national
government still retains control over most political issues, the constitution did assign provinces specific
issue realms over which they have complete control.
Under the new constitution the legislature is bicameral, consisting of a National Assembly (lower
house) and Senate (upper house) The National Assembly consists of 500 members, sixty-one of whom are
directly elected and 439 are proportionally elected, and the Senate consists of 108 members elected
indirectly by twenty-six provincial governments. This legislative branch has emerged as largely
independent from the executive, and places substantial limitations on executive power. The post of prime
minister, for example, is appointed by the president, but can only be dismissed by the National Assembly,
meaning that in practice the president must appoint a member supported by the majority of the Assembly.
As the prime minister (currently Adolphe Muzito) shares executive power with the president, in a divided
government the National Assembly would have a considerable institutional advantage over the presidency.
In his December 2009 State of the Nation address, President Kabila indicated that he would like to see
major reforms to the 2006 constitution. In particular, Kabila seems to favor abandoning the semipresidential structure in favor of a more centralized presidential system.
The judicial branch is led by a Supreme Court and constituted to operate largely independent of
executive influence. Given the DRC’s recent emergence from general and long-term chaos, it will be
several years before the practical nature of executive authority, and the effectiveness of constraints on that
authority, can be confidently attested.
Political Participation: Political Liberalization or Democratic Retrenchment: Persistent Overt Coercion (8)
The DRC is a large country with many distinct regions that have at various times exercised considerable
autonomy and/or resisted the imposition of central authority. Political participation in the DRC is
characterized by personal and local loyalties and complicated by alliances with external actors. Uganda and
Rwanda, in particular, have played significant roles in arming and encouraging local militias. The effects of
ten years of political chaos and brutal violence and widespread rape, plunder, and pillage have exacted an
enormous toll from the people and the country. The reestablishment of an effective central government and
the substantial reduction of fighting in the DRC are the crucial first step in its reemergence. By late 2007,
the central government appeared able to assert its authority over sixty percent of its territory, although it
remained unable to deliver crucial services and administration. It has weathered several challenges to its
legitimacy, including a serious challenge by the supporters of Jean-Pierre Bemba, who lost the presidential
runoff election. With international assistance, the central government has made important progress in
gaining control of the northeast Ituri province. In late 2007, the DRC government’s most serious
confrontation is in North Kivu with ethnic-Tutsi militias allied with General Laurent Nkunda and supported
by Rwanda in the eastern territories. Their main demand is for the government to disarm and disband the
ethnic-Hutu militias that fled to the DRC following the 1994 genocide in Rwanda and that continue to pose
a threat to Rwanda’s security. This confrontation led to open warfare in late 2007 and remains unresolved.
Aside for the east of the country, most of the nation was relatively stable in 2009. In July 2010, President
Kabila signed into law the establishment of a permanent National Independent Electoral Commission.
Presidential and legislative elections are scheduled for 27 November 2011.
Polity IV Country Report 2010: Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire)
3