Thomas Aquinas
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Thomas Aquinas ............................................................................................................................................................1
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.....................................................................................................................1
Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................................1
Epistemology ........................................................................................................................................................1
Theology ...............................................................................................................................................................2
Revelation .............................................................................................................................................................2
Preserving nature within grace ..............................................................................................................................3
Creation.................................................................................................................................................................3
Nature of God .......................................................................................................................................................4
Nature of the Trinity .............................................................................................................................................6
Prima causa – first cause ..........................................................................................................................................6
Nature of Jesus Christ ...............................................................................................................................................6
Goal of human life ....................................................................................................................................................7
Notes .........................................................................................................................................................................8
References ........................................................................................................................................................... 11
Attribution ........................................................................................................................................................... 12
Introduction
Thomas Aquinas, OP (/əˈkwaɪnəs/; 1225 – 7 March 1274), also Thomas of Aquin or Aquino,
was an Italian[3][4] Dominican friar and Catholic priest and an immensely
influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also
known as the "Doctor Angelicus" and "Doctor Communis".[5] "Aquinas" is from the county
of Aquino, an area where his family held land until 1137. He was born in Roccasecca, Italy.
Epistemology 1
Thomas believed "that for the knowledge of any truth whatsoever man needs divine help, that the
intellect may be moved by God to its act."[74] However, he believed that human beings have the
natural capacity to know many things without special divine revelation, even though such
revelation occurs from time to time, "especially in regard to such (truths) as pertain to
faith."[75] But this is the light that is given to man by God according to man's nature: "Now every
1
Wikipedia: The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge and is also referred to as
"theory of knowledge". Put concisely, it is the study of knowledge and justified belief.
1
form bestowed on created things by God has power for a determined act[uality], which it can
bring about in proportion to its own proper endowment; and beyond which it is powerless, except
by a superadded form, as water can only heat when heated by the fire. And thus the human
understanding has a form, viz. intelligible light, which of itself is sufficient for knowing certain
intelligible things, viz. those we can come to know through the senses."[75]
Theology
Thomas viewed theology, or the sacred doctrine, as a science,[53] the raw material data of which
consists of written scripture and the tradition of the Catholic Church. These sources of data were
produced by the self-revelation of God to individuals and groups of people throughout history.
Faith and reason, while distinct but related, are the two primary tools for processing the data of
theology. Thomas believed both were necessary — or, rather, that the confluence of both was
necessary — for one to obtain true knowledge of God. Thomas blended Greek philosophy and
Christian doctrine by suggesting that rational thinking and the study of nature, like revelation,
were valid ways to understand truths pertaining to God. According to Thomas, God reveals
himself through nature, so to study nature is to study God. The ultimate goals of theology, in
Thomas's mind, are to use reason to grasp the truth about God and to experience salvation
through that truth.
Revelation
Thomas believed that truth is known through reason (natural revelation) and faith (supernatural
revelation). Supernatural revelation has its origin in the inspiration of the Holy Spirit and is
made available through the teaching of the prophets, summed up in Holy Scripture, and
transmitted by the Magisterium, the sum of which is called "Tradition".Natural revelation is the
truth available to all people through their human nature and powers of reason. For example, he
felt this applied to rational ways to know the existence of God.
Though one may deduce the existence of God and his Attributes (Unity, Truth, Goodness,
Power, Knowledge) through reason, certain specifics may be known only through the special
revelation of God in Jesus Christ. The major theological components of Christianity, such as
the Trinity and the Incarnation, are revealed in the teachings of the Church and
the Scriptures and may not otherwise be deduced.[100]
2
Preserving nature within grace
Revealed knowledge does not negate the truth and the completeness of human science as human,
it further establishes them. First, it grants that the same things can be treated from two different
perspectives without one canceling the other; thus there can be two sciences of God. Second, it
provides the basis for the two sciences: one functions through the power of the light of natural
reason, the other through the light of divine revelation. Moreover, they can, at least to some
extent, keep out of each other's way because they differ "according to genus". Sacred doctrine is
a fundamentally different kind of thing from theology, which is part of philosophy (ST I. 1.1 ad
2). Faith and reason complement rather than contradict each other, each giving different views of
the same truth.
Creation
As a Catholic Thomas believed that God is the "maker of heaven and earth, of all that is visible
and invisible." Like Aristotle, Thomas posited that life could form from non-living material or
plant life, a theory of ongoing abiogenesis known as spontaneous generation:
Since the generation of one thing is the corruption of another, it was not incompatible with the
first formation of things, that from the corruption of the less perfect the more perfect should be
generated. Hence animals generated from the corruption of inanimate things, or of plants, may
have been generated then.[101]
Additionally Thomas considered Empedocles's theory that various mutated species emerged at
the dawn of Creation. Thomas reasoned that these species were generated through mutations in
animal sperm, and argued that they were not unintended by nature; rather, such species were
simply not intended for perpetual existence. That discussion is found in his commentary
on Aristotle's Physics:
The same thing is true of those substances Empedocles said were produced at the beginning of
the world, such as the ‘ox-progeny’, i.e., half ox and half man. For if such things were not able to
arrive at some end and final state of nature so that they would be preserved in existence, this was
not because nature did not intend this [a final state], but because they were not capable of being
preserved. For they were not generated according to nature, but by the corruption of some natural
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principle, as it now also happens that some monstrous offspring are generated because of the
corruption of seed.[102]
Nature of God
Thomas believed that the existence of God is self-evident in itself, but not to us. "Therefore I say
that this proposition, "God exists", of itself is self-evident, for the predicate is the same as the
subject.... Now because we do not know the essence of God, the proposition is not self-evident to
us; but needs to be demonstrated by things that are more known to us, though less known in their
nature — namely, by effects."[108]
Thomas believed that the existence of God can be demonstrated. Briefly in the Summa
theologiae and more extensively in the Summa contra Gentiles, he considered in great detail five
arguments for the existence of God, widely known as the quinque viae (Five Ways).
For detailed analysis of the five proofs, see Existence of God
For the original text of the five proofs, see quinque viae
1. Motion: Some things undoubtedly move, though cannot cause their own motion. Since,
as Thomas believed, there can be no infinite chain of causes of motion, there must be
a First Mover not moved by anything else, and this is what everyone understands by
God.
2. Causation: As in the case of motion, nothing can cause itself, and an infinite chain of
causation is impossible, so there must be a First Cause, called God.
3. Existence of necessary and the unnecessary: Our experience includes things certainly
existing but apparently unnecessary. Not everything can be unnecessary, for then once
there was nothing and there would still be nothing. Therefore, we are compelled to
suppose something that exists necessarily, having this necessity only from itself; in fact
itself the cause for other things to exist.
4. Gradation: If we can notice a gradation in things in the sense that some things are more
hot, good, etc., there must be a superlative that is the truest and noblest thing, and so
most fully existing. This then, we call God -->note Thomas does not ascribe actual
qualities to God Himself.
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5. Ordered tendencies of nature: A direction of actions to an end is noticed in all bodies
following natural laws. Anything without awareness tends to a goal under the guidance
of one who is aware. This we call God --> Note that even when we guide objects, in
Thomas's view the source of all our knowledge comes from God as well.[109]
Concerning the nature of God, Thomas felt the best approach, commonly called the via negativa,
is to consider what God is not. This led him to propose five statements about the divine qualities:
1. God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul, or matter and
form.[110]
2. God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is distinguished from other beings on
account of God's complete actuality.[111] Thomas defined God as the ‘Ipse Actus
Essendi subsistens,’ subsisting act of being.[112]
3. God is infinite. That is, God is not finite in the ways that created beings are physically,
intellectually, and emotionally limited. This infinity is to be distinguished from infinity
of size and infinity of number.[113]
4. God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels of God's essence and character.[114]
5. God is one, without diversification within God's self. The unity of God is such that God's
essence is the same as God's existence. In Thomas's words, "in itself the proposition 'God
exists' is necessarily true, for in it subject and predicate are the same."[115]
Following St. Augustine of Hippo, Thomas defines sin as "a word, deed, or desire, contrary to
the eternal law."[116] It is important to note the analogous nature of law in Thomas's legal
philosophy. Natural law is an instance or instantiation of eternal law. Because natural law is what
human beings determine according to their own nature (as rational beings), disobeying reason is
disobeying natural law and eternal law. Thus eternal law is logically prior to reception of either
"natural law" (that determined by reason) or "divine law" (that found in the Old and New
Testaments). In other words, God's will extends to both reason and revelation. Sin is abrogating
either one's own reason, on the one hand, or revelation on the other, and is synonymous with
"evil" (privation of good, or privatio boni[117]). Thomas, like all Scholastics, generally argued
that the findings of reason and data of revelation cannot conflict, so both are a guide to God's
will for human beings.
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Nature of the Trinity
Thomas argued that God, while perfectly united, also is perfectly described by Three Interrelated
Persons. These three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) are constituted by their relations
within the essence of God. Thomas wrote that the term "Trinity" "does not mean the relations
themselves of the Persons, but rather the number of persons related to each other; and hence it is
that the word in itself does not express regard to another."[118] The Father generates the Son (or
the Word) by the relation of self-awareness. This eternal generation then produces an eternal
Spirit "who enjoys the divine nature as the Love of God, the Love of the Father for the Word."
This Trinity exists independently from the world. It transcends the created world, but the Trinity
also decided to give grace to human beings. This takes place through the Incarnation of the Word
in the person of Jesus Christ and through the indwelling of the Holy Spirit within those who have
experienced salvation by God; according to Aidan Nichols.[119]
Prima causa – first cause
Thomas's five proofs for the existence of God take some of Aristotle's assertions concerning
principles of being. For God as prima causa ("first cause") comes from Aristotle's concept of
the unmoved mover and asserts that God is the ultimate cause of all things.[120]
Nature of Jesus Christ
In the Summa Theologica Thomas begins his discussion of Jesus Christ by recounting the
biblical story of Adam and Eve and by describing the negative effects of original sin. The
purpose of Christ's Incarnation was to restore human nature by removing the contamination of
sin, which humans cannot do by themselves. "Divine Wisdom judged it fitting that God should
become man, so that thus one and the same person would be able both to restore man and to offer
satisfaction."[121] Thomas argued in favor of the satisfaction view of atonement; that is, that Jesus
Christ died "to satisfy for the whole human race, which was sentenced to die on account of
sin."[122]
Thomas argued against several specific contemporary and historical theologians who held
differing views about Christ. In response to Photinus, Thomas stated that Jesus was truly divine
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and not simply a human being. Against Nestorius, who suggested that Son of God was merely
conjoined to the man Christ, Thomas argued that the fullness of God was an integral part of
Christ's existence. However, countering Apollinaris' views, Thomas held that Christ had a truly
human (rational) soul, as well. This produced a duality of natures in Christ. Thomas argued
against Eutyches that this duality persisted after the Incarnation. Thomas stated that these two
natures existed simultaneously yet distinguishably in one real human body, unlike the teachings
of Manichaeus and Valentinus.[123]
In short "Christ had a real body of the same nature of ours, a true rational soul, and, together
with these, perfect Deity." Thus, there is both unity (in his one hypostasis) and composition (in
his two natures, human and Divine) in Christ.[124]
I answer that, The Person or hypostasis of Christ may be viewed in two ways. First as it is in
itself, and thus it is altogether simple, even as the Nature of the Word. Secondly, in the aspect of
person or hypostasis to which it belongs to subsist in a nature; and thus the Person of Christ
subsists in two natures. Hence though there is one subsisting being in Him, yet there are different
aspects of subsistence, and hence He is said to be a composite person, insomuch as one being
subsists in two.[125]
Echoing Athanasius of Alexandria, he said that "The only begotten Son of God...assumed our
nature, so that he, made man, might make men gods."[126]
Goal of human life
Thomas identified the goal of human existence as union and eternal fellowship with God. This
goal is achieved through the beatific vision, in which a person experiences perfect, unending
happiness by seeing the essence of God. The vision occurs after death as a gift from God to those
who in life experienced salvation and redemption through Christ.
The goal of union with God has implications for the individual's life on earth. Thomas stated that
an individual's will must be ordered toward right things, such as charity, peace, and holiness. He
saw this orientation as also the way to happiness. Indeed, Thomas ordered his treatment of the
moral life around the idea of happiness. The relationship between will and goal is antecedent in
nature "because rectitude of the will consists in being duly ordered to the last end [that is, the
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beatific vision]." Those who truly seek to understand and see God will necessarily love what
God loves. Such love requires morality and bears fruit in everyday human choices.[127]
Notes
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ab
Gilby, Thomas (1951). St. Thomas Aquinas Philosophical Texts. Oxford Univ. Press.
http://saints.sqpn.com/saint-thomas-aquinas/
Conway, John Placid, O.P., Father (1911). Saint Thomas Aquinas. London.
Rev. Vaughan, Roger Bede (1871). The Life and Labours of St. Thomas of Aquin: Vol.I. London.
See Pius XI, Studiorum Ducem 11 (29 June 1923), AAS, XV ("non modo Angelicum, sed etiam Communem seu
Universalem Ecclesiae Doctorem"). The title Doctor Communis dates to the fourteenth century; the title Doctor
Angelicus dates to the fifteenth century, see Walz, Xenia Thomistica, III, p. 164 n. 4. Tolomeo da Lucca writes
inHistoria Ecclesiastica (1317): "This man is supreme among modern teachers of philosophy and theology, and indeed
in every subject. And such is the common view and opinion, so that nowadays in the University of Paris they call him
the Doctor Communis because of the outstanding clarity of his teaching." Historia Eccles. xxiii, c. 9.
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aquinas/
http://www.dartmouthapologia.org/articles/show/125
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31211/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas
Code of Canon Law, Can. 252, §3 [1]
Benedict XV Encyclical Fausto appetente die 29 June 1921, AAS 13 (1921), 332; Pius XI Encyclical Studiorum
Ducem §11, 29 June 1923, AAS 15 (1923), cf. AAS 17 (1925) 574; Paul VI, 7 March 1964 AAS 56 (1964), 302
(Bouscaren, vol. VI, pp. 786–88).
Jean-Pierre Torrell, Saint Thomas Aquinas: The Person And His Work, CUA press, 2005, p. 3. Google Book
Hampden, The Life, p. 14.
a b c d Stump, Aquinas, p. 3.
a b Schaff, Philip (1953). Thomas Aquinas, pp. 422–423.
Davies, Aquinas: An Introduction, pp. 1–2
a b c Davies, Aquinas: An Introduction, p. 2
Hampden, The Life, pp. 21–22.
Grabmann, Martin. Virgil Michel, trans. Thomas Aquinas: His Personality and Thought. (Kessinger Publishing,
2006), pp. 2.
Collison, Diane, and Kathryn Plant. Fifty Major Philosophers. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2006.
a b Hampden, The Life, p. 23.
Hampden, The Life, p. 24.
Hampden, The Life, p. 25.
Hampden, The Life, pp. 27–28.
a b Healy, Theologian, p. 2.
Hampden, The Life, p. 33.
Stump, Aquinas, p. xvi.
Davies, The Thought, p. 5.
Aquinas, Thomas; Richard J. Regan; Brian Davies (2003). On Evil. Oxford University Press US. p. 5. ISBN 0-19509183-3.
a b Stump, Aquinas, p. 4.
Davies, Aquinas: An Introduction, pp. 3–4.
a b Stump, Aquinas, p. xvii.
a b Davies, Aquinas: An Introduction, p. 4.
a b Healy, Theologian, p. 4.
Fr. Thome de Aquino iniungimus in remissionem peccatorum quod teneat studium Rome, et volumus quod fratribus
qui stant secum ad studendum provideatur in necessariis vestimentis a conventibus de quorum predicatione traxerunt
originem. Si autem illi studentes inventi fuerint negligentes in studio, damus potestatem fr. Thome quod ad conventus
suos possit eos remittere (Acta Capitulorum Provincialium, Provinciae Romanae Ordinis Praedicatorum, 1265, n.
12)http://www.corpusthomisticum.org/a65.html
Compendium Historiae Ordinis Praedicatorum, A.M. Walz, Herder 1930, 214: "Conventus S. Sabinae de Urbe prae
ceteris gloriam singularem ex praesentia fundatoris ordinis et primitivorum fratrum necnon ex residentia Romana
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magistrorum generalium, si de ea sermo esse potest, habet. In documentis quidem eius nonnisi anno 1222 nomen fit,
ait certe iam antea nostris concreditus est. Florebant ibi etiam studia
sacra."http://www.archive.org/stream/MN5081ucmf_3/MN5081ucmf_3_djvu.txtAccessed 4-9-2011.
Marian Michèle Mulchahey, "First the bow is bent in study": Dominican education before 1350, 1998, p. 278279.http://books.google.com/books?id=bK9axCYcbFIC&pg=PA279#v=onepage&q&f=false Accessed 6-30-2011
"Tenuit studium Rome, quasi totam Philosophiam, sive Moralem, sive Naturalem exposuit." Ptolomaei Lucensis
historia ecclesiastica nova, xxii, c. 24, in In Gregorovius's History of the City of Rome In the Middle Ages, Vol V, part
II, 617, note 2. http://www.third-millennium-library.com/PDF/Authors/Gregorovius/history-of-romecity_5_2.pdfAccessed 6-5-2011.
Summa theologiae, I, 1, prooemium:"Quia Catholicae veritatis doctor non solum provectos debet instruere, sed ad eum
pertinet etiam incipientes erudire, secundum illud apostoli I ad Corinth. III, tanquam parvulis in Christo, lac vobis
potum dedi, non escam; propositum nostrae intentionis in hoc opere est, ea quae ad Christianam religionem pertinent,
eo modo tradere, secundum quod congruit ad eruditionem incipientium."
a b c d Davies, Aquinas: An Introduction, p. 5.
http://aquinatis.blogspot.com/2008/05/vida-de-santo-toms-de-aquino.html Accessed June 2011: "A mediados de
noviembre abandonó Santo Tomás la ciudad de Viterbo en compañía de fray Reginaldo de Piperno y su discípulo fray
Nicolás Brunacci."http://www.brunacci.it/s--tommaso.html Accessed 22 June 2011.http://www.brunacci.it/s-tommaso.html Accessed 22 June 2011: "Per l'acutezza del suo ingegno, dopo aver studiato nella sua provincia, ebbe
l'alto onore di accompagnare S. Tommaso a Parigi nel novembre del 1268. Rimase in quello studio fino al 1272 e di là
passò a Colonia sotto la disciplina di Alberto Magno."
http://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/92060 Accessed 29 June 2011
Compendium Historiae Ordinis Praedicatorum, A.M. Walz, Herder 1930, 214: Romanus conventus S. Mariae supra
Minervam anno 1255 ex conditionibus parvis crevit. Tunc enim paenitentibus feminis in communi regulariter ibi
1252/53 viventibus ad S. Pancratium migratis fratres Praedicatores domum illam relictam a Summo Pontifice
habendam petierunt et impetranint. Qua demum feliciter obtenda capellam hospitio circa annum 1255 adiecerunt. Huc
evangelizandi causa fratres e conventu S. Sabinae
descendebant.http://www.archive.org/stream/MN5081ucmf_3/MN5081ucmf_3_djvu.txtAccessed 5-17-2011
Marian Michèle Mulchahey, "First the bow is bent in study": Dominican education before 1350, 1998, p.
323.http://books.google.com/books?id=bK9axCYcbFIC&pg=PA323Accessed 5-26-2011
Stump, Aquinas, pp. 10–11.
a b Stump, Aquinas, p. 11.
Aquinas, Reader, pp. 9–11.
McInerney, Against the Averroists, p. 10.
Aquinas, Reader, p. 11.
Guilelmus de Tocco, Ystoria sancti Thome de Aquino de Guillaume de Tocco (1323), Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval
Studies, 1996, p. 162.
Catholic Encyclopedia
Davies, The Thought, p. 9.
McBride, William Leon (1997). The Development and Meaning of Twentieth-century Existentialism. Taylor and
Francis. p. 131. ISBN 0-8153-2491-X.
a b McInerny, Ralph and John O'Callaghan, "Saint Thomas Aquinas", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall
2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
ab
Healy, Theologian, p. 7.
a b Nichols, Discovering Aquinas, p. 18.
Hampden, The Life, p. 46.
a b Healy, Theologian, p. 8.
Aquinas, Reader, p. 12.
Hampden, The Life, p. 47.
G. K. Chesterton wrote an Essay on St. Thomas Aquinas, which appeared in The Spectator 27 Feb. 1932.
Grant, Edward (1996). The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and
Intellectual Contexts. Cambridge University Press. pp. 81–82. ISBN 0-521-56762-9.
a b Kung, Christian Thinkers [2], pp. 112–114.
"Parad. x. 99". Divinecomedy.org. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
"Purg. xx. 69". Divinecomedy.org. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
"Aquinas, Thomas", Encyclopædia Britannica (1911), pg. 250.
a b Brian Mullady, O.P. (2006). "The Angelic Doctor – Thomas Aquinas". Retrieved 2011-06-11.
Hampden, The Life, p. 54.
Calendarium Romanum Libreria Editrice Vaticana 1969, p. 86
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69. Liturgy of the Hours Volume III, Proper of Saints, 28 January.
70. Some would not describe Thomas as a philosopher. See, e.g., Mark D. Jordan, "Philosophy in a Summa of Theology",
in Rewritten Theology: Aquinas after his Readers (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006) pp. 154–170. [3]
71. Davies, Brian (2004). Aquinas. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 14.
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73. The Catholic source that shows Thomas' having been influenced by this concoction more than any other source is
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105. Reichberg, Gregory (June 2010). "Thomas Aquinas between Just War and Pacificism". Journal of Religious Ethics,
38(2), 219-241. 23 38(38): 219–241. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9795.2010.00427.x.
106. The Just War
107. Justo L. Gonzalez (1984). The Story of Christianity. HarperSanFrancisco.
108. http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1002.htm#article1
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Summa of Theology I, q.2, The Five Ways Philosophers Have Proven God's Existence
Kreeft, pp. 74–77.
Kreeft, pp. 86–87.
See Actus Essendi. See also Online Resources: Actus Essendi Electronic Journal.
Kreeft, pp. 97–99.
Kreeft, p. 105.
Kreeft, pp. 111–112.
"Summa, II–I, Q.71, art.6". Newadvent.org. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
Summa, II–I, Q.75, art.1. "For evil is the absence of the good, which is natural and due to a thing."
http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1031.htm#article3
Nichols, Aidan (2002). Discovering Aquinas. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 173–174.
Nichols, Aidan (2002). Discovering Aquinas. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 80–82.
Aquinas, pp. 228–229.
"Summa, III, Q.50, art.1". Newadvent.org. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
Aquinas, pp. 231–239.
Aquinas, pp. 241, 245–249. Emphasis is the author's.
http://www.newadvent.org/summa/4002.htm#article4
Weigel, George (2001). The Truth of Catholicism. New York City:Harper Collins. p. 9. ISBN 0-06-621330-4.
Kreeft, p. 383.
"Romans 6:23, ASV". Biblegateway.com. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
http://www.firstthings.com/article/1995/12/003-aquinas-and-the-heretics
Stump, Eleanore (2003). Aquinas, (in the series The Arguments of the Philosophers). London and New York:
Routledge. p. 194.
131. Stump, Eleanore (2003). Aquinas, (in the series The Arguments of the Philosophers). London and New York:
Routledge. p. 200.
132. Stump, Eleanore (2003). Aquinas, (in the series The Arguments of the Philosophers). London and New York:
Routledge. p. 192.
133. Stump, Eleanore (2003). Aquinas, (in the series The Arguments of the Philosophers). London and New York:
Routledge. pp. 461, 473.
134. The Irish Ecclesiastical Record, Vol V, Year 32, No. 378, June, 1899, p.
570, http://books.google.com/books?id=fpYvAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA570#v=onepage&q&f=false Accessed 3-7-2013
135. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, James Joyce, Wordsworth 1992 edition, Introduction and Notes by
Jacqueline Belanger, 2001, p. 136, note 309: "Synopsis Philosophiae ad mentem D. Thomae This appears to be a
reference to Elementa Philosophiae ad mentem D. Thomae Aquinatis, a selection of Thomas Aquinas's writings edited
and published by G. M. Mancini in 1898.
(G)"http://books.google.com/books?id=C_rPXanc_HAC&pg=PA221#v=onepage&q&f=false Accessed 3-6-2013
136. (Russell 1967, p. 463) A History of Western Philosophy, Ch. 34, "St. Thomas Aquinas", Allen & Unwin, London;
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137. a b c d (Russell 1967, p. 462)
138. http://www.newadvent.org/summa/5.htm
139. Thomas Aquinas#Condemnation of 1277
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Attribution
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Seeburg, Reinhold (1914). "Thomas Aquinas". In
Jackson, Samuel Macauley. New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge XI (third ed.). London and New York:
Funk and Wagnalls. pp. 422–27.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Thomas
Aquinas". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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