Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
Received: 2 September 2011; Accepted: 22 September 2011; Published online: 28 September 2011
Journal of
Landscape
Studies
Impacts of ecotourism upon cultural and natural resources: an
annotated bibliography
Peter A. Kumble
Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning, University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Abstract
This annotated bibliography summarizes published literature discussing physical impacts to cultural and
natural resources associated with ecotourism. Material has been drawn from a wide range of academic
disciplines, including planning, tourism, landscape ecology, sustainable tourism development, landscape
architecture, natural resource management, sociology, and economics. The theme of this inquiry focuses
on how to provide for better management of ecotourist activities and visitor behavior through the lens of
sustainable planning and design.
Key words: Ecotourism; Tourism; Natural resources; Cultural and historic resources; Physical impacts;
User impacts; Landscape management; Annotated bibliography.
Table of Contents
I. Introduction
II. Organization of the Bibliography and
Bibliographic Scope
III. Annotated Bibliography
a. Impacts Of Ecotoursim On
Natural And Cultural Resources
b. Natural Resource Protection and
Management Issues at Ecotourist
Destinations
c. Sustainable Ecotourism Planning
and Policy Issues
d. Community Participation and
Ethnographic Assessment at
Ecotourism Destinations
e. Marketing and Economic
Development of Ecotourism
Specific to Resource
Conservation
* Corresponding autor; E-mail: [email protected]
Available online at: www.centrumprokrajinu.cz/jls/
f.
General Trends in Ecotourism
Planning and Management
IV. Author Index
I. Introduction
Ecotourism, or nature-based tourism, represents a
subset of what is perhaps one of the largest
industries in the world: tourism. There is a
distinctive difference between ecotourism and
mass-tourism. With mass-tourism, much of the
revenue generated remains at the point of origin –
meaning that much of the money spent by the
tourist stays at the place from which they booked
or initiated their travel. In contrast, revenue from
an ecotourism experience (trip/vacation/holiday/
81
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
research venture) ends up at the point of
destination, such as families at a remote village,
with local artisans who make handicrafts, or local
guides who lead tours. The principle difference is
the benefit to local, native, and indigenous people;
ecotourism experiences allow the visitor to develop
a much closer understanding and relationship with
the places and people that they come to visit.
Whereas some of the research presented in this
bibliography may appear critical of ecotourism
activities because of the physical and social
impacts that occur at some destinations, the results
presented are not biased. Research suggests that
ecotourism activities can and should be conducted
with a greater level of care and attention. Visitors
must be made aware that any impact to rare and
sensitive locations – although innocent – are
impacts nonetheless; by providing well-trained
guide services, these impacts can be reduced.
Physical impacts to sensitive sites can also
occur from the way in which the management
organizations charged with operations at the
destination(s) conducts business. If ecotourism is
to be viewed as the purveyor of sustainable
tourism, it is unacceptable to allow impacts that
cause a loss of integrity. Poor physical designs and
management schemes are not acceptable for longterm sustainability. That said, ecotourists are in
fact inquisitive tourists who wish to learn more
about rare and exotic places through first hand
experience, and often out of respect for those
places. This means that it is not particularly
difficult to training ecotourist visitors how to
conduct themselves at destinations.
Today, with alarming losses of habitat and
species diversity worldwide, tourism-based
activities that leave physical impacts attributed to
site-visitation are not an acceptable long-term
option. The vast amount of scholarly and scientific
literature documenting site impacts and user
preferences
for
high-quality
experiences
demonstrates the need for protecting critical
cultural and natural resources at ecotourism
venues.
I.1 Research on the Impacts of Ecotourism
Upon Natural and Cultural Destinations
The demand for ecotourism opportunities has
increased dramatically worldwide during the past
82
10 to 20 years. Theoretically, ecotourism should
be economically beneficial and socially benign for
the host country or destination (Kahn, 1997).
Ecotourists travel to remote and exotic locations to
experience recreational challenges and education
through hands-on experiences. They receive these
“services” in underdeveloped and often isolated
areas of a country. For many ecotourists, the more
isolated the location, the better the experience will
be. Ecotourists in turn augment local economies
while receiving varying degrees of goods and
services along with a sense of experiential and
cultural enrichment. Because this sector of the
tourism economy is focused on so-called lowimpact locally run operations, in theory revenue
from visitors should then flow into the local
economy without the attendant negative impacts of
traditional mass tourism.
The key point – as
described in the introduction – is that revenue from
mass tourism experiences often remains at the
point of origin, while revenue from an ecotourism
experience ends up at the point of destination.
Low-impact should imply that physical altercation
to natural features at an ecotourist site is kept to a
minimum; should being the operative word.
Whereas many host destinations have achieved
success in protecting sensitive natural and cultural
features, others have been less successful.
It is generally accepted that ecotourist visitors
are seeking recreational and cultural experiences at
what they believe to be pristine, natural
environments, located far from the crowded
conditions of conventional tourism locations
(Lindberg, et al., 1996). What this means is that an
ecotourist desires to experience an undeveloped or
primitive location with minimal visitor facilities
present. However, the associated impacts that
result from the increasing numbers of visitors to
such locations has strained the ability for these
primitive sites to sustain their integrity.
In
particular, the ecological systems, historical and
cultural features, and archaeologically artifacts
typically show signs of too much use. Field
assessment at many of these sensitive sites have
documented that they suffer from the wastes,
erosion and resource degradation of increasing
visitor-ship (Brooks and Champ, 2006; Farrell and
Marion, 2001; Hadwen et al., 2008; Kumble, 2006;
Olive and Marion, 2009).
Site managers,
governments and NGO’s lack the monetary or
institutional capacity to anticipate, manage and
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
mitigate the impacts that ecotourists are inflicting
upon the sites (Mowforth and Munt, 2005).
Research has documented that ecotourism can
be disruptive to many of the natural resources
which visitors come to see (Brooks and Champ,
2006; Buckley, 2004; Farrell and Marion, 2001;
Hadwen et al., 2008; Kahn, 1997; Milbrath and
Besch, 1994; Olive and Marion, 2009; Wall, 1997).
Wall (1997) has gone on to rationalize four
principle reasons for this disturbance, some being
primary impacts and some being secondary
impacts: 1. Ecotourism is often directed towards
isolated and sensitive locations – by their very
nature, these locations have limited ability to
withstand use pressures; 2. Visitation can occur
during critical times of the year – such as during
mating or breeding seasons; 3. The assumed
relationship between the volume of use at a site and
the associated impacts is linear, however it is
actually step-like – small numbers of users create
greater impacts; and 4. Whereas on-site impacts
may be slight at some locations, the off-site
impacts may also be significant because of the
travel and infrastructure demands to and from
destinations (Wall, 1997).
To date, theoretical research has focused
primarily on the economic benefits and social
implications of ecotourism. Much less pedagogical
research has considered the environmental
consequences of ecotourism (Mowfort and Munt,
2005; Wall, 1997; Lindberg, et al., 1996),
particularly relative to sustainable resource
management. Researchers concur that tourism
should achieve both conservation and development
goals to be considered as ecotourism (Buckley,
1994 as cited in Lindberg, et al., 1996).
Ecotourism creates revenue to support protection
and management of natural areas, produces an
economic benefit for those living adjacent to those
natural areas, and supports conservation (Inskeep,
1991 as citied in Lindberg, et al., 1996).
In principle, ecotourism should foster
preservation and conservation of unique resources
as a result of the increased demand that it creates
for those very resources. Social and economic
researchers have identified ecotourism as a catalyst
for rural development by virtue of its expanded
income generation potential (Buckley and Clough,
1997; Hearne and Santos, 2005; Walker, 1997).
Anthropologists have documented the benefits that
nature-based ecotourism can provide for local
populations (Campbell, 1999; Colchester, 2004;
Hall-Gallardo and Stein, 2007; Hamilton, 2005,
Hamilton, 2002; Hearne and Santos, 2005; Slinger,
2000; Simpson and Rapone, 1996) and the
conflicts that can arise when collaborative and
participatory involvement of local populations are
not regularly included in the planning process.
Whereas this trend for direct involvement of local
populations is commonly practiced in community
development planning, it is less common to find in
rural or isolated natural areas. Other researchers
have gone on to suggest the possibility for
promoting nature conservation and economic
development through the marketing of biological
resources and commercialization of a location’s
biodiversity (Richerzhagen and Holm-Mueller,
2005). The operative word is commercialization,
as limits on the number and frequency of visitors
must be carefully determined; many observed
impacts at ecotourist venues can be attributed to
the sheer number of people who are allowed to
visit the location. In a recent study of visitors to
national forest parks in China, visitors placed a
higher priority for the protection of ecological
integrity and were supportive of policies that would
limit the number of ecotourists allowed (Huang et
al., 2008).
However, if ecotourism is to be considered
both
economically
and
environmentally
sustainable, it must move beyond theory-based
investigations that explore the different economic
and/or social implications that visitation places on
local cultures and the tourism provider network.
The argument that existing literature on tourism
and development has been weakened by an
emphasis on theoretical models has been
recognized for more than ten years (Hall and Lew,
1998). Sustainable tourism trends need to place
greater emphasis upon practical site-management
applications that will protect the critical natural and
cultural features present at key sites. These
practical elements should be routed in theory-based
hypothesis of natural and cultural resource
protection; however their application should be
reflected
in
practice-based,
management
applications or approaches.
Eagles, et al., (1995) defined a framework of
three groups or classes within which practice-based
sustainable ecotourism can be categorized. They
are: principle-based approaches that require
activities at ecotourist destinations to follow
83
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
guidelines
or
specific
codes-of-conduct;
management initiatives that implement rational
standards of practice at ecotourist destinations; and
scientific based perspectives that understand the
functionality of ecosystems as a means for better
informing management decisions.
To further define these three groups of
practice-based sustainable ecotourism, codes-ofconduct imply that tourism guidelines be
developed – and followed – which can have
significant influence on how visitor activities at an
ecotourism venue are planned and administered
(Mason, 1997), and on what is acceptable visitor
conduct during their trip to a site (Hill et al., 2007).
Blackstock et al., (2008) presents the concept of
responsible tourism as a medium for fostering
sustainable tourism. However, other researchers
assert that there is limited understanding of what
constitutes sustainable tourist behavior, and that
there is little consensus about who environmentally
friendly tourists (EFT) really are (Dolnicar et al.,
2008). Another research study examined the effect
of variables, such as visitation goals and visitor
characteristics, as they relate to visitor satisfaction
and participation in ecotourism activities
(Hovardas and Poirazidis, 2006). Also examined is
the effect that educational information can have
upon visitor behavior intentions and actions.
Findings indicate that although ecotourism
activities (such as trail hiking) had no effect on
visitor knowledge of the site, the activity did
influence visitor behavior intentions, presumably
through the educational information provided.
Thus, one could infer that education led to greater
respect or “conduct” on the part of the ecotourist.
There has been significant amount of
published non-scientific rhetoric stating that
education through interpretation is an important
element for promoting environmental conservation
and sustainable tourism (Hill et al., 2007).
Increasing visitor knowledge and environmental
awareness can result in increased responsibility and
behavior on the part of tourists. Hill et al., (2007)
found that educating visitors to help them better
understand biological diversity, during their visit to
a tropical rainforest, raised their levels of
satisfaction and knowledge above that which could
be achieved from purely an experiential visit. Land
stewards have for many years recognized that
educating ecotourists who visit a nature preserve to
help them to better understand the functional
84
requirements of unique and sensitive flora and
fauna can result in greater levels of respect
demonstrated by those visitors towards the
resource. This theorizes that through increased
educational-based knowledge comes increased
respect.
Much has been written about the role of
government-based management authorities, NGOs
such as conservation organizations or land trusts,
and private landowners who manage and mitigate
visitor impacts.
Literature has focused on
management initiatives that can result in rational
standards of practice at ecotourist destinations.
Boo (1994) suggests that comprehensive planning,
and the creation of ecotourism management plans
by managers of a protected area is one of the best
strategies to help parks or reserves address
potential impact issues. In slight contrast, Gelcich
et al., (2006) advocates government-led comanagement policy, in favor of existing traditional
community-based natural resource management
systems, as a way to achieve sustainable
development. A third example can be found in
Belize, Central America, where the Ministry of
Natural Resources planned for a diversity of user
groups and a wide range of ecotourist activities at a
protected area government forest reserve. Forest
officers worked to concentrate activity only at
designated locations by creating efficient patterns
of circulation to be followed by ecotourists, and by
featuring scenic view sheds and ecological systems
(DeVries, 2004). In spite of these efforts, field
assessment and visitor surveys indicate significant
erosion and sedimentation to water bodies; these
levels of site impacts were observed prior to the
DeVries plan (Kumble, 2006). A fourth example is
referred to as Protected Area designation and
management (Kalamandeen and Gillson, 2007).
This approach utilizes four conservation strategies,
which include the wilderness conservation and the
Yellowstone Park Model, wise use and the Game
Reserve Model, wildlife and biodiversity
conservation, and ecosystem management. These
four models use the concept of wilderness and
pristine-ness as a key factor in how resource
management decisions should be made.
Other work conducted by Anderson and James
(2001) examines the concept of establishing
national protection area systems in both developed
and developing countries. Their work discusses
the transformation from the fortress model of
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
protected area management for ecotourism, such as
the biosphere reserve model, to a sustainable use
model of park management. The contributors –
park managers, academics, and members of NGOs
– contend that the development of an informal
culture of sustainable resource use among all of a
park's stakeholders is key to minimizing impacts.
While this latter requirement is often difficult to
achieve, it is the belief that informal attitudes may
evolve over time, within both the management
structure of a park agency and ecotourists.
Relative to scientific based perspectives for
monitoring and protecting ecosystems, Stabler and
Goodall (1996) advocate the use of what they call
environmental auditing as a tool that can monitor
the effects that ecotourism has upon sensitive
island ecosystems. Temorshuizen et al., (2007)
have developed a scientific-based but easy-to-use
approach for incorporating principles of ecological
sustainability for ecotourism and landscape
planning. This approach embraces an operational
definition of ecological sustainability, and employs
corresponding indicators as a model for decisionmaking. These indicators incorporate landscape
ecological sustainability into the context of
landscape planning.
All three of these practice-based approaches –
codes of conduct, rational standards of practice,
and scientific based understanding of ecosystems –
are important for achieving proper management
and protection of critical resources at ecotourist
locations.
In particular, education and
interpretation of the significance and value of the
natural and cultural resources has been shown to be
one of the most successful techniques to ensure
their protection.
Typically, it might seem that education
initiatives should be aimed primarily at the
ecotourist visitor through interpretive signage and
an educational visitor-welcome station, (Harrison
and Husbands, 1996; ), or by regularly
administered surveys of park or reserve visitors (Li
et al., 2006; Moore and Polley, 2007). Yet,
education must not be limited to tour operators or
host lodging businesses (Epler-Wood et al., 1996;
Steinberg, 1996; Sirakaya and Uysal, 1997;
Wallace et al., 1996; World Tourism Organization,
2003). Field assessment has shown that many of
the observed impacts associated with ecotourism
are partially the result of poor site design, but more
so the fault of inappropriate policies, resource
management, and on-site maintenance on the part
of government agencies charged with their
operation (Buckley, 2004; Farrell and Marion,
2001; Hadwen et al., 2008; Kumble, 2006).
References for Introduction
Anderson, Terry L., and Alexander James, eds. 2001. The
politics and economics of park management. Lanham,
Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Blackstock, Kirsfy L., Alister Scott and Colin Hunter. 2008.
Measuring responsibility: An appraisal of a Scottish National
Park's sustainable tourism indicators. Journal Of Sustainable
Tourism 16, 3: 276-97.
Boo, Elizabeth. 1994. The ecotourism boom: Planning for
development and management. In Wildlands and human
needs technical paper series (paper #2), World Wildlife Fund,
ed. Washington D.C: World Wildlife Fund.
Brooks, Jeffrey J., and Patricia A. Champ. 2006. Understanding
the wicked nature of "Unmanaged Recreation" in Colorado's
Front Range. Environmental Management 38, 5: 784-98.
Buckley, Ralph, ed. 2004. Environmental impacts of
ecotourism. Ecotourism Series No. 2. Cambridge, MA:
CABI Publishing.
Buckley, Ralph C., and E. Clough. 1997. Who is selling
ecotourism to whom? Annals of Tourism Research 24, 2:
479-80.
Campbell, Lisa M. 1999. Ecotourism in rural developing
communities. Annals of Tourism Research 26, 3: 534-53.
Colchester, Marcus. 2004. Conservation policy and indigenous
peoples. Cultural Survival Quarterly 28, 1: 17.
DeVries, Gregory W. 2004. Mountain pine ridge forest reserve:
Visitor use master plan. Belmopan City, Belize: Forest
Department, Ministry of Natural Resources, the
Environment, and Industry.
Dolnicar, Sara, Geoffrey I. Crouch, and Patrick Long. 2008.
Environment-friendly tourists: What do we really know
about them? Journal Of Sustainable Tourism 16, 2: 197-210.
Eagles, Paul F. J, Per Nilsen, Nanao Kachi, and Susan Buse,
eds. 1995. Ecotourism: An annotated bibliography for
planners and managers. 3 ed. North Bennington, Vermont:
The Ecotourism Society.
Epler Wood, Margaret, William C. Norman, Eric Frauman, and
Lorin Toepper. 1996. The green evaluation program:
Preliminary results from a pilot ecotourism-monitoring
program for nature tour operators. In The ecotourism
equation: Measuring the impacts. New Haven Connecticut:
Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies: 211-31.
Farrell, Terry A., and Jeffrey L. Marion. 2001. Identifying and
assessing ecotourism visitor impacts at eight protected areas
in Costa Rica and Belize. Environmental Conservation 28, 3:
215-25.
Gelcich, Stefan, Gareth Edwards-Jones, Michel J. Kaiser, and
Juan C. Castilla. 2006. Co-management policy can reduce
resilience in traditionally managed marine ecosystems.
Ecosystems 9, 6: 951-66.
Hadwen, Wade L., Wendy Hill, and Catherine M. Pickering.
2008. Linking visitor impact research to visitor impact
monitoring in protected areas. Journal of EcoTourism 7, 1:
87-93.
Hale Gallardo, Jennifer, and Taylor V. Stein. 2007.
85
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
Participation, power and racial representation: Negotiating
nature-based and heritage tourism development in the rural
south. Society and Natural Resources 20, 7: 597-611.
Hall, C. Michael, and Alan A. Lew, eds. 1998. Sustainable
tourism: A geographical perspective. New York, NY:
Addison Wesley Longman.
Hamilton, Roger. 2005. A tale of two invasions: Local people
will respect an archeological park if they benefit from it. IDB
America,
Retrieved
December
8,
2005,
from
http://www.iadb.org/idbamerica/index.cfm?thisid=3617
Hamilton, Roger. 2002. Beyond economics: Ecotourism aims
not only to turn a profit, but also to help communities and
protect nature. IDB America. Retrieved December 8, 2005,
from http://www.iadb. org/ idbamerica/index.cfm? &t hisid
=581&articlepreview=0&
Harrison, Lynn C., and Winston Husbands, eds. 1996.
Practicing responsible tourism: International case studies in
tourism planning, policy and development. Toronto, Canada:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Hearne, Robert R., and C. Alejandro Santos. 2005. Tourists' and
locals' preferences toward ecotourism development in the
Maya Biosphere Reserve, Guatemala. Environment,
Development and Sustainability 7, 3: 303-18.
Hill, Jennifer, Wendy Woodland, and Georgie Gough. 2007.
Can visitor satisfaction and knowledge about tropical
rainforests be enhanced through biodiversity interpretation,
and does this promote a positive attitude towards ecosystem
conservation? Journal of Ecotourism 6, 1: 75-85.
Hovardas, Tasos, and Kostas Poirazidis. 2006. Evaluation of the
environmentalist dimension of ecotourism at the Dadia
Forest Reserve (Greece). Environmental Management 38, 5:
810-22.
Huang, Yi, Jinyang Deng, Jian Li, and Yongde Zhong. 2008.
Visitors’ attitudes towards China’s national forest park
policy, roles and functions, and appropriate use. Journal of
Sustainable Tourism 16, 1: 63-84.
Inskeep, E. 1991. Tourism Planning: An Integrated and
Sustainable Development Approach. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold.
Kalamandeen, Michelle, and Lindsey Gillson. 2007. Anything
“wilderness”: Implications for protected area designation and
management. Biodiversity and Conservation 16, 1: 165-82.
Khan, Maryam M. 1997. Tourism development and dependency
theory: Mass tourism vs. ecotourism. Annals of Tourism
Research 24, 4: 988-91.
Kumble, Peter A. 2006. Site specific approaches for managing
the impacts of ecotourism in Belize, Central America. In
Sustainable Tourism II. C. A. Brebbia and F. D. Pineda, eds.
WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment. WIT
Press, England: Ashurst.
Lindberg, Kreg, Jeremy Enriquez and Keith Sproule. 1996.
Ecotourism Questioned: Case Studies from Belize. Annals of
Tourism Research 23:3, 543-62.
Li, Wenjun, Qian Zhang, Chunyan Liu, and Qifu Xue. 2006.
Tourism's impacts on natural resources: A positive case from
China. Environmental Management 38, 4: 572-79.
Mason, Peter. 1997. Tourism codes of conduct in the Arctic and
Sub-Arctic Region. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 5(2):
151-165.
Milbrath, Lester, and George Besch. 1994. The environmental
tourist: An ecotourism revolution. Annals of Tourism
Research 21, 1: 215-16.
Moore, Susan A., and Amanda Polley. 2007. Defining
indicators and standards for tourism impacts in protected
86
areas: Cape Range National Park, Australia. Environmental
Management 39, 3: 291-300.
Mowforth, Martin, and Ian Munt. 2005. Tourism and
Sustainability: Development and New Tourism in the Third
World. Reviewed in: Annals of Tourism Research 32:2, 499501.
Olive, Nathaniel, D. and Jeffrey L. Marion. 2009. The influence
of use related, environmental, and managerial factors on soil
loss from recreational trails. Journal of Environmental
Management 90: 1483-93.
Richerzhagen, Carmen, and Karin Holm-Mueller. 2005. The
effectiveness of access and benefit sharing in Costa Rica:
Implications for national and international regimes.
Ecological Economics 53, 4: 445-60.
Simpson, Charles R., and Anita Rapone. 1996. Rebellion in
Chiapas: Ecological spaces and cultural systems in collision.
Human Ecology Review 2, 2: 157-69.
Slinger, Vanessa. 2000. Ecotourism in the last indigenous
Caribbean community. Annals of Tourism Research 27, 2:
520-23.
Stabler, Michael J., and Brian Goodall. 1996. Environmental
auditing in planning for sustainable island tourism. In
Sustainable tourism in islands and small states: Issues and
policies, L. Briguglio, B. Archer, J. Jafari and G. Wall, eds.
New York, NY: Pinter.
Sirakaya, Ercan, and Muzaffer Uysal. 1997. Can sanctions and
rewards explain conformance behaviour of tour operators
with ecotourism guidelines? Journal of Sustainable Tourism
5, 4: 322-32.
Steinberg, Michael K. 1996. Parks and politics in Maya Belize.
Fourth World Bulletin,1-2 http://carbon.cudenver.edu/public
/fwc/Issue10/Americas/belize.html
Termorshuizen, Jolande W., Paul Opdam, and Adri van der
Brink. 2007. Incorporating ecological sustainability into
landscape planning. Landscape and Urban Planning 79, 3-4:
374-84.
Walker, Scott L. 1997. Perceived impacts of ecotourism
development. Annals of Tourism Research 24, 3: 743-45
Wall, George. 1997. Is ecotourism sustainable? Environmental
Management 21, 4: 483-91.
Wallace, George N., and Susan M. Pierce. 1996. An evaluation
of ecotourism in Amazonas, Brazil. Annals of Tourism
Research 23, 4: 843-73.
World Tourism Organization. 2003. Sustainable development of
ecotourism: A compilation of good practices in SMEs.
Sustainable Development of Tourism.
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
II. Organization of the Annotated Bibliography
and Bibliographic Scope
The following annotated bibliography represents
133 different published journal papers, conference
proceedings, reports, databases, and on-line
resources. This annotated bibliography summarizes
published literature and other sources that discuss
the physical impacts to cultural and natural
resources associated with ecotourism. Material has
been drawn from a wide range of academic
disciplines, including planning, tourism, landscape
ecology, sustainable tourism development,
landscape
architecture,
natural
resource
management,
sociology,
and
economics.
Specifically, the theme of this inquiry focuses on
how to provide for better management of ecotourist
activities and visitor behavior through the lens of
sustainable planning and design. The literature
reviewed does not focus on references unique to
one specific geographic location, climate,
topography, vegetative cover, or indigenous sociodemographic class.
The literature has been
critically reviewed based on a number of specific
factors, such as the physical, social, and economic
impacts that ecotourism may have upon natural and
cultural resources.
The literature has been organized into six key
topical areas. These are:
A. Impacts of Ecotoursim on Natural and
Cultural Resources
B. Natural
Resource
Protection
and
Management
Issues
at
Ecotourist
Destinations
C. Sustainable Ecotourism Planning and
Policy Issues
D. Community
Participation
and
Ethnographic Assessment at Ecotourism
Destinations
E. Marketing and Economic Development of
Ecotourism
Specific
to
Resource
Conservation
F. General Trends in Ecotourism Planning
and Management
III. Annotated Bibliography
A. Impacts of Ecotourism on Natural and
Cultural Resources
01.
Brandon, Katrina. 1993. Ecotourism issues: A
review. Paper prepared for the Bellagio
Conference on Ecotourism, Bellagio, Italy, 812 February.
This paper questions whether the negative
impacts of ecotourism outweigh its intended
benefits. The author conducts a comprehensive
analysis of the many internal and external factors
that limit ecotourism’s potential growth, its ability
to promote and provide a source of financing for
conservation, and the extent to which it benefits
local people. While a number of socioeconomic,
environmental, and cultural impacts are examined,
the most significant problems appear to be
environmental damage, negative impacts on local
culture, and the creation of local economic
hardships. Despite these many issues, the author
views ecotourism as one of the few areas where
there is clear connection between economic
development and conservation of natural areas.
02.
Brandon, Katrina, and Richard Margoluis.
1996. The bottom line: Getting biodiversity
conservation back into ecotourism. In The
ecotourism equation: Measuring the impacts,
E.
Malek-Zadeh,
ed.
New Haven,
Connecticut: Yale School of Forestry and
Environmental Studies.
In this report, five benefits to biodiversity
conservation are proposed against which the
success and validity of ecotourism projects can be
measured. The authors suggest that if a clear
framework is specified for identifying the
connections between project level activities and
conservation, these benefits will make it easier to
analyze the intended and unintended impacts of
ecotourism on conservation initiatives. Developing
a project’s conceptual model is cited as the most
critical step of project design to identify these
connections.
The authors admit that many
questions need to be asked to better understand the
nature of these benefits, including whether
‘ecotourism can be a success if conservation does
not occur?’ However, since so few projects have
87
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
well defined, limited and clear objectives,
developing an established framework will increase
the chance of achieving success that is realistically
measurable.
03.
Brooks, Jeffrey J., and Patricia A. Champ.
2006. Understanding the wicked nature of
"Unmanaged Recreation" in Colorado's Front
Range. Environmental Management 38, 5:
784-98.
This journal article addresses the situation of
unmanaged recreation of some National Forests, in
particular the Arapaho-Roosevelt National Forest
of Colorado’s Front Range as a “wicked problem.”
The authors conducted a qualitative review of
unmanaged recreation to examine its broad
situational context, provide a description of
stakeholder
perspectives,
and
suggest
recommendations for addressing it. Areas where
urban centers have expanded next to National
Forests and increased participation in outdoor
recreation are proposed to have created hotspots of
conflict, especially where funding and staffing for
recreation programs is limited. The authors claim
that wickedness can only be addressed if the Forest
Service administers institutional changes that allow
for trust building and inclusive communication
processes. They also call for identifying local
stakeholders and different definitions of the
problem.
04.
Buckley, Ralph, ed. 2004. Environmental
impacts of ecotourism. Ecotourism Series No.
2. Cambridge, MA: CABI Publishing.
Buckely reviews and organizes information
from well-known experts and worldwide case
studies relative to the onsite environmental impacts
of ecotourism. Together, the book’s four sections
provide a context for ecotourism, considers the
impacts of particular activities like hiking and
camping as well as those specific to certain
ecosystems, e.g. marine environments, polar
coasts, mountain environments and examines
impacts specifically from a management
perspective. The author stresses that in order to
employ effective environmental and natural
resource management, land managers need to know
the various impacts that different uses and
situations are likely to create.
88
05.
Driml, Sally, and Mick Common. 1996.
Ecological economics criteria for sustainable
tourism: Application to the Great Barrier
Reef and Wet Tropics World Heritage Areas
Australia." Journal of Sustainable Tourism 4,
1: 3-16.
Driml and Common examine the degree to
which tourism in the Great Barrier Reef and Wet
Tropics World Heritage Areas of Australia can be
said to be sustainable. They identify and evaluate
the range of impacts of tourism and of the
management regimes in these areas against the
definition of sustainable tourism as being
compatible with the conservation of the existing
natural environment and as providing an increasing
stream of net benefits. Although the assessment is
limited due to insufficient data, it contributes to the
development of ways to evaluate sustainable
tourism. The authors also promote adequate
investment in management and raising entrance
fees without reducing visitor numbers as a means
of delivering net benefits.
06.
Edwards, Felicity, ed. 1988. Environmentally
sound tourism in the Caribbean: Proceedings
of the workshop on environmentally sound
tourism development, held April 6-10, 1987.
Calgary, Alberta: The University of Calgary
Press.
This edited volume provides an overview of
the material presented, ideas discussed, and
recommendations offered at a workshop on
environmentally sound tourism development in the
Caribbean region.
Edwards includes the
perspectives of researchers studying the areas of
resource and environmental management and
tourism development. The intended audience is
relevant national, regional and international
agencies. This work identifies the need to develop
a more integrated approach to tourism development
planning and environmental management that is
comprehensive in scope, coordinative in function
and collaborative in style.
07.
Edwards,
Jonathon.
1996.
Visitor
management and the sustainable tourism
agenda. In Sustainable tourism in islands and
small states: Issues and policies, L.
Briguglio, B. Archer, J. Jafari and G. Wall,
eds. New York, U.S.A.: 137-47.
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
This chapter highlights the role of visitor
management in the tourism industry as a means of
preventing and improving negative impacts of
tourism. The author describes various visitor
management approaches and examines the
challenge of striking a balance between visitor
needs and resources. Also examined are the
relationships between visitor management and
Island Tourism as well as visitor management in
the public sector.
08.
Epler-Wood, Margaret, William C. Norman,
Eric Frauman, and Lorin Toepper. 1996. The
green evaluation program: Preliminary results
from a pilot ecotourism-monitoring program
for nature tour operators. In The ecotourism
equation: Measuring the impacts. New
Haven Connecticut: Yale School of Forestry
& Environmental Studies: 211-31.
This report critiques the success of and
methods used in a pilot study to examine the
compliance behavior of nature tour operators with
a set of ecotourism guidelines. The authors
document the findings of a consumer evaluation
survey conducted among Ecuadorian nature
tourism industry to see how well operators adhered
to The Ecotourism Society’s ten principles of
sustainable ecotourism over a one year period.
They identify what guidelines are being followed
and what need greater attention by tour operators.
Also, the report details the limitations inherent with
the survey method for evaluating this industry and
provides valuable insight into as well as
recommendations for future data collection
procedures
09.
Farrell, Terry A., and Jeffrey L. Marion.
2001. Identifying and assessing ecotourism
visitor impacts at eight protected areas in
Costa Rica and Belize. Environmental
Conservation 28, 3: 215-25.
Farrell and Marion evaluate visitor impacts
affecting natural resources at eight protected areas
in Costa Rica and Belize. The authors conduct
field evaluations and manager interviews to
identify environmental impacts in areas of
concentrated visitor activity like trails and
recreation sites and to analyze the effectiveness and
applicability of various rapid assessment
procedures like rating systems. Impacts described
include trail proliferation, erosion and widening,
muddiness on trails, vegetation cover loss, soil and
root exposure, and tree damage.
10.
Freemuth, John C. 1994. Islands under siege:
National parks and the politics of external
threats. Kansas: University Press of Kansas.
This book investigates the increasing threats
posed by external urbanization and economic
development pressures on the environment of
national parks. The author frames this problem in
a political context, questioning the efforts made by
the government and park system to respond to
citizen activism and to implement legislation that
might reduce the destructive impact of surrounding
development on national parks. It concludes with
an analysis that evaluates the effectiveness and
political feasibility of strategies that have and are
being used to manage threats to national parks.
11.
Gelcich, Stefan, Gareth Edwards-Jones,
Michel J. Kaiser, and Juan C. Castilla. 2006.
Co-management policy can reduce resilience
in traditionally managed marine ecosystems.
Ecosystems 9, 6: 951-66.
The authors of this journal article examine the
impacts of superimposing a government-led comanagement policy over an existing traditional
community-based natural resource management
system as a way of helping to achieve sustainable
development. The authors conduct participatory
rural appraisal techniques and questionnaires to
determine the effects of imposing a new policy on
the traditional parcela system for fishery
management in Chile. The parcela system uses site
design and rotational techniques for the
management of bull-kelp. The authors describe the
results of this superimposition on traditional
institutions in the local community and on the
resilience of the studied ecosystem. The article
concludes with suggestions for future research.
12.
German Federal Agency for Nature
Conservation. 1997. Biodiversity and
tourism: Conflicts on the world's seacoasts
and strategies for their solution. SpringerVerlag: Berlin, Germany.
89
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
This report discusses the Convention on
Biological Diversity, which is an agreement
designed to create a global partnership for the
protection of living nature.
The report
systematically compiles and analyzes information
on the subject of tourism and biodiversity in
critical coastal regions of Europe where tourism is
concentrated. It presents an in-depth overview of
the problems associated with the two subjects and
of various problem-solving strategies for further
regional steps. Also, it considers the need for
tourism protocol and guidelines on sustainable
tourism.
13.
Hadwen, Wade L., Wendy Hill, and
Catherine M. Pickering. 2008. Linking visitor
impact research to visitor impact monitoring
in protected areas. Journal of EcoTourism 7,
1: 87-93.
This paper evaluates the relationship between
recreation ecology research and visitor impact
monitoring, and discusses how the aims and scope
of these two activities often differ. Presented is a
visitor assessment flow chart that demonstrates
how research and monitoring objectives can
interact and contribute to the cost-effective
management of heavily visited sites within
protected areas. Specifically, the assessment flow
chart articulates a process that protected area
managers can follow to implement strategies to
assess visitor impacts in their protected areas. Four
key steps are described.
14.
Hall, Colin Michael, and Margaret E.
Johnston, eds. 1995. Polar tourism: Tourism
in the arctic and Antarctic regions.
Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
This volume provides the first comprehensive
overview of tourism and its impacts on the fragile
environments of the polar-regions. The editors
include readings that address the mechanisms by
which
tourism
can
be
sustainable
in
environmentally sensitive and culturally unique
areas.
15.
90
Hudson, Brian J. 1998. Waterfalls: resources
for tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 25,
4: 958-73.
This paper discusses the role of waterfalls as
resources for recreation and tourism. The author
relies upon examples from various parts of the
world, with particular focus on Jamaica, to
examine how waterfalls can be categorized as
attractions, exploited as destinations, and brought
into production as scenic resources. Hudson
expresses concern for the susceptibility of
waterfalls to inappropriate development, overuse,
and environmental mismanagement. While the
author notes that waterfalls can serve to diversify
the tourism product, he also highlights that they are
sometimes responsible for spreading the related
problems of tourism to less developed areas.
16.
Ingle, C. M., Y. F. Leung, C. Monz, and H.
Bauman. 2004. Monitoring visitor impacts in
coastal national parks: A review of
techniques. In Protecting Our Diverse
Heritage: The Role of Parks, Protected
Areas, and Cultural Sites. (Proceedings of the
George Wright Society/National Park Service
Joint Conference, April 14–18, 2003, San
Diego, California.) D. Harmon, B.M. Kilgore,
and G.E. Vietzke, eds. Hancock, Mich.: The
George Wright Society, 228–33.
This paper discusses approaches to assessing
and monitoring visitor impacts on barrier islands
and sandy coasts.
The authors examine
biophysical and social science techniques for
studying the extent and intensity of visitor impacts
on these sensitive ecological zones. It highlights
results of prior studies and literature reviews and
identifies potential next steps in research.
17.
International Fund for Animal Welfare and
Tethys Research Institute. 1996. Report of the
workshop on the scientific aspects of
managing whale watching. March 30th - April
4th, 1996. East Sussex, United Kingdom.
This report documents the observations from
a workshop for scientists on the management of
whale watching. It reviews the impacts associated
with whale watching and discusses the need to
establish a scientific framework to develop new
and modify existing rules for this rapidly growing
industry. Also, the report lists recommendations
for scientists and managers of whale watching
operations for future research and study on this
topic.
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
18.
Island
Resources
Foundation.
1996.
Guidance for best management practices for
Caribbean coastal tourism. St. Thomas,
Virgin Islands: Island Resources Foundation.
This report promotes regional strategies to
reduce land-based sources of pollution caused by
the tourism industry that negatively impact coastal
and marine resources. The authors delineate the
issues and impacts associated with tourism
planning and conduct studies to determine best
management practices for the planning,
development, and maintenance of tourism facilities
impacting coastal areas. It establishes a framework
for assessing what areas of tourism facility design
and operation need greater attention and includes
insight on how to research the most appropriate
technologies for these attention areas.
19.
Khan, Maryam M. 1997. Tourism
development and dependency theory: Mass
tourism vs. ecotourism. Annals of Tourism
Research 24, 4: 988-91.
This paper conducts a comparative analysis of
the impacts created by mass tourism and
ecotourism development in Third World countries.
The author reviews the growth and effects of mass
tourism on developing countries with regard to the
concept of dependency theory. It concludes that
while neither ecotourism nor mass tourism have
zero-impacts, ecotourism can serve as a solution to
some of the environmental, social, and economic
problems caused by mass tourism, if it is managed
and planned carefully.
20. Kumble, Peter A. 2006.
Site specific
approaches for managing the impacts of
ecotourism in Belize, Central America. In
Sustainable Tourism II. C. A. Brebbia and F.
D. Pineda, eds. WIT Transactions on Ecology
and the Environment. WIT Press, England:
Ashurst, Southampton. 97: 217-26.
In this book chapter, the author discusses how
heightened visitor interest has strained the capacity
of ecologically, historically, and archaeologically
sensitive sites. Specific attention is given to
developing countries such as Belize where
sensitive sites have suffered from erosion and
resource degradation, while local managers,
governments and NGO’s do not have the monetary
or institutional capacity to anticipate, manage and
mitigate the unintentional impacts imposed by ecotourists. Kumble proposes a framework to identify
sites that can sustain their integrity through
visitation by eco-tourists and locations that should
remain closed to visitation by the general public
and only used for managed scientific study.
21.
Li, Wenjun, Qian Zhang, Chunyan Liu, and
Qifu Xue. 2006. Tourism's impacts on natural
resources: A positive case from China.
Environmental Management 38, 4: 572-79.
This research paper summarizes the results of
a study that used social surveys and remote sensing
images to analyze the environmental impacts from
tourism development. The authors, who focused
primarily on the Jiuzhaigou Biosphere Reserve,
found that contrary to most impact assessments
conducted for tourism activities, the environment
in this case study experienced no degradation and,
in fact, some indicators like deforestation were
improving because residents have switched from
farming and hunting to tourism. The paper
emphasizes the positive role that tourism can play
in balancing natural resource conservation and
economic development.
22.
Milbrath, Lester, and George Besch. 1994.
The environmental tourist: An ecotourism
revolution. Annals of Tourism Research 21,
1: 215-16.
This critique of the film, The Environmental
Tourist: An Ecotourism Revolution, produced by
the National Audubon Society summarizes some of
the claims made in the film, which examines the
environmental problems for natural reserves and
parks caused by increasing tourism and visitation.
The author reviews the film’s description of the
following reserves: Amboseli Park, Masai Mara,
and Belize. The critique challenges the validity of
assumptions made by the film’s producers about
the impetus for the national park system, and that
tourism – the use of land for personal gain by
governments grasping for revenue – will continue
to persist.
23.
Moore, Susan A., and Amanda Polley. 2007.
Defining indicators and standards for tourism
impacts in protected areas: Cape Range
91
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
National Park, Australia. Environmental
Management 39, 3: 291-300.
This paper addresses the number of concerns
related to using visitor surveys as a means of
establishing visitor indicators and standards. The
authors review the procedure and results of a
visitor survey conducted during peak visitor season
in Cape Range National Park in Australia to
determine visitor perceptions to environmental
conditions. It discusses how standards are derived
from visitor’s perceptions and how the conditions
desired by the visitors who took the survey differ
or were similar to those expressed by visitors at
other protected area sites. The authors suggest that
the sustainable management of tourist destinations
can benefit from the information provided by
visitors’ perceptions of impacts and acceptable
standards for environmental conditions.
24.
Olive, Nathaniel, D., and Jeffrey L. Marion.
2009. The influence of use related,
environmental, and managerial factors on soil
loss from recreational trails. Journal of
Environmental Management 90: 1483-93.
In this journal article, the authors investigated
the influence of several use-related environmental,
and managerial factors on soil loss on recreational
trails and roads at Big South Fork National River
and Recreation Area. Regression modeling found
that trail position, trail slope alignment angle,
grade, water drainage and type of use are
significant determinants of soil loss. Research also
worked to develop a more efficient Variable Cross
Sectional Area method for assessing soil loss on
trails. Study results indicate that trail erosion can
be minimized by avoiding alignments that follow
fall lines, steep grades, and valley-bottoms near
streams.
25.
Sirakaya,
Ercan.
1997.
Attitudinal
compliance with ecotourism guidelines.
Annals of Tourism Research 24, 4: 919-50.
This study examines the compliance behavior
of ecotour operators with ecotourism principles as
listed in the Ecotourism Guidelines for Nature Tour
Operators. The author developed and tests a
conceptual framework, which is based on the
findings of previous compliance theories and
92
research, to explain reasons why tour operators
practice or avoid using ecotourism guidelines. It
offers insight into what factors affect compliance
behavior and urges for further research to improve
the model. Also, it suggests some strategies to
increase compliance of operators.
26.
Sirakaya, Ercan, and Muzaffer Uysal. 1997.
Can sanctions and rewards explain
conformance behaviour of tour operators with
ecotourism
guidelines?
Journal
of
Sustainable Tourism 5, 4: 322-32.
This paper discusses the findings of a study to
identify factors that predict compliance behavior of
tour operators with established ecotourism
guidelines. The authors conducted a mail survey of
select nature-based tour operators in the US,
Canada, Ecuador and analyzed the results using
factor analysis and regression modeling. They
explain the results of the study, which show that
deterrent measures do not play an important role in
predicting conformance behavior in a voluntary
system, and emphasize the importance of these
findings for organizations and policy makers in
tourism when designing guidelines.
27.
Thomlinson, Eugene, and Donald Getz. 1996.
The question of scale in ecotourism: Case
study of two small ecotour operators in the
Mundo Maya Region of Central America.
Journal of Sustainable Tourism 4, 4: 183200.
This paper explores the issue of scale and its
relevance to the nature and impact of ecotourism
operations.
The authors compare two small
ecotourism companies operating in the Mundo
Maya region of Central America and examine their
activities, impacts, and business environments.
The paper establishes a framework for evaluating
the issues of scale in ecotourism and discusses how
it relates to other models of ecotourism. It
concludes with a synopsis of study results and a
number of questions regarding policy, planning,
and marketing.
28.
Walker, Scott L. 1996. Ecotourism impact
awareness. Annals of Tourism Research 23,
4: 944-45.
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
This paper studies whether the presence of a
community organization program in an area can
serve to increase local populations’ level of
awareness about ecotourism development. The
author surveys two communities, one with a COP
and one without to test for differences in the
communities’ perception of positive and negative
impacts of ecotourism. He discusses the results of
the study and the benefits of COPs in communities.
It highlights that in order for local populations to
successfully participate in the planning process
they must be aware of the possible impacts of
tourism.
throughout the article and stresses the importance
of ecotourism as being economically viable,
environmentally appropriate and socio-culturally
acceptable.
29.
This volume studies selected national
protection area systems in both developed and
developing countries. It focuses on those that have
transformed from the fortress model, to a
sustainable use model with a more modern style of
park management. The editors divide the text into
three parts that examine an institutional approach
to protected area management, applications of
successful park institutions, and opportunities for
institutional change. This document introduces
the topic of park management economics and
politics, and contends that successful institutional
change in protected area systems involves more
than the appropriate legal framework and
regulations but also a shared understanding of
sustainable resource use among park stakeholders.
Walker, Scott L. 1997. Perceived impacts of
ecotourism development. Annals of Tourism
Research 24, 3: 743-45.
This paper attempts to apply a variation of a
study conducted in Australia by Bastias-Perez and
Var, which found a positive correlative between
income level and economic perceptions about
tourism, to ecotourism development perceptions in
the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve in Mexico. The
author describes the methodology used to conduct
the study and organize the data, which was
correlated using factor analysis for variable
reduction and bivariate correlation and highlights
how it differed from the Bastias-Perez and Var
survey. He assesses the results of the survey,
which are inconsistent with the study’s hypothesis
that residents with average income ranges will have
a positive view of ecotourism with regard to its
economic benefits.
30.
Wall, George. 1997. Is ecotourism
sustainable? Environmental Management 21,
4: 483-91.
This paper distinguishes the meanings of
ecotourism, sustainability, and development to
inform an understanding of how and in what ways
ecotourism and sustainable tourism contribute to
sustainable development. The author analyzes the
nature of ecotourism and development as well as
the relationships between sustainable tourism and
development and ecotourism and sustainability.
He questions ecotourism’s impact on the natural
and social environments and challenges the
concept of sustainable tourism. The author raises a
number of questions for further investigation
B. Natural Resource Protection and Management Issues
31.
32.
Anderson, Terry L., and Alexander James,
eds. 2001. The politics and economics of park
management. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Boo, Elizabeth. 1994. The ecotourism boom:
Planning for development and management.
In Wildlands and human needs technical
paper series (paper #2), World Wildlife
Fund, ed. Washington D.C: World Wildlife
Fund.
In this paper, Boo includes diagnostic and
planning guidelines for protected area managers
who are confronting ecotourism. While ecotourism
is becoming more popular, few parks are prepared
to manage or plan for it. The author suggests that
one of the best strategies to help parks address
potential issues is comprehensive planning and the
creation of ecotourism plans. A four-phase process
is described to help park managers assess their
current tourism situation, determine a situation that
is desirable for the area, strategies about how to
achieve this situation, and write a formal strategy
document. The author asserts that ecotourism will
93
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
only be successful if natural resources are
protected. Currently, few models exist to help
managers find this balance.
and conservation to Cancun’s regional planning
efforts.
35.
33.
Canova, Luca. 2006. Protected areas and
landscape conservation in the Lombardy
Plain (Northern Italy): An appraisal.
Landscape and Urban Planning 74, 2: 10209.
This journal article describes the effectiveness
of the Protected Area System in Lombardy, Italy at
advancing conservation policy and preserving
avian species richness. The author conducts a
study of four regional parks in southern Lombardy
to identify changes in natural habitat surface, field
size, grassland availability, urban areas, and avian
species richness within and outside park
boundaries. Results are used to confirm the
contribution of the protected area system. While
the author agrees that the reported data needs to be
confirmed by checking possible error sources, the
results suggest that the Protected Area System has
a real effect on conservation of some
environmental features and that the laws governing
nature conservation should be preserved and
strengthened.
34.
Cervantes-Borja, Jorge F., and Magadalena
Meza Sanchez. 1993. Geoecodynamic
assessment to improve the landscape tourist
resources in Cancun, Yucatan Peninsula,
Mexico. In Tourism vs environment: The case
for coastal areas, P.P. Wong, ed. Dordrecht,
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
This study assesses the vulnerability of
Cancun’s fragile coastal environment to the
impacts of tourist development. The authors
assessed the coastal zone’s geo-ecodynamic
problems, determining that the planning and
implementation of land uses should incorporate a
regional master plan that considers functional
ability and resilience of geo-ecosystems. They also
propose the creation of a land use map that
indicates uses more appropriate for environmental
conservation and resolves any differences between
the interests of social and economical development
of tourist and non-tourist areas. Overall, the study
provided improved environmental management
94
DeVries, Gregory W. 2004. Mountain pine
ridge forest reserve: Visitor use master plan.
Belmopan City, Belize: Forest Department,
Ministry of Natural Resources, the
Environment, and Industry.
This plan serves as a tool to help authorities
in the Mountain Pine Ridge Forest Reserve of
Belize make decisions about committing to
recognized goals and to transform these goals into
action steps and concrete results. Important themes
of the plan include diversity of user groups, wide
range of activities, activity concentration, efficient
circulation, local character, total perceptual
experience, scenic view sheds, ecological systems,
and minimal expenses. The document can be used
to help plan for increased visitation and tourism
activity.
36.
Eagles, Paul F. J. 1984. The planning and
management of environmentally sensitive
areas. New York, NY: Longman Inc.
This book establishes criteria to identify and
plan for Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESA)
and asserts the need for planners and municipal
government to protect and manage natural
elements and processes. The author presents an
overview of ESA planning theory and includes
guidelines for the design and implementation of
planning and management strategies. Selected case
studies from Great Britain, Japan, Canada and the
United States are also highlighted.
37.
Hamilton, Roger. 2005. Can parks get the
protection they need? In Guatemala's Peten
Department, a government agency and a
conservation group join forces to tackle a
daunting task. IDB America. Retrieved
December
8,
2005,
from
http://www.iadb.org/idbamerica/index.cfm?th
isid=3621
This on-line article describes the conflict
between new government policies for protected
areas and the situation of local settlers of
Guatemala’s Laguna del Tigre National Park. The
author writes about the need to create a system of
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
protected areas that strengthen local governments
and community groups while at the same time
promoting nature and cultural tourism, improving
social services and diversifying productive
activities. It draws upon the example of local
settlers in Peten, Guatemala to explain the
challenge and difficulty of achieving this goal.
38.
Hill, Jennifer, Wendy Woodland, and
Georgie Gough. 2007. Can visitor satisfaction
and knowledge about tropical rainforests be
enhanced through biodiversity interpretation,
and does this promote a positive attitude
towards ecosystem conservation? Journal of
Ecotourism 6, 1: 75-85.
There has been significant non-scientific
rhetoric that interpretation is an important element
for promoting environmental conservation and
sustainable tourism, increasing visitor knowledge
and environmental awareness, and prompting more
responsible tourist behavior. This paper examines
if educating visitors about biological diversity
during their visit to a tropical rainforest can raise
their levels of satisfaction and knowledge above
those achieved from a purely experiential visit.
39.
Houseal, Brian, Craig MacFarland, Guillermo
Archibold, and Aurelio Chiari. 1985.
Indigenous cultures and protected areas in
Central America. Cultural Survival Quarterly
9, 1: 10-20.
This article emphasizes the need for natural
reserves and protected areas to adopt planning
strategies that integrate the goals of wildlands
management and self-determination of indigenous
peoples. The authors highlight the issues and
threats experienced by three Central American
biosphere reserves and the Kuna Forest Park that
contain both wildlands and indigenous inhabitants.
The authors draw upon these case studies to offer
recommendations for improved natural resource
management of indigenous lands in Central
America, further research on the relationship
between indigenous groups and the tropical forest,
and increased participation and training of
indigenous people in protected areas.
40.
Kalamandeen, Michelle, and Lindsey Gillson.
2007. Anything “wilderness”: Implications
for protected area designation and
management. Biodiversity and Conservation
16, 1: 165-82.
This paper reviews the philosophical roots,
values and assumptions of four conservation
strategies influential in the history of Protect Area
designation and management.
The authors
evaluate these approaches which include
wilderness conservation and the Yellowstone
Model, wise use and the Game Reserve Model,
wildlife and biodiversity conservation, and
ecosystem management, to determine how much
each depends on the concepts of wilderness and
pristineness. The authors also examine the extent
to which Protected Area designation still reflects
the assumptions of these strategies. The history
presented reveals Protected Area designation’s
increasing responsiveness to advances in ecological
understanding as well as the reintegration of
ecological and social systems.
41.
Kumble, Peter A. and Christopher C.
Houston. 2009.
The elements of a
conservation botanic garden for ecotourism:
Belize botanic garden as a case study.
Journal of Landscape Studies, in press.
This paper discusses the role of a
conservation botanic garden, and specifically how
it can function as a destination for ecotourists. The
authors propose planning and design guidelines
that demonstrate the principles of a conservation
botanic garden. A plan of the existing Belize
Botanic Gardens located in the Cayo District of
Belize, Central America, has been chosen as a
base-guide to illustrate the application of many of
the conservation design guidelines, in support of
natural resource protection.
42.
Lee, David N. B., and David J. Snepenger.
1992. An ecotourism assessment of
Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Annals of Tourism
Research 19, 2: 367-70.
This paper examines the situation of
ecotourism development in Tortuguero, Costa Rica
to demonstrate the value of ecotourism assessment
procedures that provide information for managing
culturally and ecologically valuable areas. The
authors apply an ideal ecotourism system, which
95
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
reflects on all-important relationships between
tourists, the host community, businesses, natural
resource managers, natural resource amenities and
necessary infrastructure, to conduct a comparison
of visitor and host characteristics. It reviews
information collected from surveys that describe
village demographics, employment, business
ownership, community development and attitudes
towards tourism. Also reviewed is data collected
on the motivations, activities, expenditures, and
support for conservation and sustainable
development of visitors. The article concludes
with recommendations for administering future
studies.
43.
Lindberg, Kreg, and Jeremy Enriquez. 1995.
An analysis of ecotourism's economic
contribution to conservation and development
in Belize. World Wildlife Fund (US) and
Ministry of Tourism and Environment
(Belize), eds. Washington, D.C.: World
Wildlife Fund (US).
This report examines the financial
contributions and impacts of ecotourism on
Belize’s protected areas, national economy,
communities, and resource use. The authors
provide a systematic analysis of issues specific to
ecotourism in Belize and identify management
options for sustaining and increasing ecotourism’s
benefits. It includes background information on
conservation, tourism and case studies and offers
recommendations for ways to address and manage
specific issues discussed throughout the report.
44.
Mayer, Christopher C. and George N.
Wallace. 2007. Appropriate levels of
restoration and development at Copán
Archaeological Park: Setting attributes
affecting the visitor experience. Journal of
Ecotourism 6, 2: 91-110.
This paper studies how differing levels of
restoration and development within, and the
intensifying development next to this World
Heritage Site in Honduras, affects visitor
experience. Surveys and interviews of visitors
North America, Europe, and Latin America found
that all prefer a mixture of restored ruins
juxtaposed to those being reclaimed by jungle
growth. The authors also discuss implications for
96
Park management and cross-boundary involvement
in land use decisions at this site and others.
45.
Oostdam, Ben L., and Paul A. Billeter.
Integrated Coastal Area Management and
Public Perceptions in the Caribbean Islands.
http://members.tripod.com/Carib_Coastal/con
tents.html
This on-line report investigates the geologic
and related aspects of coastal area management in
the Caribbean islands. The authors discuss the
methods and findings of survey administered to 25
Caribbean islands to better understand public
perceptions about natural hazards like earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, floods and
landslides, as well as the man-made problems of
marine pollution, beach mining, coastal erosion
and the degradation of coral reefs and mangrove
swamps.
Although the authors question the
statistical significance of the study findings they
emphasize the need for increased public awareness
and participation in Integrated Coastal Area
Management related issues.
46.
Orams, Mark B. 1996. Using interpretation to
manage nature-based tourism. Journal of
Sustainable Tourism 4, 2: 81-94.
This article presents an overview of various
management strategies for balancing increasing
tourism pressure and preserving the natural
environment. The author argues that interpretation
programs, if conducted effectively, can serve as an
effective mechanism for managing the impacts of
nature-based tourism. The author outlines a variety
of educational techniques that can be used in
interpretation programs for ecotourists and
evaluates their usefulness, and urges further
research of this topic, concluding with questions
for future investigation by researchers in the area
of tourism management.
47.
Place, Susan E. 1991. Nature tourism and
rural development in Tortuguero. Annals of
Tourism Research 18, 2: 186-201.
This article examines the influence of
national parks on transitioning local people from an
economy based on resource exploitation to one
based on resource protection. The author studies
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
the example of Tortuguero National Park in Costa
Rica, where nature-based and park-based tourism
has become important to the local economy;
however, local peoples remain unaware of its
existing and potential benefits. She proposes
recommendations and practical strategies for local
inhabitants, the park service, and others nearby
Tortugeuro to adapt to expand nature-tourism
development and ecotourism operations.
48.
Shafer, Craig L. 2004. A geography of hope:
Pursuing the voluntary preservation of
America's natural heritage. Landscape and
Urban Planning 66, 3: 127-71.
This article provides a history of the National
Natural Landmarks (NNL) Program, which is
administered by the National Park Service for the
preservation of naturally significant ecological and
geological features in the US; includes suggestions
for increasing the program’s effectiveness at
conservation.
The author delineates the
development of the NNL Program, highlighting
examples of the Program’s conservation success
stories.
He urges the creation of economic
incentives to encourage private landowners to
protect valuable land. The article mentions some
of the existing as well as the potential for economic
options and opportunities to develop incentives.
49.
Termorshuizen, Jolande W., Paul Opdam,
and Adri van der Brink. 2007. Incorporating
ecological sustainability into landscape
planning. Landscape and Urban Planning 79,
3-4: 374-84.
This article discusses the process for
developing a scientific-based but easy-to-use
approach for incorporating principles of ecological
sustainability into ecotourism landscape planning
situations. The authors construct a framework as a
basis for building the tool that includes an
operational definition of ecological sustainability
and a decision making model with corresponding
indicators. The authors propose a set of indicators
to incorporate ecological sustainability into the
context of landscape planning. It relies upon the
example of Dutch landscape development plans to
analyze the practical applicability and theoretical
considerations of this tool.
50.
The Ecosystem Principles Objectives,
Indicators and Targets Committee of the Lake
Superior Work Group, and Lake Superior
Binational Program. 1995. Lake Superior
Binational Program.
This report identifies specific ecosystem
objectives for important elements of the Lake
Superior basin ecosystem, which include aquatic
communities, terrestrial wildlife, habitat, human
health, and sustainability. It establishes ecosystem
indicators and quantitative targets that are relevant
to the objectives established, scientifically credible,
simple and suitable for serious consideration and
can be used to measuring the health of the Lake
Superior basin ecosystem.
C. Sustainable Ecotourism Planning and Policy
Issues
51.
Agrusa, Jerome F., and Julie Guidry. 1999.
Ecotourism and sustainable development of
the Maya Rain Forest in Central America. In
First Pan American Conference proceedings,
K. Chon, ed. First Pan-American Conference,
Panama City, 19-21 May.
This paper discusses the potential of
ecotourism to stimulate the economic growth and
protect the natural resources of Central America’s
Maya Rain Forest. The authors provide a list of
recommendations to promote Sustainable Tourism
Development, emphasizing the need to involve the
local population and maintain the quality of the
environment. If these strategies are followed, the
authors suggest that various social and economic
benefits like the stimulation of profitable domestic
industries can be reaped. The authors note that
ecotourism development is not without risk and
could lead to the intrusion of tourism into sensitive
environmental and social areas.
52.
Azkarate, Tomas. 1995. World conference on
sustainable tourism. Paper presented at the
First World Conference on Sustainable
Tourism, Lanzarote Island, 24-29 April.
Azkarate describes the objectives and actions
of the First World Conference on Sustainable
Tourism, which brought delegates from more than
97
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
forty counties and a thousand tourism experts
together on Lanzarote Island to develop a
sustainable tourism strategy that would guide
tourist activity in the next century. Outcomes from
the conference include a charter for sustainable
tourism and a plan of action, which focuses on the
need for sustainable tourism development.
53.
Blackstock, Kirsfy L., Alister Scott and Colin
Hunter. 2008. Measuring responsibility: An
appraisal of a Scottish National Park's
sustainable tourism indicators. Journal Of
Sustainable Tourism 16, 3: 276-97.
In this journal article, the authors use the
concept of responsible tourism as a medium for
fostering sustainable tourism.
The research
explores how and if draft indicators, once applied
at one of Scotland’s new national parks, can be
used to measure responsible behavior by tourists
and the hosting party. Analysis focuses on issues
of responsibility for what, by whom and whether
the tourism strategy in question will result in
responsible tourism. Research reports on findings
and evaluates how the “lens” of responsible
tourism provides a useful perspective for
appraising tourism indicators at future study
locations.
54.
Clifford, G., D. Dougherty, M. Ernst, T.
Manning. 1997. What tourism managers need
to know:
A practical guide to the
development and Use of indicators of
sustainable tourism. Madrid, Spain: World
Tourism Organization.
This text promotes the importance of
understanding and practicing responsible tourism.
The authors define responsible tourism and include
links to articles, e-bulletins, e-groups, and websites
that explore this topic; includes links for
information on action steps to become a more
responsible traveler.
55.
98
Dolnicar, Sara., Geoffrey I. Crouch, and
Patrick Long. 2008. Environment-friendly
tourists: What do we really know about
them? Journal Of Sustainable Tourism 16, 2:
197-210.
This paper supports the assertion that
researchers have a limited understanding of what
constitutes sustainable tourist behavior, and that
there is little consensus about who environmentalfriendly tourists (EFT) actually are. The authors
review theoretical and empirical studies and
discuss work done on environmentally-friendly
behavior in other disciplines. Results indicate that
operationalizations of EFTs are inconsistent and at
times do not ensure the EFTs are actually studied.
56.
Dolnicar, Sara and Friedrich Leisch. 2008.
An investigation of tourists' patterns of
obligation to protect the environment.
Journal of Travel Research 46: 381-91.
In this paper, the authors have proposed a
demand-driven approach to sustainable destination
management as complementary to the traditional
supply-side interventions. However, the authors
recognize that little empirical evidence supports
their premise of a demand-driven approach to
sustainable destination management. They found
that gaps between people’s pro-environmental
behavior at home and at the destination differs
across segments, leading to the conclusion that
different combinations of demand and supply-side
measures may be suitable to reduce the ecological
“footprint” of different segments.
57.
Edgell, David L. 2006. Managing sustainable
tourism: A legacy for the future. Binghamton,
NY: Haworth Hospitality Press, Inc.
This text illustrates ideas and offers practical
suggestions of how to manage the present and
prepare for the future sustainable tourism industry.
The
author
explores
potential
policies,
management philosophies, and strategies to help
sustainable tourism preserve the integrity of the
natural and built environment, stimulate economic
growth, and improve the overall quality of life of
the local population. Case studies, research, and
supplemental readings clearly detail the benefits
and shortcomings of the industry and describe
examples of heritage, nature-based, cultural and
rural tourism.
58.
Fennell, David A., and David C. Malloy.
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
1999. Measuring the ethical nature of tourism
operators. Annals of Tourism Research 26, 4:
928-43.
This scholarly study examines possible
differences among the ethical orientation of
ecotourism, adventure, fishing, cruise-line, and golf
operators and managers. The authors analyze the
responses of each group to ethical, economic,
social, and ecological issues in an attempt to
establish an understanding of their ethical nature.
The authors also examine the influence of
education, organizational size, and use of codes of
ethics to explain potential differences. The study
determines ecotourism operators to be the most
ethical of those studied. It postulates that an
understanding of the potential differences in the
ethical viewpoints of these groups will help
researchers foresee potential benefits and problems
in the development of distinct types of tourism.
59.
Hall, C. Michael, and Alan A. Lew, eds.
1998. Sustainable tourism: A geographical
perspective. New York, NY: Addison Wesley
Longman.
This edited volume provides historical and
political analysis of concepts of sustainable
development with respect to tourism and
contemporary geographical debates. The editors
include articles from a variety of disciplinary
perspectives and a diverse range of case studies
that identify common themes and concepts related
to sustainable tourism. They support the argument
that the existing literature on tourism and
development has been weakened by its descriptive
nature and emphasis on theoretical models.
60.
Harris, Rob, and Neil Leiper, eds. 1995.
Sustainable
tourism;
an
Australian
perspective. Newton, U.S.A: ButterworthHeinemann.
This text details how select tourism firms and
organizations in Australia have responded to the
challenge of sustainable development. The editors
examine how specific tourism operators,
accommodation providers, natural attractions and
management authorities and organizations perform
in the areas of innovative building and
infrastructure design, control of physical and social
environmental
impacts
from
operations,
technology, management systems, and services. It
delineates and justifies the methods employed for
including firms and organizations in the text.
61.
Huang, Yi, Jinyang Deng, Jian Li, and
Yongde Zhong. 2008. Visitors’ attitudes
towards China’s national forest park policy,
roles and functions, and appropriate use.
Journal of Sustainable Tourism 16, 1: 63-84.
National parks throughout the world are
trying to finds ways to accommodate dual
mandates for protecting natural and cultural
resources while also providing positive recreational
experiences for park visitors. This is particularly
true for China’s national forest parks (NFPs). This
paper examines how visitors perceive the roles and
functions, policies and appropriate uses of NFPs.
Results indicated that the majority of study
participants placed a higher priority for the
protection of ecological integrity of NFPs than on
their development for recreation and tourism.
They were supportive of policies for limiting
visitor numbers and phasing out inappropriate uses.
62.
Hunter, Colin. 1997. Sustainable tourism as
an adaptive paradigm. Annals of Tourism
Research 24, 4: 850-67.
This journal article argues that the concept of
sustainable tourism has emerged into too simplistic
and inflexible paradigm and is in need of
redefinition. The author explains how the subject
of sustainable tourism has diverged from the
concept of sustainable development.
He
emphasizes the need to establish a framework for
sustainable tourism that incorporates a range of
approaches to tourism and environmental systems
within destination areas.
63.
Hunter, Colin, and Howard Green. 1995.
Tourism and the environment: A sustainable
relationship? New York, NY: Routeledge.
This text provides an analysis of the
relationship between tourism development and
environmental quality, with sustainable tourism
development as the central theme. The authors
review relevant literature on environmental
management and sustainable tourism as well as
99
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
discussions held at international conferences on the
subject.
64.
Mihalic, Tanja. 1996. Ecological labeling in
tourism. In Sustainable tourism in islands
and small states: Issues and policies, L.
Briguglio, B. Archer, J. Jafari and G. Wall,
eds. New York, U.S.A.: Pinter: 197-205.
This book chapter explains the basic
components of eco-labeling for the tourism
product, distinguishing the differences between
these product types from other industrial products.
The author describes the various types and
associated meanings of eco-labeling, including
combined labels and quasi-ecological labels. It
frames the issue of eco-labeling by emphasizing its
relevance to many small island states, whose
tourism development and the quality of the tourism
product is dependent on the attractiveness of their
natural and social environment.
65.
Miller, G. and L. Twining-Ward. 2005.
Monitoring for a sustainable tourism
transition: The challenge of developing and
using indicators. Cambridge, MA: CABI
Publishing.
This book provides insight into the concept of
monitoring the transition of tourism to sustainable
tourism using indicators. The authors give a
comprehensive overview of how tourism can
transition
to
become
more
sustainable,
emphasizing the importance of indicator use and
implementation and monitoring for stakeholder
groups. It includes background information on
sustainable development, an examination of the
motivations for and the process of monitoring
sustainability, and examples of monitoring in
practice with case studies.
66.
Moore, Susan A. 2004. Ecotourism policy
and planning. Annals of Tourism Research
31, 3: 736-37.
This article reviews Fennel and Dowling’s
edited book, Ecotourism Policy and Planning,
which focuses on tourism policy and planning
within a framework of sustainability. The author
summarizes the book’s five sections and makes
observations about each, including the book’s
100
concluding chapter. Moore critiques articles by
Hall and Tanja from the first section of the book,
which is described as containing more theoretical
contributions. Moore provides commentary on
various descriptive case studies at the regional,
country, and continental level.
67.
Mount Royal College. 2003. Comparative
analysis of ecotourism present and future in
Majahual, Mexico and Caye Caulker, Belize.
Calgary, Canada: Mount Royal College.
This report draws on the collected
background information and analysis conducted by
undergraduate students from Mount Royal College
in Canada. The work was conducted as part of a
field studies class of university students who
identify strategies for sustainable tourism
development for Majahual, Mexico and Caye
Caulker, Belize. The authors provide an overview
of tourism in the two regions and investigate the
strengths, weaknesses, obstacles, and threats to
sustainable tourism development for Majahual,
which is expected to have incredible growth in
cruise ship tourism and for Caye Caulker, which is
an established ecotourism destination. The report
concludes with recommendations and potential
next steps for these areas.
68.
Rainieri, Frank. 1996. If you build it, they
will come: Sustainable tourism. In
Sustainable cities: white papers, Earth
Pledge, ed. Chelsea Green Publishing.
This paper describes the array of efforts and
activities that make the 15,000 acre Punta Cana
Beach Resort on the east coast of the Dominican
Republic a “worthwhile case study on sustainable
tourism.” The author illustrates the resort as a
sustainable economic and social tourist venture that
has
successfully
combined
leisure
and
responsibility. It includes descriptions of how the
resort has balanced economic success and
environmental as well as cultural protection and
preservation. Examples include the construction of
an international airport that has provided over
25,000 tourist related jobs for local inhabitants,
which has ended the environmental destructive
practice of foresting trees for charcoal.
69.
Todd, Susan E., and Peter W. Williams.
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
1996. From white to green: A proposed
environmental
management
system
framework for ski areas. Journal of
Sustainable Tourism 4, 3: 147-73.
This article proposes the application of
Environmental Management Systems (EMS) as a
new stage in the evolution of sustainable tourism
from concept to practice. The authors review
literature on the subject and put forth an EMS
model to improve the environmental performance
of the ski area industry. They assess the current
and future applicability of the EMS model to these
ski operations as well as other tourism businesses.
Also, they suggest that the model should explicitly
include social and cultural issues to be truly
effective.
70.
Wahab, Salah, and John J. Pigram, eds. 1997.
Tourism development and growth: The
challenges of sustainability. London,
England: Routledge.
This edited volume includes articles that
address the concept of sustainability as related to
tourism growth and sustainable development. The
editors divide the book into five sections that
address opportunities and obstacles to achieving
sustainable tourism while at the same time
accommodating and balancing growth. It uses case
studies from various parts of the world to examine
how tourism can lead to advancements in
developing countries and discusses policies and
programs for pursuing sustainable tourism growth.
71.
Wheeller, Brian A. 2005. Tourism and
sustainability: Development and new tourism
in the third world. Annals of Tourism
Research 32, 2: 499-501.
Wheeller’s literary review of Mowforth and
Munt’s text, Tourism and sustainability:
development and new tourism in the third world is
highly supportive of the claims made by the
authors of this book, which emphasizes the need to
understand sustainability within a broad context
and from a multidisciplinary approach. Despite a
few minor critiques, which concern the book’s
length and the inclusion of seemingly dated
material, the author writes positively of the book,
urging that it be considered as essential reading for
serious scholars of tourism studies as well as for
students in tourism programs and development
studies. He states that the authors provide a much
needed contextualization and wider awareness of
tourism.
D.
Community Participation and Ethnographic Assessment at Ecotourism Destinations
72.
Campbell, Lisa M. 1999. Ecotourism in rural
developing communities. Annals of Tourism
Research 26, 3: 534-53.
Campbell examines the potential for a local
community to benefit from or exert control over its
development without government intervention or
help from planning agencies. She conducted
interviews with local people in Ostional, Costa
Rica to better understand community’s attitudes
towards, preparedness for, and perceived impacts
of tourism. The author found that with few local
beneficiaries, foreign investment has begun in
Ostional, which is likely to inflate land prices, and
local or foreign entrepreneurs will drive that future
development. Concern is expressed about the
ability of less organized, rural communities to
maintain independent control over tourism
development.
73.
Colchester, Marcus. 2004. Conservation
policy and indigenous peoples. Cultural
Survival Quarterly 28, 1: 17.
Colchester delineates the history of protected
areas in relation to and conservation policies regard
for indigenous people.
Beginning with the
establishment of the first National Park, the authors
examine the negative social impacts of protected
areas on indigenous people and describe the
progression of the conservation movements’
acknowledgement and respect for the rights of
indigenous people. Despite a history of social
exclusion and marginalization from protected
areas, the authors express that strides have been
made to restore recognition of indigenous peoples
rights to own, manage, and control their lands.
74.
Ericson, Jenny A. 2006. A participatory
approach to conservation in the Calakmul
101
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
Biosphere Reserve, Campeche, Mexico.
Landscape and Urban Planning 74, 3-4: 24266.
This article explores the problem of
compatibility between the participatory approach
and its use within the context of biodiversity
conservation programs. The author relies on her
experience as coordinator of an applied research
program in communities within the Calakmul
Biosphere Reserve to evaluate the strengths and
weaknesses of the participatory approach when
used as part of a conservation program. She
critiques aspects of participation methods and
highlights how local participation can play an
important role within the integrated conservation
and development paradigm. It concludes with
practical suggestions for conservation practitioners
employing this approach.
75.
Fraga, Julie. 2006. Local perspectives in
conservation politics: The case of the Ria
Lagartos Biosphere Reserve, Yucatan,
Mexico. Landscape and Urban Planning 74:
285-95.
This
scholarly
paper
studies
the
institutionalization of conservation in a biosphere
reserve in the northwest Yucatán Peninsula, where
the author worked closely with the community for
more than 10 years. The author employs an
ethnographic
approach
to
uncover
the
commonalities in perceptions and attitudes of local
users of protected areas, including fishermen and
cattle ranchers contrasted with the general view of
those charged with managing these areas, including
biologists, administrators and policy makers. It
discusses the different types of knowledge and
practices of conservation and examines the
potential conflicts that exist between and within
them.
76.
Frazier, J. 2006. Biosphere reserves and the
"Yucatan" Syndrome: Another look at the
role of NGOs. Landscape and Urban
Planning 74, 3-4: 313-33.
author discusses how programs supported by
institutions like NGOs often exhibit cultural
ignorance and dominance and can lead to the
concentration of resources and power, counter
productive stated objectives, and devastating
impacts on societies and their resource bases.
Focus is placed on conservation initiatives in the
Yucatan Peninsula. The author urges for an
improved understanding of the role key institutions
that promote conservation initiatives have on local
populations and ecosystems.
77.
This paper analyzes potential barriers
preventing
participation
of
historically
underrepresented groups in planning for tourism
development. The authors discuss the results of a
study conducted between 1999-2000 in Hamilton
County, Florida that employed qualitative
ethnographic methods to better understand the role
of African Americans in county decision making
for nature based and heritage tourism. It reveals
issues that can impede cross-cultural collaboration
and offers suggestions for improving future
planning efforts.
78.
102
Haley, A. J., T. Snaith, and G. Miller. 2005.
The social impacts of tourism: A case study
of Bath, UK. Annals of Tourism Research 32,
3: 647–68.
This paper examines a study conducted on the
attitudes of residents in Bath, United Kingdom
towards tourism development. The authors suggest
that existing studies on residents towards tourism is
lacking in appropriate and consistent methodology
and propose to establish a benchmark study for the
city to enable long-term analysis of resident
attitudes.
79.
This paper examines the social and political
consequences of non-governmental organizations
(NGO) and conservation initiatives in the postmodern, neo-liberal age of globalization. The
Hale Gallardo, Jennifer, and Taylor V. Stein.
2007. Participation, power and racial
representation: Negotiating nature-based and
heritage tourism development in the rural
south. Society and Natural Resources 20, 7:
597-611.
Hearne, Robert R., and C. Alejandro Santos.
2005. Tourists' and locals' preferences toward
ecotourism development in the Maya
Biosphere Reserve, Guatemala. Environment,
Development and Sustainability 7, 3: 303-18.
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
This paper researches the preferences of
educated residents and foreign tourists of the Maya
Biosphere Reserve in Peten Guatemala toward the
development of natural areas and nature based
tourism services. The authors conduct choice
experiments of these target group preferences in an
attempt to better understand tourist demand for
nature based services and the ability of local
populations to supply such services and welcome
visitors. They discuss the methodology and results
of the survey, which demonstrates significant
demand for improved national park management
and ecotourism services in the MBR and highlights
the disparities as well as similarities between the
preferences of the groups studied. The paper
concludes with a discussion of policy implications
and the applicability of this type of study method in
other protected areas.
80.
Hill, Jennifer, Wendy Woodland, and
Georgie Gough. 2007. Can visitor satisfaction
and knowledge about tropical rainforests be
enhanced through biodiversity interpretation,
and does this promote a positive attitude
towards ecosystem conservation? Journal of
Ecotourism 6, 1: 75-85.
There has been significant non scientific
rhetoric that interpretation is an important element
for promoting environmental conservation and
sustainable tourism, increasing visitor knowledge
and environmental awareness, and prompting more
responsible tourist behavior. This paper examines
if educating visitors about biological diversity
during their visit to a tropical rainforest can raise
their levels of satisfaction and knowledge above
that those achieved from purely an experiential
visit.
81.
Hovardas, Tasos, and Kostas Poirazidis.
2006. Evaluation of the environmentalist
dimension of ecotourism at the Dadia Forest
Reserve
(Greece).
Environmental
Management 38, 5: 810-22.
This paper describes the methods and
findings of a study evaluating the environmentalist
dimension of the Dadia Forest Reserve, an
ecotourism destination in Greece. The authors
examine the effect of predetermined variables like
visitation goals and visitor characteristics on
variables determined during the visit such as,
visitor satisfaction of, and participation in,
ecotourism activities. Also examined is the effect
of environmental information sources and visitor
participation on visitor behavior intentions.
Findings indicate that although ecotourism
activities had no effect on visitor knowledge, they
did influence visitor behavior intentions. The
authors provide insight into and discuss the
management implications of the study’s findings.
82.
Jones, Samantha. 2005. Community-based
ecotourism - the significance of social capital.
Annals of Tourism Research 32, 2: 303-24.
This article utilizes the concept of social
capital to explore the dynamics of social and
environmental change associated with the
development of a community initiated and
managed ecotourism camp in Gambia. The author
surveys residents of the camp to analyze perceived
changes in social capital indicators and reflects on
the processes that may lead to its dissolution.
While study results support the notion that social
capital is both an outcome and factor in causing the
camp’s development and can serve as an important
factor for environmental sustainability, others
doubt the integrity of the study’s methodology,
questioning the use of subjective indicator and the
validity of the data.
83.
LaRose, Jean. 2004. In Guyana, indigenous
peoples fight to join conservation efforts.
Cultural Survival Quarterly 28,1: 34.
This paper sheds new light on the conflict
between Guyana’s indigenous Amerindian
population and the government, World Bank and
other conservation agencies seeking to implement a
National Protected Areas System within the
country. The author describes the history of
Guyana’s efforts to establish protected areas,
underscoring the lack of respect paid to the rights
of indigenous people living within these areas in
the process. It emphasizes the need for involving
indigenous communities in decision-making
processes, to address their concerns and rights, and
for recognizing the important relationship between
indigenous peoples and traditional lands and
territories. The author suggests that indigenously
owned protected areas is a viable option that could
103
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
lead to conflict avoidance and resolution.
84.
Lasimbang, Jannie. 2004. National parks and
indigenous peoples of Asia; Indigenous
resource management principles in protected
areas. Cultural Survival Quarterly 28, 1: 53.
This journal article expresses concern for the
disparity between the existence of government
policies and laws that recognize the right of
indigenous peoples to lands, territories and natural
resource and the actual adherence of governments
and other agencies to these laws. The author, who
maintains over twenty years of experiences
working with indigenous communities in Malaysia
and other areas in Asia, argues for the direct
involvement of indigenous peoples with their
traditional lands and territories. It promotes the
adoption of collaborative management and
potentially self-management of parks by
indigenous and non-indigenous people.
85.
O'Connell, Isobel. 2005. Ecotourism &
indigenous communities; an Andean process
helps restore some local control to a global
asset. Making Waves, Port Alberni 16, 1: 22.
This paper describes the methods used by The
Mountain Institute (TMI) to research indigenous
peoples’ involvement in and management of the
ecotourism sector in Huascaran National Park in
Northern Peru. The author, a TMI volunteer,
stresses the importance of fostering a multistakeholder process in which a diverse mix of local
and national authorities can learn to collaborate and
work together and of keeping a balanced approach
that respects the opinions of park management and
other participants in the process. It lists four
critical factors as the main lessons learned from the
TMI project and mentions current initiatives
created to help others find a balance between
conservation and protection. The author uses the
Huascaran case study as a model of valid
community empowerment and enrichment in the
planning and management process.
86.
104
Padmanaba, Michael, and Douglas Sheil.
2007. Finding and promoting a local
conservation consensus in a globally
important
tropical
forest
landscape.
Biodiversity and Conservation 16, 1: 137-51.
This paper analyzes the effect of a local
poster campaign about biodiversity on the
knowledge, attitudes, and opinions of local people
on conservation in Malinau, Indonesian Borneo.
The authors describe the methodology and results
of a small-scale survey administered to local
people in this area to assess the impacts of the
poster campaign and gauge the community’s
willingness to support conservation efforts as well
as the governments awareness of the community’s
interests. They prove that surveys can reveal
useful information and stresses the importance for
future measures to better access and engage local
views concerning conservation.
87.
Porter Bolland, Luciana, Allan P. Drew, and
Carmen Vergara-Tenorio. 2006. Analysis of
natural resources management system in the
Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. Landscape and
Urban Planning 74, 3-4: 223-41.
This article studies the natural resource
management systems for the ejido X-Khana in the
Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Campeche,
Mexico to reveal its strengths and limitations that
might promote or hinder forest conservation and
sustainable development. The authors describe the
results of a series of participatory rural appraisals
(PRA) conducted with the people of X-Khana.
Identifies a diversification of activities carried out
by different user groups and analyzes the gender
and age roles associated with those activities. It
characterizes limitations to more efficient uses of
natural resources and introduces alternatives to be
used as an example by interested NGOs and other
conservation minded organizations.
88.
Simpson, Charles R., and Anita Rapone.
1996. Rebellion in Chiapas: Ecological
spaces and cultural systems in collision.
Human Ecology Review 2, 2: 157-69.
This journal article argues that the cause of
the Ejercito Zapatista de Liberacion Nacional
(EZLN) insurrection in Chiapas, Mexico is rooted
in conflicting perspectives on the meaning of land.
The authors describe the social, political and legal
events that led to the uprising and that caused a
shift in how people understand and value land and
agriculture. It discusses how the differences
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
between the indigenous perspective on land, which
promotes the collective right of a community to
land necessary for life, and the perspective of neoliberalism, which views land as a commodity for
trade and production, impacted the indigenous
people.
This has great relevance to similar
scenarios where nature-based tourism can impact
local people.
Aguateca and is helping local farmers increase
production on existing crop and pasture land as a
way to prevent further expansion of agriculture into
the Maya Biosphere Reserve. The author suggests
that with the right training, organization, financing
and stable policies, this archeological site will
create tourism-related job opportunities for the
local community.
91.
E.
Marketing and Economic Development of
Ecotourism
Specific
to
Resource
Conservation
89.
Buckley, Ralph C., and E. Clough. 1997.
Who is selling ecotourism to whom? Annals
of Tourism Research 24, 2: 479-80.
This
journal
articles
analyzes
the
characteristics and patterns of advertising materials
and delegates present at the 3rd World Congress of
Adventure Travel and Ecotourism in Brazil,
September of 1993. Using chi square analyses, the
authors examine advertising materials for claims
related to nature-based products, sustainable
management, environmental education and a
contribution to conservation. While data differed
among countries without forming any clear
patterns, conservation practices were found to be
more common in the public than private sector.
The authors review the advertisers’ contributions to
conservation, the factual basis for product and
management claims, and the types of ecotourism
promoted by various sectors of the industry.
90.
Hamilton, Roger. 2005. A tale of two
invasions: Local people will respect an
archeological park if they benefit from it. IDB
America, Retrieved December 8, 2005, from
http://www.iadb.org/idbamerica/index.cfm?th
isid=3617
This on-line article discusses the need to find
ways for local settlers to benefit economically from
protected areas. The author highlights the situation
in Peten, Guatemala, where an associate professor
of anthropology at the University of Arizona
believes that the local people can be part of the
solution, a view shared by the Peten Sustainable
Development Program. It examines the work of
the professor, who is restoring the Mayan site of
Hamilton, Roger. 2002. Beyond economics:
Ecotourism aims not only to turn a profit, but
also to help communities and protect nature.
IDB America. Retrieved December 8, 2005,
from http://www.iadb.org/idbamerica/index.
cfm?&thisid=581&articlepreview=0&
This on-line article discusses the potential of
ecotourism ventures in Latin America to help
communities balance the pressure for development
and need for environmental protection. The author
examines the economic, environmental, and social
benefits that ecotourism can provide and includes
examples of successful eco-lodges in Brazil and
Bolivia. It briefly highlights the political and legal
challenges to natural area preservation in this
region and stresses that ecotourism can affect but
not determine the outcome of these struggles.
92.
Richerzhagen, Carmen, and Karin HolmMueller. 2005. The effectiveness of access
and benefit sharing in Costa Rica:
Implications for national and international
regimes. Ecological Economics 53, 4: 44560.
This paper draws upon the concept of access
and benefit sharing and its successful application in
Costa Rica to investigate the possibility of
promoting nature conservation and economic
development though the creation of biological
resource markets and the commercialization of
biodiversity.
The authors provide a brief
introduction to the institutional background of this
concept and identify critical factors, which
determine its effectiveness. The paper includes
discussion of factors like the assignment of
property and intellectual property rights,
enforcement problems and bargaining power.
Also, the research discusses the situation of Costa
Rica and how other biodiversity rich countries can
learn from its experience.
105
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
93.
Slinger, Vanessa. 2000. Ecotourism in the
last indigenous Caribbean community.
Annals of Tourism Research 27, 2: 520-23.
This paper discusses how the promotion of
ecotourism has helped the indigenous Carib
population revitalize their culture, economy, and
ecology. The author examines how the Caribs’ use
of community based ecotourism as a form of
resource management has influenced a renewed
interest in and revival of the traditional culture and
a diversification of the economy.
94.
Steinberg, Michael K. 1996. Parks and
politics in Maya Belize. Fourth World
Bulletin,1-2
http://carbon.cudenver.edu/public/fwc/Issue1
0/Americas/belize.html
This on-line article describes the conflict
between a Mopan Maya tourism company and the
Belize government, which is resisting their efforts
to cut trails and build lodging facilities for hosting
ecotourist expeditions. The author reports on the
situation between this small ecotourist group and
the government, which facially supports tourism
development but denies locals access to the
resources and land to maintain tourist activities.
with regard to their adherence to the principles
formulated. While they suggests that current
registered ecotour ventures in Amazonas only
partly satisfy the set of ecotourism principles, the
authors reveal important information for lodge
operators about visitor preferences and interests.
The authors discuss implications for concessions,
protected area management, and rural development
in the area.
97.
This report attempts to develop a framework
for predicting patterns of U.S. citizens who travel
abroad. The author studies emerging trends in
participation rates of individuals from differing age
categories and generations cycles that traveled
abroad between 1971 and 1991. While the study
does not consider externalities or extraneous
factors that might influence travel behavior nor
does it seek to uncover the motivations and
interests of these travelers, it does make
insinuations about the future of U.S. travel abroad.
98.
95.
Vincent, V., Thompson, W., 2002, Assessing
community support and sustainability for
ecotourism development, Journal of Travel
Research 41, (November), 153-60.
This paper reviews a study of the economic
sustainability of ecotourism. The author examines
the financial impact of ecotourism as well as its
potential for generating funding for conservation
efforts and to support ecotourism goals and
objectives.
96.
Wallace, George, N., and Susan M. Pierce.
1996. An evaluation of ecotourism in
Amazonas, Brazil. Annals of Tourism
Research 23, 4: 843-73.
This paper uses ecotourism principles and
indicators to evaluate registered eco-tour lodges in
Amazonas, Brazil. The authors discuss the studies
findings and summarize how lodges performed
106
Warnick, Rodney B. 1995. United States
travel abroad, 1979 to 1991: Generational
trends impacting the sustainability of the
United States travel market. United States
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service
general technician report, no. 323.
Weaver, David B. 1991. Alternative to Mass
Tourism in Dominica. Annals of Tourism
Research 18, 3: 414-32.
This paper provides an analysis of alternative
tourism in Dominica that examines its development
as well as tourist accommodations, market, and
economy. The author discusses the theoretical
nature of alternative tourism and reflects on its
circumstantial origins in Dominica.
Weaver
reviews the Dominican government’s move toward
more deliberate implementation of alternative
tourism policy and programs. The author suggests
that destinations interested in promoting tourism
without components of large-scale development
should look to Dominica’s experience with
alternative tourism as an example.
99.
World
Tourism
Organization.
2003.
Sustainable development of ecotourism: A
compilation of good practices in SMEs.
Sustainable Development of Tourism.
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
This report compiles 65 case studies from 47
countries concerning model practices in small
ecotourism businesses (SMEs). The case studies
included contain valuable information on
methodologies and successful business approaches
of ecotourism companies that can be utilized or
adapted by others to fit specific local conditions. It
highlights the challenges and opportunities faced
by small businesses and individuals trying to
implement ecotourism initiatives.
100. Ziffer, Karen A. 1989. Ecotourism: The
uneasy alliance. In Working papers on
ecotourism, Conservation International, eds.
Conservation International: Ernst & Young.
This paper examines the market demand for
nature based travel in the United States and
introduces methods for evaluating the viability of
ecotourism
in
promoting
and
financing
conservation and economic development in less
developed countries. In addition to considering the
market conditions and financial possibilities of
ecotourism, the author defines the goals of
effective ecotourism development, profiles
ecotourists, and provides recommendations for
implementing successful ecotourism strategies.
F.
General Trends in Ecotourism Planning
and Management
101. Buckley, Ralph. 1994. A framework for
ecotourism. Annals of Tourism Research 21,
3: 661-69.
Buckley provides a framework for
understanding the various themes of ecotourism,
tourism,
and
aspects
of
environmental
management. The author identifies products and
markets, management, money, and people as the
main links between tourism and the environment.
Using industry sub-sector descriptors like corporate
environmental management tools, policy options,
and environmental issues, the author distinguishes
the differences between different types of
ecotourism, including nature-based, sustainably
run, conservation-supporting, and environmentallyaware.
102. Burton, Fiona. 1998. Can ecotourism
objectives be achieved? Annals of Tourism
Research 25, 3: 755-58.
This article distinguishes between the key
features of ecotourism and nature-based tourism to
establish both as separate but similar entities. The
author provides a brief background of the origins
and progression of each area. To prevent the
misuse and overuse of the labels eco- and naturebased tourism, the differences between the two are
described.
103. Cater, Erlet. 2006. Ecotourism as a western
construct. Journal of Ecotourism l5, 1 & 2:
23-39.
This paper, by geography scholar Erlet Cater,
argues that the internationalization of ecotourism
has evolved from a Western classical
conservationist approach – as supported in
literature – to be more akin to preservationism.
Cater’s work examines how this evolution has
come about and considers how uncritical
acceptance of a western construct of ecotourism
only serves to reinforce rather than reduce the
inequalities in how different cultures “experience”
nature-based tourism.
104. Cater, Erlet, and Gwen Lowman, eds. 1994.
Ecotourism: A sustainable option? Toronto,
Canada: John Wiley & Sons.
This edited volume provides a comprehensive
examination of issues, interests, and case studies of
ecotourism. The editors include articles that
represent a range of material and interests, such as
exploring the role and impact of ecotourism in
polar, tropical, subtropical, and temperate climates
as well as in high, middle, and low-income nations,
and considering the interests of tourist guests,
tourism organizations, host population and natural
environment.
105. Conlin, Michael V. 1996. Revitalizing
Bermuda: Tourism policy planning in a
mature island destination. In Practicing
responsible tourism: International case
studies in tourism planning, policy, and
107
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
development. L.C. Harrison and W.
Husbands, eds. Toronto, Canada: Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
Conlin
reviews
popular
theoretical
considerations in tourism planning, discusses the
history of tourism development in Bermuda and
provides an overview of the island’s process for
investigating the condition of its tourism industry.
The author examines micro and macro levels of
tourism planning models including destination life
cycle and community inclusive planning. The text
discusses the growth of tourism in Bermuda and
describes the conservative policies that have
controlled development and deterred large-scale
impacts. The article is concluded by a detailed
description of the Bermuda Tourism Planning
Committee’s substantial findings concerning the
industry’s strengths and weaknesses and
recommendations for directing the future growth of
tourism on the island.
106. D’Amore, Louis J. 1996. Ecotourism: A
sustainable option? Annals of Tourism
Research 23, 1: 237-39.
This book review of Cater and Lowmen’s
edited volume, Ecotourism: A Sustainable Option,
provides a brief but positive overview of the text
and is particularly impressed by the case study of
Annapurna, which he deems to be a pioneering
example of ecotourism. Overall, the book should
be viewed as a valuable resource for professors and
students of tourism, government agencies,
developers, planners and decision makers
concerned with the future of tourism. The author
suggests that the book might have benefited from
the inclusion of an operational definition of
ecotourism and a distinction between ecotourism
and sustainable tourism.
107. Deng, Jinyang, Brian King, and Thomas
Bauer. 2002. Evaluating natural attractions
for tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 29,
2: 422-38.
This journal article proposes a hierarchical
structure for the evaluation and rating of national
and provincial parks in the context of nature-based
tourism. The authors use a list of criteria that are
based on specific tourism attributes to classify 36
108
state and national parks in Victoria, Australia into
four levels, ranging from Grade 1 to 4. Although
the authors admit the study is not entirely flawless,
the framework created serves as a useful starting
point for comparing the tourism characteristics of
protected areas in a meaningful and systematic way
that may help tourists choose sites, enhance their
satisfaction, and encourage responsible behavior.
Future studies will aim to include expert input and
measurements of onsite air and water quality to
strengthen the validity of findings.
108. Eagles, Paul F. J. 1997. Understanding the
market for sustainable tourism. The
International
Ecotourism
Society.
http://www.ecotourism.org/WebModules/We
bArticlesNet/articlefiles/39-eagles.txt.
This paper presents a comprehensive profile
of the ecotourism, wilderness use, adventure travel,
and car camping niche markets of sustainable
tourism. The author compares and contrasts
information about the primary environmental
attitudes, social motives, socio-demographics,
economics, social constraints, environmental
impacts, business cycle, key management issues
and market opportunities of each sub-segment. It
suggests that more research on these four markets
will increase the ability of tourism managers to
provide higher levels of environmental protection
and visitor satisfaction by implementing more
specific policies for each market.
109. Eagles, Paul F. J, Per Nilsen, Nanao Kachi,
and Susan Buse, eds. 1995. Ecotourism: An
annotated bibliography for planners and
managers. 3 ed. North Bennington, Vermont:
The Ecotourism Society.
This bibliography compiles a list of resources
for planner and managers on the topic of
ecotourism. The authors select the 258 references
listed in the bibliography based on the source’s
significance, availability, and timeliness.
110. Farrell, Bryan H., and Dean Runyan. 1991.
Ecology and tourism. Annals of Tourism
Research 18, 1: 26-40.
This article presents an overview and
evaluation of various tourism studies that are
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
closely related to natural resources, the physical
environment, or the ecosystem. The authors draw
upon research from various disciplines that include
ecology, environmental studies, geography, and
resource management to show how hundreds of
works pertain to tourism’s relationship to the
natural environment.
They infer that future
tourism activity and tourism research will be
directed by the concept of integration and
sustainable development.
111. Harrison, Lynn C., and Winston Husbands,
eds. 1996. Practicing responsible tourism:
International case studies in tourism
planning, policy and development. Toronto,
Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
This edited volume compiles case studies
from various parts of the world that address
important themes in tourism at the local, regional,
and national levels. The editors include articles
that examine the impacts of community tourism,
the tourist area cycle of evolution, policy planning
and decision-making strategies, travel and
transportation, destination marketing, and tourism
impacts. They provide a thorough examination of
tourism management, policy, and planning issues
from a wide range of geographic locations and
topic areas.
112. Higham, James E. S., and Anna Carr. 2002.
Profiling tourists to ecotourism operations.
Annals of Tourism Research 29, 4: 1168-71.
This article describes the mixed methods
approach employed in a two-year project to
measure and analyze the environmental values held
by visitors of ecotourism attractions in New
Zealand. The author explains the various stages
undertaken in this research project, which began
with the development of a comprehensive database
of ecotourism and nature based tourism attractions
and later involved participant observations and
personal interviews at twelve ecotourism
operations in three different regions of New
Zealand. It emphasizes the need to investigate
niche tourist profiles to help ecotourism operators
and managers develop products that appeal to
specific interests.
113. Holder, Jean S. 1996. Maintaining
competitiveness in a new world order:
Regional solutions to Caribbean tourism
sustainability problems. In Practicing
responsible tourism: International case
studies in tourism planning, policy and
development, L.C. Harrison and W.
Husbands, eds. Toronto, Canada: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.: 145-73.
This chapter proposes a set of factors
necessary for Caribbean states to guarantee the
survival of the Caribbean tourism industry. The
author provides an overview of the history of
tourism in the region followed by a discussion of
the proposed factors, which include product
quality, profitability, regional promotion; regional
air transportation; security and public acceptance;
and strengthening intersectoral linkages.
She
argues that small Caribbean states will need to
form regional partnerships in order to experience
benefits from tourism.
114. Hughes, Michael and Angus MorrisonSaunders. 2005. Influence of on-site
interpretation intensity on visitors to natural
areas. Journal of Ecotourism 1, 3: 161-77.
On-site environmental interpretation is a form
of communication that encourages visitors to
discover new ways of thinking about their natural
surroundings.
Natural area managers use
interpretation to assist in achieving conservation
objectives. Debate about the benefits of high or
low intensity use of on-site media at natural areas
is presented in this paper. Two similar natural area
sites in Australia were selected which receive high
and low intensity of use.
115. Jamal, Tazim. 2006. The institutionalization
of ecotourism: Certification, cultural equity
and praxis. Journal of Ecotourism 5, 3: 14575.
This article investigates the historical
evolution and practice of ecotourism. The author
analyzes factors that have influenced and shaped
the ecotourism industry and provides a critique of
ecotourism definitions and programs. It examines
109
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
alternative paradigms to ecotourism
highlighting its transformative capabilities.
116. Kontogeorgopoulos, Nick. 2004. Ecotourism
and mass tourism in southern Thailand:
Spatial
interdependence,
structural
connections, and
staged
authenticity.
GeoJournal 61,1: 1-11.
This journal article argues that an
interconnected and proximate relationship between
ecotourism and mass tourism is not only possible
but in some instances is necessary for the survival
of ecotourism. The author challenges the common
notion that in order for ecotourism, which relies on
natural and remote landscapes, to succeed it must
exist spatially apart from mass tourism operations.
Research conducted on the island of Phuket, a
premier resort destination in southern Thailand that
successfully contains both ecotourism and mass
tourism, identifies a symbiotic relationship
between ecotourism sites, which depend financially
on the markets created by mass tourism, and mass
tourism sites, which benefit from nature based
activities and environment created by ecotourism
companies. The author admits that the case of
Phuket is not universal and this relationship may
not work as well in other areas.
117. Lew, Alan. 1998. Ecotourism trends. Annals
of Tourism Research 25, 3: 742-46.
This paper examines trends and notable
changes in the Asia Pacific ecotourism industry
and markets. The author interprets the findings of
228 surveys administered to ecotourist operators
offering tours to the Asia Pacific region. It
addresses changes in the industry over time,
projected trends, potential barriers to ecotourism’s
future development. The author suggests that
although ecotourism has some influence on the
broader mass tourism market it still remains a
specialty niche.
118. Lindberg, Kreg, and Donald E. Hawkins.
1993. Ecotourism: A guide for planners and
managers. North Bennington, Vermont: The
Ecotourism Society.
This guide serves as a tool kit for planners
and managers on how to implement ecotourism
110
projects. The editors include articles that address
important issues, valuable lessons learned, and
informative case studies concerning ecotourism
management and planning.
119. Mason, Peter. 1997. Tourism codes of
conduct in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic Region.
Journal of Sustainable Tourism 5, 2: 151165.
This paper considers the implications of the
current and future use of tourism codes in the
Arctic and sub- Arctic region.
The author
describes the context for the World Wildlife Fund
for Nature initiative to develop Arctic tourism
guidelines by investigating the nature of tourism in
the Arctic and its socio-cultural impacts. The
author infers that these guidelines could play an
influential role in setting the agenda for tourism
planning in the Arctic. It includes case studies
from Canada’s Yukon and Northwest Territories as
well as suggestions for overcoming potential issues
related to these tourism codes and regulations.
120. McLaren, Deborah. 2003. Rethinking
tourism & ecotravel. Broomfield, CT:
Kumarian Press, Inc.
This book provides an overview of global
tourism and observes the response of local peoples
from various parts of the world to development of
tourism and ecotourism in their communities. The
author presents information on the benefits of
tourism opportunities to guests and hosts alike and
sheds light on the disturbing consequences this
industry can have on local communities and the
environment. She includes advice on alternative
forms of tourism and urges for tourism to be
rethought and changed from the ground-up.
121. Nepal, Sanjay K. 2007. Ecotourists’
importance and satisfaction ratings of
accommodation-related amenities. Anatolia:
An International Journal of Tourism and
Hospitality Research 18, 2: 255-76.
In this paper, the author utilizes the
importance-performance
construct
to
rate
ecotourists’ perceived importance of and
satisfaction from accommodation related services
and facilities in Nepal’s Annapurna region. The
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
analysis was based on 120 on-site questionnaires
and interviews conducted with trekkers. Results
indicate a preference for natural features rather
than comfort and hygiene-related facilities.
122. Saleh, Farouk, and Judy Karwacki. 1996.
Revisiting the ecotourist: The case of
Grasslands National Park. Journal of
Sustainable Tourism 4, 2: 61-80.
This article discusses the findings of a study
on the attributes and motivations of the ecotourist
and the emergent implications of its results on
ecotourism planners and managers. The authors,
who provide a brief literature review on
ecotourism, review the impetus and methodology
for the study, which was conducted in two separate
years on visitors to Grasslands National Park, an
ecotourist site in Canada. The authors compile
study results to provide a profile of the independent
ecotourist that includes general attitudes,
behavioral predispositions, and motivations. The
paper analyzes results to offer a number of
suggestions for site managers to better
accommodate and plan for ecotourists.
123. Schroer, Craig. 1999. Ecotourism in Latin
America. A. Hartness, ed. Austin, TX:
University of Texas.
This annotated bibliography compiles a
collection of sources focused on ecotourism in
Latin American. The author organizes by source
types and topics. It includes guides and travel
books, manuals and proposals, sources on
ecotourism theory and criticism, case studies,
electronic resources, and websites. Each source is
provided with a brief description and citation.
124. Stabler, Michael J., and Brian Goodall. 1996.
Environmental auditing in planning for
sustainable island tourism. In Sustainable
tourism in islands and small states: Issues
and policies, L. Briguglio, B. Archer, J. Jafari
and G. Wall, eds. New York, NY: Pinter.
This book chapter emphasizes the importance
of integrating environmental auditing into planning
for sustainable tourism on small island
destinations. The authors discuss the role of
planning in sustainable tourism, outline the tourism
base within the context of small islands, and focus
largely on the current and future potential for
implementing environmental auditing with the
existing planning structure. It includes procedures
for developing auditing and the monitoring of its
effects. The paper concludes with a discussion of
what changes must be made and questions
answered before environmental auditing can be
comprehensively adopted into the tourism
planning.
125. Staiff, Russell, and Robyn Bushell. 2004.
Tourism and protected areas: Benefits beyond
boundaries. Annals of Tourism Research 31,
3: 723-26.
This paper reports on the proceedings of the
5th World Parks Congress, which focused on
critical issues facing protected areas such as
biodiversity, conservation, and the role and
responsibilities of indigenous people, nomadic, and
mobile communities with respect to the
conservation of landscapes. The authors describe
how tourism was a topic threaded throughout many
of the conference workshops. It includes a brief
overview of the issues discussed and of the
recommendations presented, emphasizing the
important role of tourism in supporting
conservation and management efforts.
126. The Ecotourism Society. A collection of
ecotourism guidelines. North Bennington,
VT: The Ecotourism Society.
This volume compiles papers and fact sheets
that outline general guidelines and ethics in relation
to environmental and cultural travelers, tour
operators and businesses, wildlife viewing,
ecotourist activities and specific ecotourist sites. It
lists codes of ethics for tourists and wildlife
watchers and includes information on various
ecotourism principles and operations and provides
case studies of guidelines promoted by expeditions
in Antarctica and codes of conduct for tour
operators in Gwaii Haanas, South Moresby
National Park.
127. The Ecotourism Society. The ecotourism
society fact sheet collection. North
Bennington, VT: The Ecotourism Society.
111
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
This collection addresses a number of general
and specific questions concerning ecotourism
travel and research. It includes a fact sheet on the
importance on ecotourism in the global market, a
profile of the general ecotourist, advice on how to
choose an ecotour operator and green hotel,
information on marine ecotourism, and an
inventory on university based education and
training program in ecotourism in the United
States.
128. Wallace, George N., and A. Russell. 2004.
Eco-cultural tourism as a means for the
sustainable development of culturally
marginal and environmentally sensitive
regions. Tourist Studies 4, 3: 235-54.
This paper describes a study of eco-cultural
endeavors in three communities in Europe. The
author examines how people experience cultural
and natural aspects of the landscape via sustainable
tourist activity.
129. Weaver, David. 1999. Magnitude of
ecotourism in Costa Rica and Kenya. Annals
of Tourism Research 26, 4: 792-816.
This paper investigates ecotourism activity
and patterns in Costa Rica and Kenya with regard
to ecotourism profile, magnitude, spatial patterns,
and impacts. The author frames the concept of
ecotourism by providing a general discussion of
definitional issues and a critique of ecotourism
within a broader context of tourism. It uses a set of
relevant criteria to measure the degree of intensity,
sustainability, and scale of ecotourism activities in
the two study areas and assesses the ability of this
method to be applied in alternative settings. The
author cautions a need to distinguish ecotourism as
its own tourism product and to pursue ecotourism
activities in a sustainable manner.
130. Weaver, David B., ed. 2001. The
encyclopedia of ecotourism. Wallingford,
UK: CAB International.
This text presents an informative and
encompassing overview of the ecotourism industry.
The editor organizes this volume into eight
sections, beginning with a basic understanding of
ecotourism and its principles leading into a series
112
of case studies about ecotourism by continent,
biome, venue, impacts, institutions, business, and
methodology.
131. Weaver, David B. 2005. Comprehensive and
minimalist dimensions of ecotourism. Annals
of Tourism Research 32, 2: 439-55.
This paper analyzes the dichotomy between
the varying dimensions of ecotourism to account
for differences in sustainability related outcomes.
The author discusses the manifestation of the
minimalist and the comprehensive dimensions of
ecotourism and provides a detailed differentiation
between the two.
The author describes the
minimalist model as emphasizing superficial
learning opportunities while promoting sitespecific sustainability outcomes. In contrast, the
author defines the comprehensive model as a more
holistic and global approach to attraction and a
better model to promote global sustainability.
132. Whelan, Tensie, ed. 1991. Nature tourism:
Managing for the environment. Washington,
D.C.: Island Press.
This edited book contains articles that provide
a clear and balanced overview of the problems and
solutions of nature tourism from a diverse array of
contributors including environmental economists,
conservationists, ecotourism operators, government
officials, a travel agent, and non-governmental
organizations. The editor separates the book into
two parts. The first of these parts examines the
relationship between ecotourism and sustainable
development and draws examples from case
studies in Kenya, Costa Rica, the Greater
Yellowstone, and ranches in the American West.
Part II analyzes guidelines for implementing,
managing, and planning ecotourism. It considers
methods for calculating net financial and social
benefits from ecotourism in comparison with other
land uses, explores different levels of local
participation and approaches, and discusses
marketing issues based on broader conservation
principles.
133. Wilkinson, Paul F. 1996. Graphical images
of the Commonwealth Caribbean: The tourist
area cycle of evolution. In Practicing
responsible tourism: International case
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
studies in tourism planning, policy and
development, L.C. Harrison and W.
Husbands, eds. Toronto, Canada: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
This chapter stresses the use of the life cycle
concept as a useful measure of the development of
tourist destinations. The author argues for the use
of more complex measurement tools to expand
applicability and utility of the tourism area cycle of
evolution from a descriptive to a more explanatory
tool. It examines three different models of the
cycle as well as the problems related with the
concept. The author draws upon data from six case
studies in the Commonwealth Caribbean to create
graphical images of the cycle, emphasizing their
value as powerful research and learning tools.
IV.
Author Index
Agrusa, Jerome F., 51
Anderson, Terry L., 31
Alexander, James, 31
Archibold, Guillermo, 39
Azkarate, Tomas, 52
Blackstock, Kirsfy, L., 53
Brandon, Katrina, 01, 02
Bauer, Thomas, 107
Bauman, H., 16
Besch, George, 22
Billeter, Paul A., 45
Boo, Elizabeth, 32
Brooks, Jeffrey J., 03
Buckley, Ralph, 04, 89, 101
Bushell, Robyn, 125
Burton, Fiona, 102
Buse, Susan, 109
Canova, Luca, 33
Carr, Anna, 112
Castilla, Juan, C., 11
Cater, Erlet, 103, 104
Cervantes-Borja, Jorge F., 34
Campbell, Lisa M., 72
Champ, Patricia, A., 03
Chiari, Aurelio, 39
Clifford, G., 54
Clough, E., 89
Colchester, Marcus, 73
Common, Mick, 05
Conlin, Michael V., 105
Crouch, Geoffrey, I., 55
D’Amore, Louis J., 106
Deng, Jinyang, 61, 107
DeVries, Gregory W, 35
Dougherty, D., 54
Dolnicar, Sara., 55, 56
Drew, Allan, P., 87
Driml, Sally, 05
Eagles, Paul F. J., 36, 108, 109
Ecotourism Society, The, 126, 127
Edgell, David L., 57
Edwards, Felicity, 06
Edwards, Jonathon, 07
Edwards-Jones, Gareth, 11
Enriquez, Jeremy, 43
Epler-Wood, Margaret, 08
Ericson, Jenny A., 74
Ernst, M., 54
Fraga, Julie, 75
113
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
Farrell, Bryan, H., 110
Farrell, Terry, A., 09
Fennell, David A., 58
Frauman, Eric, 08
Frazier, J., 76
Freemuth, John C., 10
Gelcich, Stefan, 11
German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation,
12
Getz, Donald, 27
Gillson, Lindsey, 40
Goodall, Brian, 124
Gough, Georgie, 39, 80
Green, Howard, 63
Guidry, Julie, 51
Hadwen, Wade L., 13
Hale-Gallardo, Jennifer, 77
Haley, A. J., 78
Hall, Colin Michael, 14, 59
Hamilton, Roger, 37, 90, 91
Harris, Rob, 60
Harrison, Lynn C., 111
Hawkins, Donald, E., 118
Hearne, Robert R., 79
Higham, James E. S., 112
Hill, Jennifer, 38, 80
Hill, Wendy, 13
Holder, Jean S., 113
Holm-Mueller, Karin, 92
Houseal, Brian, 39
Houston, Christopher, C., 41
Hovardas, Tasos, 81
Huang, Yi, 61
Hudson, Brian J., 15
Hughes, Michael, 114
Hunter, Colin, 53, 62, 63
Husbands, Winston, 111
Ingle, C.M., 16
International Fund for Animal Welfare and Tethys
Research Institute, 17
Island Resources Foundation, 18
Jamal, Tazim, 115
Johnston, Margaret, E., 14
Jones, Samantha, 82
Kachi, Nanao, 109
Kaiser, Michel, J., 11
Kalamandeen, Michelle, 40
Karwacki, Judy, 122
Khan, Maryam M., 19
King, Brian, 107
Kontogeorgopoulos, Nick, 116
114
Kumble, Peter A., 20, 41
Lake Superior Binational Program, 50
LaRose, Jean, 83
Lasimbang, Jannie, 84
Lee, David N. B., 42
Leiper, Neil, 60
Leisch, Friedrich, 56
Leung, Y. F., 16
Lew, Alan, A., 59, 117
Lindberg, Kreg, 43, 118
Li, Jian, 61
Li, Wenjun, 21
Long, Patrick, 55
Lowman, Gwen, 104
MacFarland, Craig, 39
Malloy, David, C., 58
Manning, T., 54
Margoluis, Richard, 02
Marion, Jeffrey, L., 09, 24
Mason, Peter, 119
Mayer, Christopher C., 44
McLaren, Deborah, 120
Mihalic, Tanja, 64
Milbrath, Lester, 22
Miller, G., 65, 78
Moore, Susan A., 23, 66
Morrison-Saunders, Angus, 114
Mount Royal College, 67
Nepal, Sanjay K., 121
Nilsen, Per, 109
O'Connell, Isobel, 85
Olive, Nathaniel, D., 24
Oostdam, Ben L., 45
Opdam, Paul, 49
Orams, Mark B., 1996
Padmanaba, Michael, 86
Pickering, Catherine, M., 13
Pierce, Susan, N., 96
Pigram, John, J., 70
Place, Susan E., 47
Poirazidis, Kostas, 81
Polley, Amanda, 23
Porter-Bolland, Luciana, 87
Rainieri, Frank, 68
Rapomne, Anita, 88
Richerzhagen, Carmen, 92
Runyan, Dean, 110
Russell, A., 128
Saleh, Farouk, 122
Sanchez, Magadalena, M., 34
Santos, C. Alejandro, 79
P.A. Kumble: Journal of Landscape Studies 4 (2011), 81 – 115
Schroer, Craig, 123
Scott, Alister, 53
Shafer, Craig L., 48
Simpson, Charles R., 88
Sirakaya, Ercan, 25, 26
Slinger, Vanessa, 93
Snaith, T., 78
Snepenger, David, J., 42
Stabler, Michael J., 124
Staiff, Russell, 125
Stein, Taylor, V., 77
Steinberg, Michael K., 94
Termorshuizen, Jolande W., 49
Thomlinson, Eugene, 27
Thompson, W., 95
Todd, Susan, E., 69
Toepper, Lorin, 08
Norman, William, C., 08
Uysal, Muzaffer, 26
Van der Brink, Adri, 49
Vergara-Tenorio, Carmen, 87
Vincent, V., 95
Wahab, Salah, 70
Walker, Scott L., 28, 29
Wallace, George, N., 44, 96, 128
Warnick, Rodney B., 97
Weaver, David B., 98, 129, 130
Wheeller, Brian A., 71
Whelan, Tensie, 132
Wilkinson, Paul, F. 133
Twinning-Ward, L., 65
Wall, George, 30
Williams, Peter, W., 69
Woodland, Wendy, 38, 80
World Tourism Organization, 99
Xue, Qifu, 21
Ziffer, Karen A., 100
Zhang, Qian, 21
Zhong, Yongde, 61
115