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To what extent did differences in social values between the North and South
affect the development of the civil rights movement in 1963 and 1964?
Name
Candidate Number:
IB 20th Century World History HL
Ms. Makarczuk
Total Word Count: 1998
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
2
A: Plan of Investigation
3
B: Summary of Evidence
4
C: Evaluation of Sources
8
D: Analysis
10
E: Conclusion
13
F: Bibliography
14
Appendix A
17
Appendix B
18
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Section A: Plan of Investigation
In this investigation, American regional differences will be examined with relation to the
civil rights movement of the 1960s. Specifically, events of Birmingham, Alabama in 1963, the
Children’s Crusade and 16th Street Baptist Church Bombing, will be discuss in order to highlight
the differences between Northern perspectives and Southern perspectives. These perspectives
will be found in New York Times articles as well as speeches and statements given by President
John F. Kennedy and Southern leaders such as Alabama Governor George Wallace.
Photographs that appeared in the New York Times, which were used by Northerners to justify
their support for the Civil Rights Act, will be presented as evidence of the violence and brutality
in Birmingham. Through the examination of Northern responses to the Children’s Crusade and
the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing, the extent to which differences in social values
between the North and South affected the development of the civil rights movement in 1963
and 1964, will be understood.
Word Count: 160
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Section B: Summary of Evidence
In the 1960s, Birmingham, Alabama was the center of civil rights activism. Political
leaders such as Eugene “Bull” Connor and Governor George Wallace held racist, white
supremacist ideals at the top of their campaigns. Bull Connor, a member of the Ku Klux Klan
(KKK), was the Commissioner of Public Safety for Birmingham who led the police force in
responding to African American civil rights demonstrations.1 The Governor of Alabama, George
Wallace, was a segregationist who opposed desegregation of schools and federal intervention in
public education.2 Contemporaneously, Martin Luther King Jr. was leading the Birmingham
Campaign to integrate stores in Birmingham.
The Attack on the Children’s Crusade
On May 2 - 3, 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. encouraged more than 900 Birmingham
students to march in protest against educational and commercial segregation.3 The Birmingham
police force, under the direction of Bull Connor, responded to these demonstrators with hoses
and police dogs.4 Many students were arrested and jailed. These attacks were captured in
pictures to which Northerners responded in articles of the New York Times (NY Times). These
1
Dictionary of American Biography (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1994), s.v. "Theophilus Eugene Connor,"
Gale U.S. History in Context, accessed April 25, 2012,
http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/uhic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?query=&prodId=UHIC&displayGr
oupName=Reference&limiter=&source=&disableHighlighting=false&displayGroups=&sortBy=&search_within_re
sults=&action=2&catId=&activityType=&documentId=GALE%7CBT2310015679&userGroupName=nysl_me_hhs
&jsid=4562c0d98f7a8bcfa86620045763ab1a
2
Encyclopedia of World Biography (Detroit: Gale, 1998), s.v. "Wallace, George Corley (1919-1998)," Gale U.S.
History in Context, accessed May 23, 2012,
http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/uhic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?query=&prodId=UHIC&displayGr
oupName=Reference&limiter=&source=&disableHighlighting=false&displayGroups=&sortBy=&search_within_re
sults=&action=2&catId=&activityType=&documentId=GALE%7CK1631006808&userGroupName=nysl_me_hhs
&jsid=719f3a4d0f2f10670868e71483853458
3
Foster Hailey, "Dogs and Hoses Repulse Negros at Birmingham," New York Times, May 4, 1965, accessed May
17, 2012, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F30614F63D55127B93C6A9178ED85F478685F9.
4
IBID
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articles and pictures exposed Bull Connor’s unorthodox techniques of using brute force against
demonstrators.5
16th Street Baptist Church
On September 15, 1963, four young African American girls were killed when members
of the KKK bombed the 16th Street Baptist Church.6 A week prior to the bombing, Governor
Wallace had stated that America needed a “few first-class funerals.”7 In the hours following the
bombing, two more African American teens were shot to death due to the violence that broke
out.8
The New York Times
These events were reported in Northern newspapers, namely, the New York Times.
These articles often displayed photographs of the violence of Birmingham (See appendix A).
The NY Times reported on the bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church. Two days later, the
NY Times reported on a New York City protest that had occurred in response to the Birmingham
bombing.9 These articles depicted the voices of the white Northern society who were appalled
by the violence and the lack of preventative action. For example, in letters to the editor
5
Chris Trueman, "Birmingham 1963," History Learning Site, Why was Birmingham So Important?, accessed May
20, 2012, http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/birmingham_1963.htm.
6
S. Willoughby Anderson, The Past on Trial: Birmingham, the Bombing and Restorative Justice, 2nd ed., vol. 96
(Califormia Law Review, Apr., 2008), 472, JSTOR, accessed May 4, 2012, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20439181
7
Dudley Randall, "About the 1963 Birmingham Bombing," Modern American Poetry, The 16th Street Baptist
Church Bombing, accessed May 25, 2012, http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/m_r/randall/birmingham.htm.
8
S. Willoughby Anderson, The Past on Trial: Birmingham, the Bombing and Restorative Justice, 2nd ed., vol. 96
(Califormia Law Review, Apr., 2008), 473, JSTOR, accessed May 4, 2012. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20439181
9
Fred Powledge, "ALABAMA BOMBING PROTESTED HERE; City Angered by 6 Deaths-- Demonstrations
Planned," New York Times, September 17, 1963,
http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F00D10F839581A7B93C5A81782D85F478685F9.
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following the church bombing, a New Yorker wrote, “We deplore the brutal affront to
constitutional guarantee in Birmingham”10 to display his stance in favor of a civil rights act.
Historians have viewed this backlash reaction as a predominant reason for the creation of
the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Michael J. Klarman was a proponent of the Backlash thesis,
arguing that, without the actions of the racist South and the radical reaction it induced in the
North, the Civil Rights Act would not have been ratified.11 This is further explained by Joseph E.
Luders who explains the backlash thesis as “. . . Ultimately compel[ling] a reluctant federal
government to take decisive action on behalf of African-American civil rights.”12 Accordingly,
even President John F. Kennedy agreed; he said, “The civil rights movement should thank God
for Bull Connor. He's helped it as much as Abraham Lincoln.”13 Specifically, President
Kennedy gave a speech in reaction to these events during which he spoke about the need for
government action in preventing racial inequality. He ended his speech by saying, “race has no
place in American life or law.”14 Wallace responded to this in a statement which said that the
police force should be condoned for their efforts to halt violence, and the black community
10
Barbara J. Hill, Charles Evers, and Paul H. Rutgers, "Letters to the Editor: Bombing in Birmingham," editorial,
New York Times, September 19, 1963, accessed May 18, 2012,
http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F50612F93F55127B93CBA81782D85F478685F9.
11
Michael Klarman, "How Brown Changed Race Relations: The Backlash Thesis," The Journal of American
History 81, no. 1 (June 1994): 101, accessed May 20, 2012, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080994.
12
Joseph E. Luders, "Civil Rights Success and the Politics of Racial Violence," Polity, Fashion for Democracy, 37,
no. 1 (January 2005): 109, accessed May 17, 2012, http://http://www.jstor.org/stable/3877064.
13
William A. Nunnelly, "Bull Connor," Law and Politics Book Review, January 1992, pp. 1-3, accessed March 15,
2013, http://www.bsos.umd.edu/gvpt/lpbr/subpages/reviews/nunnelle.htm.
14
John F. Kennedy, "President Kennedy Speaks about Desegregation" (speech, Thought Equity Motion Collections
[Film], 1963), Gale U.S. History in Context, accessed May 27, 2012,
http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/uhic/VideosDetailsPage/VideosDetailsWindow?total=1&query=BS President Kennedy
Speaks about Desegregation&prodId=UHIC&windowstate=normal&mode=view&limiter=AC
y&displayGroupName=Videos&currPage=1&source=&displayGroups=&action=e&catId=&view=docDisplay&doc
umentId=GALE%7CPC4295840061&userGroupName=nysl_me_hhs&jsid=4f8c0457473eb752c316f24dc9baf4ee
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should be condemned for their use of violent techniques against the police force and white public
(see appendix B).15
Word Count: 573
15
George C. Wallace, "Gov. Wallace's Statement," New York Times, May 9, 2963, accessed May 20, 2012,
http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F30911FA3B5D117B93CBA9178ED85F478685F9.
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Part C: Evaluation of Sources
Source 1:
The origin of this source is a statement given by Alabama Governor George Wallace as reported
by the New York Times on March 9, 1963. This statement was given in response to President
Kennedy’s reaction to the violence in Birmingham on May 2 - 3, 1963. Wallace was offended
by Kennedy’s accusation that members of the white community led the violence. The value of
this source is that it illustrates the perspective of the elected officials of the South and the
drastically different perspectives between the North and the South. This statement was
indicative of the white supremacist beliefs of many Southerners, which contrasted with the
disgust felt by many Northerners. This was published only six days after the protest, which is
very helpful in determining how immediate the reaction of the North and South were. This
immediate response showed that these responses were a “backlash” prompted by specific events
such as the Children’s Crusade. A limitation of this source is that it does not quote nor include
Kennedy’s speech, so it is unclear what Wallace is reacting to. This statement only reveals the
beliefs of Wallace, and his interpretation of Kennedy’s statements.
George C. Wallace, "Gov. Wallace's Statement," New York Times, May 9, 1963, accessed May 20, 2012,
http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F30911FA3B5D117B93CBA9178ED85F478685F9. (Appendix B)
Source 2:
This article, written by Joseph E. Luders, was published in the revisionist journal Polity in
January, 2005. The purpose of this article was the compare the various theories relating to the
civil rights movements, particularly the backlash thesis and the theory of business moderation. A
value of this source is that Luders combines and blends the two theories to develop his own
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reasons for the successes of the civil rights movement. His emphasis on the backlash thesis also
provides detailed and critical analysis of the civil rights movement and of Northern reactions to
Southern events. Furthermore, he specifically explores several geographic locations where
racism was most predominant through case studies. However, this also poses as a limitation
because there is no specific case study for Birmingham, Alabama. Because Lauder examines
issues of civil rights from local perspectives, an investigation from a federal or national
perspective may not yield the same results. Lauders examined the case studies from a regional
perspective, and thus, understanding of the national and overall affect of the backlash thesis is
limited.
Luders, Joseph E. "Civil Rights Success and the Politics of Racial Violence." Polity, Fashion for Democracy, 37, no.
1 (January 2005): 108-29. Accessed May 17, 2012. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3877064.
Word Count: 368
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Part D: Analysis
The regional differences between North and South, and the radical reactions by
Northerners toward the events in Birmingham, Alabama during the 1960s played a significant
role in the development of the Civil Rights Act. The New York Times (NY Times) was
instrumental in altering the perceptions and opinions of the North. The events in Birmingham
proved to the federal government how public opinion was strongly supportive of the civil rights
movement.
The Backlash Thesis theory was that the police brutality toward nonviolent protesters was
in fact a determining component of the development of the Civil Rights Act.16 Under this theory,
it was believed that the Southern racists unintentionally prompted national backlash against the
segregation occurring in the South. As reflected in the articles from the NY Times, reactions to
these events were immediate and radical. Americans who had never before felt involved in the
civil rights movement prior to these events became involved because beliefs of morality. The
NY Times photographs induced a sense of sympathy for the oppressed African American
population and disgust toward the brutal behaviors of the police force (Appendix A).
Particularly, the bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church had a significant impact on the
reactions of the Northerners who saw that the movement was not just fought by the extremists
and radicals, but by all African Americans in the South.17 The death of the four young girls, and
the police brutality toward the student protesters prompted Americans to react more personally
and radically through news articles and their own protests to encourage a civil rights legislation.
16
Joseph E. Luders, "Civil Rights Success and the Politics of Racial Violence," Polity, Fashion for Democracy, 37,
no. 1 (January 2005): 109, accessed May 17, 2012, http://http://www.jstor.org/stable/3877064.
17
Barbara J. Hill, Charles Evers, and Paul H. Rutgers, "Letters to the Editor: Bombing in Birmingham," editorial,
New York Times, September 19, 1963, accessed May 18, 2012,
http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F50612F93F55127B93CBA81782D85F478685F9.
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The Children’s Crusade on May 2, 1963 also proved to be an event which induced
backlash from the North and from the federal government. The government interpreted the
arrests of these children as evidence that “Alabama now rivals the racist police state of South
Africa.”18 This event brought the problems of Birmingham to the attention of both the North
population and the federal government. Furthermore, the distinct variance between Northern and
Southern opinions is evident in Governor Wallace’s reaction to President Kennedy after the
student protest. While Kennedy reprimanded the white population of Birmingham for promoting
racial hatred, Wallace argued that the African Americans should be reprimanded for acting
“lawlessly” and for injuring the police force. Wallace goes on to commend Connor for the way
he had “handle(d) the events”, which included using fire hoses and dogs against children. While
there is evidence of members of the police force getting injured, their injuries resulted from the
riots that broke out as a response to the peaceful parading led by the demonstrators. These
conflicting responses to one event emphasized the differences in opinions between the majority
of Northerners and Southerners in America. Wallace and Kennedy, as respected political leaders,
represented strikingly contrasting majority beliefs of the South and North, respectively. The
events in Birmingham altered Northern perception of Southern segregation and racism and acted
as catalysts for the development and passage of the Civil Rights Act.
As expressed in the words of President Kennedy: “the civil rights movement should
thank God for Bull Connor. He's helped it as much as Abraham Lincoln”, the backlash induced
by the events of Birmingham was fundamentally important in achieving civil rights.19 Bull
Connor unintentionally gave Americans a definitive reason to support the Civil Rights Act and to
18
Foster Hailey, "Dogs and Hoses Repulse Negros at Birmingham," New York Times, May 4, 1965, accessed May
17, 2012, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F30614F63D55127B93C6A9178ED85F478685F9.
19
Dictionary of American Biography (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1994), s.v. "Theophilus Eugene Connor,"
accessed April 25, 2012, Gale U.S. History in Context.
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fight for the end of violence in the South. Wallace’s racist beliefs surprised other Americans who
did not realize that elected officials were proponents of racism. Wallace’s accusation that Martin
Luther King Jr. led a group of “pro-communists” and his insistence that the demonstrators were
“lawless negro mobs” displayed his ignorance and racist ideals with which he ran the state of
Alabama. The publication of this speech in the NY Times exposed corrupt Southern political
beliefs to the Northern public.
Although the backlash thesis was not the solitary reason for the success of the civil rights
movement, Northern backlash did prompt federal action and instill a sense of urgency to the
situation. Civil rights also became a matter of national concern instead of a regional concern. It
became evident to the federal government that the issue of African American civil rights could
no longer be avoided. Kennedy was not alive to see the Civil Rights Act be ratified, but the
development of the legislation and the increased support for the act during his presidency
encouraged its passage.
Word Count: 728
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Section E: Conclusion
Governor Wallace and President Kennedy were elected officials whose own beliefs were
indicative of the beliefs of the majority that had elected them. Governor Wallace and Bull
Connor were extremes; they cannot be used to generalize all of Southern America. However,
their willingness to use force and violence and their racist mentalities displayed to the North that
civil rights for African Americans could not be ignored. The baseless aggression inherent in the
violence against children was captured in photographs; photographs that induced a desire for
change. In many instances, Northerners had been unaware of the extent of racism and brutality
in the south until these photographs appeared in the New York Times. The backlash thesis
explained how the federal government might have been most encouraged by these appalled and
disgusted reactions. The events in Birmingham, Alabama in 1963 and 1964, public responses
and the responses of Governor Wallace and President Kennedy epitomized the causes and effects
of the backlash thesis, specifically in the development of the Civil Rights Act.
Word Count: 169
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Section F: Bibliography
"Alabama University Professors' View of the Birmingham Bombing Trial." The Journal of
Blacks in Higher Education, 23rd ser. (Summer 2001): 110-14. Accessed May 1, 2012.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2678796.
Anderson, S. Willoughby. The Past on Trial: Birmingham, the Bombing and Restorative Justice.
2nd ed. Vol. 96. Califormia Law Review, Apr., 2008. 471-504, JSTOR, Accessed May 4,
2012. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20439181
Berliner, Yvonne, Alexis Mamaux, Mark D. Rogers, and David Smith. "The Great Society:
Lyndon Baines Johnson, 1963-69." In History of the Americas, by Tom Leppard, 260-61.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
Carson, Clayborne. "Between Contending Forces: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the African
American Freedom Struggle." OAH Magazine of History, January 2005. Accessed May
10, 2012. JSTOR. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25163736.
"Children's Crusade." Stanford University - The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education
Institute. Accessed May 09, 2012. http://mlkkpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/encyclopedia/encyclopedia/enc_childrens_crusade.
Civil Rights Act, §§ 201-207 (1964).
Dictionary of American Biography. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1994, Gale U.S. History
in Context, Accessed April 25, 2012.
http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/uhic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?query=
&prodId=UHIC&displayGroupName=Reference&limiter=&source=&disableHighlightin
g=false&displayGroups=&sortBy=&search_within_results=&action=2&catId=&activity
Type=&documentId=GALE%7CBT2310015679&userGroupName=nysl_me_hhs&jsid=
4562c0d98f7a8bcfa86620045763ab1a.
Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998. Gale U.S. History in Context, Accessed
May 23, 2012.
http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/uhic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?query=
&prodId=UHIC&displayGroupName=Reference&limiter=&source=&disableHighlightin
g=false&displayGroups=&sortBy=&search_within_results=&action=2&catId=&activity
Type=&documentId=GALE%7CK1631006808&userGroupName=nysl_me_hhs&jsid=7
19f3a4d0f2f10670868e71483853458.
"Eugene "Bull" Connor." PBS. Accessed April 28, 2012.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/freedomriders/people/eugene-bull-connor.
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Hailey, Foster. "Dogs and Hoses Repulse Negros at Birmingham." New York Times, May 4,
1965. Accessed May 17, 2012.
http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F30614F63D55127B93C6A9178ED85F
478685F9.
Herbers, John. "Birmingham's Progress Is Slow in Race Relations." New York Times, March 16,
1964.
http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0A11FC3A5C147A93C4A81788D85
F408685F9#.
Hill, Barbara J., Charles Evers, and Paul H. Rutgers. "Letters to the Editor: Bombing in
Birmingham." Editorial. New York Times, September 19, 1963. Accessed May 18, 2012.
http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F50612F93F55127B93CBA81782D85F
478685F9.
Kennedy, John F. "President Kennedy Speaks about Desegregation." Speech, Thought Equity
Motion Collections [Film], 1963. Gale U.S. History in Context, Accessed May 27, 2012.
http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/uhic/VideosDetailsPage/VideosDetailsWindow?total=1&query
=BS President Kennedy Speaks about
Desegregation&prodId=UHIC&windowstate=normal&mode=view&limiter=AC
y&displayGroupName=Videos&currPage=1&source=&displayGroups=&action=e&catI
d=&view=docDisplay&documentId=GALE%7CPC4295840061&userGroupName=nysl
_me_hhs&jsid=4f8c0457473eb752c316f24dc9baf4ee.
Kenworthy, E. W. "President Signs Civil Rights Bill; Bids All Back It.” New York Times. July
03, 1964. Accessed May 28, 2012.
http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F00E11F93B5F147A93C1A9178CD85F
408685F9.
Kersten, Joyce E., and Andrew E. Kersten. "Reform in the United States." Daily Life through
History. ABC-CLIO. Accessed May 10, 2012.
Klarman, Michael. "How Brown Changed Race Relations: The Backlash Thesis." The Journal of
American History 81, no. 1 (June 1994): 81-118. Accessed May 20, 2012.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080994.
Luders, Joseph E. "Civil Rights Success and the Politics of Racial Violence." Polity, Fashion for
Democracy, 37, no. 1 (January 2005): 108-29. Accessed May 17, 2012.
http://http://www.jstor.org/stable/3877064.
Martin Jr., Waldo E., and Patricia Sullivan, eds. Civil Rights in the United States. USA:
Macmillan Reference, 2000. Accessed May 1, 2012. Gale Opposing Viewpoints in
Context.
Moore, John H. Encyclopedia of Race and Racism. Vol. 1. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA,
2008. Accessed May 16, 2012. Gale U.S. History in Context.
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Nash, Gary B. The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society. New York:
Pearson/Longman, 2005.
Nunnelly, William A. "Bull Connor." Law and Politics Book Review. January 1992. Accessed
March 15, 2013. http://www.bsos.umd.edu/gvpt/lpbr/subpages/reviews/nunnelle.htm.
O'Neal, Michael J. St. James Encyclopedia of Labor History Worldwide. Edited by Neil
Schlager. Vol. 1. Detroit: St.James Press, 2004. Accessed May 24, 2012. Gale U.S.
History In Context.
Pettigrew, Thomas F. "Desegregation and Its Chances for Success: Northern and Southern
Views." Social Forces 35, no. 4 (1957): 339-44. Accessed May 18, 2012.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2573324.
Powledge, Fred. "Alabama Bombing Protested; City Angered by 6 Deaths-- Demonstrations
Planned." New York Times, September 17, 1963.
http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F00D10F839581A7B93C5A81782D85F
478685F9.
Randall, Dudley. "About the 1963 Birmingham Bombing." Modern American Poetry. Accessed
May 25, 2012. http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/m_r/randall/birmingham.htm.
Sisung, Kelle S., and Gerda-Ann Raffaelle, eds. Presidential Administration Profiles for
Students. Detroit: Gale Group, 2002. Accessed May 26, 2012. Gale U.S. History In
Context.
Trueman, Chris. "Birmingham 1963." History Learning Site. Accessed May 20, 2012.
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/birmingham_1963.htm.
"Up From Jim Crow: It Was Called the Most Segregated City in America. The past Still
Reverberates in Birmingham, but It Is a City Determined to Escape the Legacy of Bull
Connor." Newsweek, September 18, 2000. Accessed May 14, 2012. Ale U.S. History In
Context.
Wallace, George C. "Gov. Wallace's Statement." New York Times, May 9, 2963. Accessed May
20, 2012.
http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F30911FA3B5D117B93CBA9178ED85
F478685F9.
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Appendix A:
Children’s Crusade in Birmingham, Alabama. Printed in the New York Times on May 3, 1963.
Citation: May 3, 1963. May 3, 1963. ... Or Does It Explode, Birmingham. Accessed May 30,
2012. http://www.ordoesitexplode.com/me/2005/01/may_3_1963.html.
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Appendix B:
Speech by Governor Wallace printed in the New York Times
Citation: George C. Wallace, "Gov. Wallace's Statement," New York Times, May 9, 1963,
accessed May 20, 2012,
http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F30911FA3B5D117B93CBA9178ED85F47868
5F9
18