ABSTRACT
The purpose of this thesis is to observe urbanization and its effects on the environment and water.
The examination consists of three parts. The first part embodies the introduction to the urbanization
and its affects, the second part compares the urbanization by different factors in Latin America, SE
Asia and West Africa, and the third part consists of three case studies of different cities: Bangkok,
Mexico City and Lagos. By this structure different levels of urbanization can be observed and the
complicated net of different factors becomes easier to understand.
Urbanization is a big issue in the world scale today, and it is occurring everywhere in different
cultures, economies, and sizes of the cities. Overpopulation in the cities has caused many problems
considering enormous need of water, food and infrastructure, and tremendous pollution amounts to
the air, soil and water. The problems are more evident in developing countries, which have made
the situation even more difficult due to absence of finance and proper policies.
As a conclusion of the thesis it can be said that the problems are similar in different cities as they
are in different study regions. When the population is calculated in millions and the population
density is over 3,000 persons per km2 the environment’s limit is often surpassed and the problems
start to occur. Thus the countries' economical and political status have some influence to the final
result. Especially in the city of Lagos the situation is bad due to political uncertainty, and
economical problems.
When compairing different regions it is evident that the future of SE Asia is more positive than
West Africa's. Urbanization level is similar in both regions but other factors are remarkably better
organized in SE Asia. Also when compairing SE Asia to Latin America the positive trend is clear;
many factors are almost as good, even the urbanization is half of the Latin America’s.
Keywords: Urbanization, Water supply, demand and quality, City, Population growth, Migration,
Poverty, Overpopulation, Housing, Environment, Infrastructure
TIIVISTELMÄ
Tämän diplomityön tarkoituksena on tutkia kaupungistumista ja sen vaikutuksia ympäristöön ja
vesistöihin. Työ koostuu kolmesta osasta: Ensimmäisen osa johdattaa lukijan kaupungistumiseen ja
sen vaikutuksiin, toinen osa tutkii kaupungistumista vertailemalla erilaisia alueita: Latinalaista
Amerikkaa, Kaakkois-Aasiaa ja Länsi-Afrikkaa ja kolmas osa sisältää kolme kaupunkitutkimusta:
Bangkokista, Mexico Citystä ja Lagosista. Tämä rakenne auttaa tutkimaan kaupungistumista eri
tasoilta ja helpottaa sen monimutkaisen rakenteen ymmärtämistä.
Kaupungistuminen on nykyään suuri ja maailmanlaajuinen ongelma, kulttuuriin, kieleen, alueeseen
tai sen taloudelliseen tilaan katsomatta. Ylikansoitus on aiheuttanut ongelmia monissa
kaupungeissa. Suuret väestömäärät ovat luoneet valtavan tarpeen, ravinnolle, vedelle ja
infrastruktuurille sekä tämän myötä luoneet paineita vesivaroille sekä ympäristölle. Kehitysmaiden
huono taloudellinen sekä poliittinen tilanne tekee ongelmat vielä vaikeammiksi.
Tutkimuksesta voidaan todeta, että ongelmat suurissa kaupungeissa ovat samanlaisia
maantieteellisistä alueista riippumatta. Ympäristön sietokyky on ylitetty ja ongelmat alkaneet, kun
väestö lasketaan miljoonissa ja väestöntiheys on suuri. Tosin kaupunkien taloudellinen tilanne ja
järjestäytyminen vaikuttavat osaltaan ongelmien vaikeusasteeseen.
Vertailtaessa eri alueita voidaan huomata, että Kaakkois-Aasian tulevaisuus vaikuttaa
positiivisemmalta kuin Länsi Afrikan. Kaupungistumisaste näillä alueilla on samanlainen, mutta
monet muut tekijät kuten koulutus ovat merkittävästi paremmin Kaakkois-Aasiassa. Myös
vertailtaessa Kaakkois-Aasiaa Latinalaiseen Amerikkaan positiivinen trendi on selvästi näkyvissä;
monet tekijät ovat lähes yhtä hyviä, vaikka kaupungistumisaste on lähes puolet alhaisempi.
Hakusanat: : Kaupungistuminen, Vesivarat, niiden tarve ja laatu, Kaupunki, Väestön kasvu,
Siirtolaisuus, Köyhyys, Ylikansoitus, Asuminen, Ympäristö, Infrastruktuuri
ABBREVIATIONS
ASEAN
Association of South-East Asian Nations
BMA
Bangkok Metropolitan Administration
BMR
Bangkok Metropolitan Region, the entire territory, encompassing Bangkok and five
near provinces: Samut Prakarn, Nonthaburi, Pathumthani, Samut Sakhon, Makhon
Pathon, called also as “Mega-urban Region”
BOD
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
DO
Dissolved Oxygen
EIA
Environment Impact Assessment
EU
European Union
GDP
Gross domestic Product, the total value of goods and services produced
in the country
GNP
Gross National Product, the sum of value added by all resident producers plus any
product taxes not included in the valuation of output plus net receipts of primary
income from abroad.
Klong
natural drainage channels, which are dug in the early times to open new paddy fields
and attract settlements
MCMA
Mexico City Metropolitan Area
MWA
Metropolitan Water Works Authority, Bangkok
NGO
Non-Governmental Organization
OECD
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
SE Asia
South–East Asia
USA
United States of America
WHO
World Health Organization
LIST OF FIGURES, MAPS, PICTURES AND APPENDICES
Figure 1. 1.
Figure 1. 2.
Figure 2. 1.
Figure 4. 1.
Figure 4. 2.
Figure 4. 3.
Figure 4. 4.
Figure 4. 5.
Figure 4. 6.
Figure 4. 7.
Figure 4. 8.
Figure 4. 9.
Figure 4. 10.
Figure 4. 11.
Figure 4. 12.
Figure 4. 13.
Figure 4. 14.
Figure 4. 15.
Figure 4. 16.
Figure 4. 17.
Figure 4. 18.
Figure 4. 19.
Figure 4. 20.
Figure 4. 21.
Figure 4. 22.
Figure 4. 23.
Figure 4. 24.
Figure 4. 25.
Figure 4. 26.
Figure 4. 27.
Figure 4. 28.
Figure 4. 29.
Figure 4. 30.
Figure 4. 31.
Figure 4. 32.
Figure 5. 1.
Figure 6. 1.
Figure 7. 1.
Figure 7. 2.
Estimated population in less developed regions.
13
Estimated population in developed regions.
13
City consumes.
22
Grouping of countries to the study
46
The indexes and their explanations.
47
Urban and rural population in Latin America.
48
Urban and rural population in South-East Asia.
50
Urban and rural population in West Africa.
52
Urbanization trend in study regions.
53
Freshwater resources in study regions.
54
Annual freshwater withdrawals in study regions.
54
Fertility rate is lowest in South-East Asia.
55
Life expectancy is low in West Africa.
56
The amount of young population is highest in West Africa.
56
The amount of middle age population is lowest in West Africa.
57
The amount of elderly people is highest in Latin America.
57
In Latin America people tend to live in large cities.
58
Urbanization rate is similar nowadays in West Africa and SE Asia. 58
Aids have an effect on the people’s life expectancy.
59
Wastewater treatment is most common in Latin America.
59
Freshwater withdrawals for different sectors in study regions.
60
Water pollution from different sectors.
61
Purchasing power parity is highest in Latin America.
61
The average household income is higher in SE Asia than West Africa. 62
Commercial energy use is highest in a few SE Asian countries.
62
School enrolment is similar in SE Asia as in Latin America.
63
Travel time to work is shortest in Latin America.
64
Prenatal care is poorest in West Africa.
64
Electricity is best served in SE Asia.
65
Telephone services are very poorly offered in West Africa.
66
Agriculture is the main employer in West Africa.
66
Industry sector is biggest in Latin America.
67
Service is the main employer in Latin America.
67
Unemployment is higher in Latin America than SE Asia.
68
Summary of the indexes.
70
Population in Bangkok.
72
Population in Mexico City.
82
Population in Lagos.
90
Table of different factors in the cities.
98
Map 1. 1.
Map 1. 2.
Map 1. 3.
Map 1. 4.
Map 1. 5.
Location of Latin America.
Latin America.
Location of South-East Asia
South- East Asia.
Location of West Africa.
15
16
16
17
17
Map 1. 6.
Map 4. 1.
Map 4. 2.
Map 4. 3.
West Africa.
Urban population in Latin America.
Urban population in South- East Asia.
Urban population in West Africa.
18
49
51
52
Picture 2. 1.
Picture 3. 1.
Picture 3. 2.
Picture 3. 3.
Picture 3. 4.
Picture 5. 1.
Picture 5. 2.
Picture 6. 1.
Picture 7. 1.
Picture 7. 2.
Picture 7. 3.
Mexico City, the rapidly growing mega-city.
Small micro-cars in Jakarta.
Slum settlements near railway in the city of Bangkok.
Slum settlements and proper houses side by side in Bangkok.
Informal restaurant near Phaya Thai skytrain station in Bangkok.
View of Bangkok.
The Bangkok traffic in daytime, when the congestion is lowest.
View of Mexico City.
View of Lagos from Surulele.
Tinubu square in Lagos.
Traffic in Lagos.
20
31
43
44
45
71
79
81
89
93
96
Table 3. 1.
Few examples about the need of water in production.
35
APPENDIX 1
APPENDIX 2
APPENDIX 3
APPENDIX 4
APPENDIX 5
APPENDIX 6
APPENDIX 7
APPENDIX 8
APPENDIX 9
APPENDIX 10
APPENDIX 11
APPENDIX 12
APPENDIX 13
APPENDIX 14
APPENDIX 15
APPENDIX 16
APPENDIX 17
APPENDIX 18
APPENDIX 19
APPENDIX 20
APPENDIX 21
APPENDIX 22
GROUPING OF THE COUNTRIES
CHOSEN INDECES
FERTILITY RATE
LIFE EXPECTANCY
YOUNG POPULATION
MIDDLE AGE POPULATION
ELDERLY PEOPLE
WATER POLLUTION FROM DIFFERENT SECTORS
PPP
COMMERCIAL ENERGY USE
SCHOOL ENROLMENT
FEMALE EMPLOYEES IN AGRICULTURE
MALE EMPLOYEES IN AGRICULTURE
EMPLOYEES IN AGRICULTURE
FEMALE EMPLOYEES IN INDUSTRY
MALE EMPLOYEES IN INDUSTRY
EMPLOYEES IN INDUSTRY
FEMALE EMPLOYEES IN SERVICE
MALE EMPLOYEES IN SERVICE
EMPLOYEES IN SERVICE
UNEMPLOYMENT BY AGE AND GENDER
UNEMPLOYMENT AND URBANIZATION
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
FOREWORD
This thesis is a part of the Academy of Finland research called Global Changes and Water
Resources. The research along this topic started in 1997 by Dr. Olli Varis in the Water Resources
Laboratory at the Helsinki University of Technology (HUT). The purpose of the research is to study
population growth, urbanization, food production, poverty and their interconnections including the
whole network between all these factors. The research is funded by the Academy of Finland,
Finnish Ministry for Agriculture and Forestry, Maa-ja Vesitekniikan Tuki r.y and HUT.
The main part of this thesis was done here in Helsinki University of Technology between 1.8.200122.1.2002. Before this one month field study tour to Mexico was made to get information of the
region and urbanization by interviewing Patricia Avila in Morelia and travelling through the
country. During the autumn two weeks were spent in Bangkok and at Asian Institute of
Technology. This stay included interviews of Dr. Edsel Sajor in the School of Environment,
Resources and Development and Sari Laaksonen in the UNEP of Bangkok and data collection in
the different local libraries. This thesis was funded by Maa- ja Vesitekniikan tuki ry and Heikki ja
Hilma Honkasen Säätiö.
I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Pertti Vakkilainen and my instructor Dr. Olli Varis
for giving me valuable advice and support always when needed. Other important persons
considering my thesis are Dr. Edsel Sajor, Dr.Patricia Avila, Eva-Marita Rinne and Sari Laaksonen
whom I like to give my special thanks for giving me an opportunity to share their knowledge and
the best available information about urbanization and the selected regions.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
1.1.1. Need of water
Water is an essential biological need for humans. Without an adequate input of potable water, the
human body cannot survive or grow. Water is needed for persona hygiene, sanitation, cooking,
cleaning, and laundry. It is essential for agriculture, fisheries, industrial production, river
navigation, maintenance of ecological assets and biodiversity, promotion of tourism, and many
other social demands.
If all the earth’s waters were fresh waters, there would be no problem to secure water for human
and nature needs for long time. This is not the case in the real world, where 97 per cent of the water
is in the oceans. Of the remaining 3 per cent, about 77 per cent is stored in ice caps and glaciers,
22.4 per cent is in groundwater and soil moisture, 0.35 per cent is in lakes and marshes, 0.04 per
cent in the atmosphere, and barely 0.01 per cent in the streams. Even rivers provides 80 per cent of
peoples freshwater needs, they carry only 0.000003 per cent of all the water on earth (Elhance
1999).
The amount of water on the earth has remained the same over last millennium, despite all the
transformations and recycling it has gone through. The total amount of water is estimated to be
about 1.4 billion cubic kilometers. Even though water is renewable resource it is still finite. Today
the pressure on environment has got too high and the quality of the water has decreased. The
degraded quality of freshwater is a huge problem in many part of the world, especially in
developing countries (Elhance 1999).
In the Third World, as many as, 1.2 billion people are suffering physically from shortages of
potable water and 1.8 billion people lack adequate water for sanitation. About 80 per cent of all
illnesses and 30 per cent of all unnatural deaths in the developing countries are due to waterborne
diseases and consumption of highly polluted water. The average annual freshwater requirement of
human being is a mere 1,000 cubic meters. This amount is so called water barrier (Elhance 1999).
1.1.2. Growing urbanization
The urban population of developing countries has grown from 300 million in 1950 to more than 1.7
billion today, and it is projected to more than double in the next twenty-five years, reaching nearly
four billion. The key issue when considering present urbanization is the extraordinary speed of
urban growth. Urban population is increasing three times faster than rural population, because of
rural-urban migration as well as rapidly rising birth rate of urban populations in many parts of the
world (Girardet 1996, Massay et al.1999).
Estimated Population in Less Developed Regions
Estimated population
(millions)
2500
Low
2000
1500
Medium
1000
500
High
0
1940
1960
1980
2000
2020
2040
2060
Time (years)
Figure 1.1. Estimated population in less developed regions.
The population growth is mainly occurring in the developing countries. In these regions the
population growth is high and rapid. Most of the population growth is happening in the urban area,
which increases urbanization, although rural-urban migration is also high in these regions. The
growth trend in the future varies between different fertility and mortality rates. Also HIV has a
really big impact on the population growth in the future, especially in the developing countries.
Estimated Population in Developed Regions
Estmated population (millions)
1400
1200
Low
1000
800
Medium
600
400
High
200
0
1940
1960
1980
2000
2020
2040
2060
Time(years)
Figure 1.2. Estimated population in developed regions.
In the developed regions the main population growth has already occurred and the future population
trend is declining. Nevertheless some population growth can also be seen in these regions due to the
migration and fertility rate, even though the fertility rate in the urban areas is much lower than in
the rural areas. HIV have also an effect on the population growth even the influence is not so
remarkably than in the developing countries.
Due to this rapid population growth and urbanization, the demand for food, freshwater,
infrastructure and facilities have grown over the environment’s limit. Especially the rapid speed of
urbanization has surprised the infrastructures in many cities, which has led to environmental and
water problems. The consumption and the way of living in the cities are different than in the rural
area, which deepens the gap between food and water demand and supplies.
1.2. Purpose of the study
The aim of this study is to find the key-relations between urbanization and water. The growing
population and urbanization have a continuing influence on the quantity and quality of the world
water supplies. These interconnections are really complicated and this is why many different
aspects and sectors have been included to this study. The interconnection between urbanization and
water is not straight it is more like net, where the subjects are part of the entire system. The equal of
the ecosystem and the human life is so complicated that it cannot be described without taking also
social, cultural and health aspects into account.
The purpose of this study is not to find solution to these interconnections and problems but give an
introduction to this diverse problem. Urbanization is a reason of many factors, population growth,
poverty, level of living, environment and human preferences. The relationship between these
matters is important when considering urbanization and its problems.
1.3. Description of study areas
The regions, taken to this study, are Latin America, South-East Asia and West Africa. These
regions are interesting because they all have environmental and water problems, a low level of
income, and growing population and urbanization. The urbanization is already very high in Latin
America. The main idea is to compare this region to South-East Asia and West Africa, which both
have relatively similar urbanization levels at the moment. The urbanization is increasing in these
regions to the same direction than in Latin America. Still there are differences in other matters like
education, environment, health, etc. With these differences some future prospects can be made; do
the region follow the path of Latin America or does it create its own, more positive route.
1.3.1. Differences between developed and developing countries
Developed countries are stable, education and economic growth are relatively high, birth rate is
low, and food production exceeds the consumption. In these countries GNP per person is much
higher than in developing countries. For example GNP per person tends to be around 15,000 to
30,000 US$ in developed countries, whereas in the developing countries GNP per person is only
2,000 US$ or below. Due to these matters, the possibilities for development in the Third World are
much lower than in already developed regions.
The developing countries are clustered in Central and South America, Africa, and most of the Asia.
Many of these countries have been former European colonies. They often have debts to
international banks and taking care of these commitments reduces their possibilities for
development. Income for the countries is often earned by the export of cash crops and other raw
materials. Nowadays income from tourism and international corporations is becoming also
important (ENCARTA 2001).
1.3.2. Latin America
Latin America is situated between North America and The Caphorn between Pacific and Atlantic
Oceans. The Latin America consist of Middle America; Mexico, Central America; Guatemala, El
Salvador, Belize, Nigaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica and Panama and South America; Colombia,
Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and Brazil. Islands of the
Caribbean Sea, Guyanan, Surinam and Guyane are not included to this study because they belong to
The Caribbean. Latin America covers an area of 19,500,000 km2 and it is home for 471 million
people (Collier et al.1985).
Location of Latin America
Map 1.1. Location of Latin America.
Latin America is a mosaic of different countries, economies, languages as well as cultures. There is
a great diversity of climate varying from tropical to cool temperature. Also the physical
environment in the area varies a lot, mountains, volcanic areas, plains together with tropic forests
are common. The main language in the region is Spanish because of the colonial history. Also
English, French and Portuguese are spoken (Collier et al.1985).
$
$
Mexico
$
$
$ $$ $ $$
$ Honduras
Guatemala
$
$
$
$$
$$Nigaragua
El Salvador
$
$
$
Costa Rica$ Panama
$ Venezuela
$$
Colombia
$ $$
$$ $ $ $
$
$$ $ $
$
Belize
$
$
Ecuador
Brazil
Peru
$
$
Bolivia
$
Latin America
Paraguay
$
Chile
$
Uruguay
$$
Argentina
Map 1. 2. Latin America.
1.3.3. South East Asia
South-East Asia is situated in the southeastern part of Asia between China and Australia. It consist
of the countries in the peninsula; Myanmar, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia and
Singapore and thousands of islands in South China sea; Philippines, Brunei and Indonesia. Brunei is
not taken into this study because it is not a typical South- East Asian country. Not all but many
graphics Singapore has taken to the study to show its peculiarity compared to other regions. SouthEast Asia covers an area of about 4,300,000 km2 and the total population in the area is 508 million
(Library of Nations 1987, WB 1999).
Location of South-East Asia
Map 1. 3. Location of South-East Asia.
Temperatures are high and rather constant all over the area, seasonal changes are small. The
vegetation is mainly rain forest and mangrove forest. There is a remarkable diversity between and
inside the countries in the South- East Asia in terms of cultural issues. People in the countries
consist of several ethnic groups, speak several languages and follow several religions. Though
sharing the same Southeast Asian cultural origin, all the countries have their own characteristics and
languages. French and English are also spoken in some areas (Library of Nations 1987).
$ $
$
$
Myanmar
Lao$PDR
North Pacific Ocean
$
$ ThailandViet Nam
$
$ Cambodia Philippines
$
$
$
Malaysia
$
$
Sumatra
Borneo
Indonesia
$
South-East Asia
$
Sulawesi
Irian Jaya
Java
$
Map 1. 4. South-East Asia.
1.3.4. West Africa
West Africa consist of 16 countries; Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Ghana, Burkina
Faso, Cote d’Ivoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Chad, the Gambia, and Senegal.
West Africa covers an area of 7,300,000 km2 and the total population in the region is 238 million
(Else 1999, WB 1999).
Location of West Africa
Map 1. 5. Location of West Africa.
Region can be divided to three geographical areas, northern desert, southern forest and semi-forest
between these regions. Because of this difference the vegetation and climate changes together with
the regions. Furthermore the coast of Atlantic Ocean is very tropical compared to inner land
savanna and semi-desert areas. The number of ethnic groups in West Africa is enormous. Because
of the colonial background, English, French, Portuguese and Arabic are spoken in the area. Also
different tribes have their own languages so the diversity is wide (Else 1999).
Mali
Mauritania
Niger
Senegal
Chad
Gambia
Burkina
Guinea Guinea
Faso
BeninNigeria
Bissau
Cote
Togo
Sierra Liberiad'Ivoire
Ghana
Leone
Map 1. 6. West Africa.
1.4. Methodology of the study
The main part of the thesis has been done by surveying literature and international databases. Case
studies were done by interviews of people who are conversant with these matters. Also material and
personal experience from trips to locations are included to the study. Two trips were made to collect
data and material to this thesis: two weeks in Thailand and one month in Mexico. Pictures from the
trips are enclosed to the study to make it more representative and illustrative.
The thesis is composed of three parts. First part gives basic information on urbanization, its effects
on nature and water, and some information of the chosen study regions. Second part compares
chosen study regions by different matters. The idea of this part is to foresee the future of the regions
by these factors. With these facts some basic estimations of the regions future and urbanization
trend can be made. Third part consists of three case studies of the cities, which are chosen from the
study regions. These cases give a closer view to the same subject. With this structure different
viewpoints and levels of urbanization can be noticed.
The data for the different comparisons of regions are mostly collected from various databases.
Countries are grouped to ease the comparison. Grouping is regularly based on the economic
situation of the countries.
2. URBANIZATION
2.1 Defining urbanization
Urbanization is the process by which large numbers of people become permanently concentrated in
relatively small areas, forming cities. Internal rural to urban migration means that people move from
rural areas to urban areas. In this process the number of people living in cities increases compared
with the number of people living in rural areas. Natural increase of urbanization can occur if the
natural population growth in the cities is higher than in the rural areas. This scenario, however,
rarely occurs. A country is considered to urbanized when over 50 per cent of its population live in
the urban areas (Long 1998).
An urban area is spatial concentration of people who are working in non-agricultural activities. The
essential characteristic here is that urban means non-agricultural. Urban can also be defined as a
fairly complex concept. Criteria used to define urban can include population size, space, density,
and economic organization. Usually, however, urban is simply defined by some base line size, like
20 000 people. Anyway this definition varies between regions and cities (Long 1998).
2.2 The history and emergence of cities
2.2.1 Urbanization has changed
Great Britain and some European countries were the first countries, which become urbanized. They
urbanized relatively slowly, which allowed governments time to plan and provide facilities for the
needs of increasing urban populations. So, a city itself is not a new phenomenon. Only the present
explosive and rapid growth is a new unique feature. In the year 1800, over 97 percent of the world's
population were rural. Hundred years after this, still only 5.5 percent of the world population lived
in cities, but already 2000 slightly over half of the world's population lived in cities (Long 1998).
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, urban growth was occurring mainly in the developed nations.
The reason for this was the spread of industrialization and the associated rapid increase in the use of
fossil fuels. These days the urbanization is much faster than those days and it is most rapid in the
Third World countries. Today the largest and fastest growing cities are in developing countries,
because of the new urban-industrial development (Envio Facts 2001, Girardet 1996).
2.2.2 City as a Capital
In many countries the Capital is the country's most important city. It is typically a center of
population, commerce, government and culture. Capitals are often cultural places with the national
treasures like, museum, symphony, opera, and ballet. Many capitals contain masterpieces of
architecture, parks and monuments. The headquarters of the nation's most powerful businesses are
commonly based in the capital (ENCARTA 2001).
Most of the capitals have grown to the important trade routes, along the shores of rivers or harbors,
or in regions of special agricultural or industrial significance. Anyway some capitals are designed
and constructed by bureaucrats, planners and architects. This sort of development permits the
planners to determine not only the location of the city but also such fundamental aspects as traffic
patterns, the distribution of functional districts, the character of municipal and residential
architecture, and the disposition of public space. Although this is more normal in developed
countries but have sometimes occurred in developing countries too. Thus, nowadays the population
growth in most of the cities of developing countries is so fast that the organization and planning is
almost impossible (ENCARTA 2001).
Because capitals are often the primate cities of their countries, they draw in residents from rural
areas or smaller towns at a significant rate. People move to the capitals in search of economic
advantages, educational opportunities, cultural richness, and diversity of experiences that large
cities provide. As a consequence of this population shift, many capitals have grown rapidly and
spread into the surrounding countryside. The three study regions contain also many mega-cities;
Bangkok, Jakarta, Lagos, Mexico City, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro (ENCARTA 2001).
Picture 2. 1. Mexico City, the rapidly growing mega-city.
“ The city is a place where a lot of problems are concentrated; but the city also has the resources
to overcome these problems and be the place of development.”
Prof. Valentino Castellini, Italy, 1998
2.2.3
Positive about cities
There are also many positive factors in the cities. It would be short-sighted to see only the negative
points in this situation. Large cities are usually dynamic, growing centers for modern production
and industry, financial services, internal commerce and foreign trade, education and government.
That is why cities are more efficient than smaller places in production, economic growth and
contributing to higher incomes. Many people’s economy and life expectancy in the city have
increased, economy has came more stable and stronger and families have got smaller (Brookfield
and Byron 1993, Bilsborrow 1998).
The differences between living conditions in cities and rural areas are big-terms of education and
health, safe drinking water, sanitation, electricity, food, recreational and entertainment, jobs,
information and knowledge. These differences can most clearly be seen among the middle and lowincome people. Worldwide the scale and depth of poverty in rural areas are higher. In general,
higher the level of urbanization, lower the level of absolutely poverty (HABITAT 1996, Bilsborrow
1998).
2.2.4 The size of the city
There is not actually any optimum size of the city, but environment is putting some borders to it.
Current “mega-city-size” is not sustainable. Urban populations are too concentrated in few large
cities. For example in Cote d’Ivoire, Cameroon, Argentina, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela cities are
very intent, whereas in Niger, Nigeria, Colombia and Brazil are decentralized. Even though, large
cities are becoming our primary habitat (Massay et al. 1999).
The cities are growing in the size and complexity. In 1960 only 100 cities had more than one
million habitants. Now there are almost 400 of those cities and over next decades there may be as
many as 650. Even the growth occurs in all kinds of cities mainly the focus tends to be in megacities. Still the problem is global and concerns every scale of cities. For example, secondary cities
such as Surabaya in Indonesia and Guadalajara in Mexico, have become metropolises of two or
three million in the last decade and continue to grow rapidly in the future (Massay et al.1999,
Girardet 1996).
There are no direct and simple relations between size and power when considering cities. For
example, Sao Paulo is not more powerful than New York even it is bigger. Some cities can be very
large and yet not so powerful on the world stage normally this is the way in developing countries
(Massay et al.1999, Gugler 1997).
“The world’s cities must become sustainable, productive, safe, healthy, humane, and affordable.”
Boutros-Boutros Ghali, former Secretary-General of the United Nations, 1996
2.2.5 City as a parasite
The are different opinions about the cities and their image. Some think that they are the centers of
culture whereas others else feel that they are the cancers of earth. The latter people have described
city as a parasite. Because it is dependent on another host, hinterlands, from which is it nourished.
This is true the land of which cities are built cannot support the high density of population in the
area. Cities are always dependent on essential supplies of food, timber, firewood and water from
their hinterlands (UNEP 1999, Girardet 1996).
Cities are built on two percent of the land's surface. Their population uses over three-quarters of the
world's resources and discharge similar amounts of wastes. Urban wastes have local impacts but are
also a problem of global dimension. The impacts of the cities are usually felt both locally and
globally. For example, air pollution; city populations, as the major users of energy, cause both
regional and worldwide pollution, with dramatic impacts on health of the people, air quality and
biosphere (UNEP 1999, Girardet 1996).
Input
City
Output
Food & water
Sewage
Fuels & energy
gases
Exhaust
Processed goods
Timber, pulp
& paper
Household & factory
wastes
Building materials
Wanton
disposal
Figure 2. 1. City consumes.
2.3 The measurements of urbanization
2.3.1
Population growth
Population growth is one of the main reasons to the urbanization. In rural areas natural increase is
not high because fertility rate is often lower compared with rural regions. Fertility rates are largely
dependent on economic considerations. As economic wellbeing increases, the fertility level
decreases. Security about the future and alternatives to family life in the cities are the main reasons
for this decrease (Long 1998).
Education level has similar effect as economic wellbeing to the fertility rates. For example in
Taiwan and South Korea, rising education level has resulted in smaller families, and population
growth has fallen by half. However, women’s knowledge of how to manage their own fertility has
the biggest effects on birth rates. Nowadays only 25 per cent of the women do have access to family
planning materials and the power to control the amount of their children. Another key factor that
influences birth rates is a woman's confidence that the children she bears will survive and be
healthy. If the health care is proper and infant mortality rate low, like in developed countries, the
fertility rate is often also low (ENCARTA 2001).
2.3.2 Rural-urban migration
Migration is a form of geographical or spatial motion between one geographical unit and another.
Internal migration consists of rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-urban and urban-rural migration.
Migration is continuos and repeated process rather than a single event. Because of these facts, it is
difficult to measure and study. The time of migration also varies; it can be periodic, seasonal, or
long-term migration (Bilsborrow 1998b).
Migration is the main reason for rapid growth of mega-cities. Migration has been going on over
centuries and it is normal phenomenon. When considering urbanization rural-urban and urban-rural
and rural-rural migrations are very important. Urban-urban migration means that people move from
one city to another. This is quite common, for example, in Nigeria (Bilsborrow 1998b, Sajor 2001).
Many migrants are environmental refugees from badly depleted rural areas. In developing countries
industrial growth in urban areas offers employment and trading opportunities for rural people which
are faced with declining living standards. Nowadays the urbanization is increasingly occurring also
without any significant opportunities for new migrants and it is fastest in Africa (Bilsborrow
1998b).
Sometimes people do not have to move to the city even if they are working in it. Transportation is
the biggest question of this movement. With accessible transportation many are able to live as far as
40-50 kilometers away from the city. People can move regularly between urban and rural areas, in
accordance with the demand of the job and of family responsibilities, without a need to make a
permanent change of residence. Advances in transportation, by easing rural access to external
markets, can relax the housing problem in the cities (Brookfield and Byron 1993).
2.3.2.1 Push and pull factors
People may move to the city because they are pushed by poverty from rural communities or they
may be pulled by the attractions of city lives. Combination of these push and pull factors can also
be on reason for moving to cities. In many parts of the world rural population growth and shortage
of arable land are the major problems. Even though the land holdings have been quite big they are
to be divided with several children and eventually, their children. These circumstances make
migration the only opportunity to farming people. Things are made worse by environmental
deterioration (Gugler 1997, Girardet 1996).
2.3.2.1.1
Push factors
The normal push factors to rural people are the circumstances that make their earning of living
impossible, land deterioration, lack of adequate land, unequal land distribution, droughts, storms,
floods, and clean water shortages. These serious disadvantages make farming, the livelihood of
rural people, hard and sometimes hopeless. Lack of modern resources, firewood shortages, religious
conflicts, local economic declines, are also major reasons for moving to the urban areas (Gugler
1997, Girardet 1996).
2.3.2.1.2
Pull factors
High industrial wages in urban areas are one of the biggest attractions for rural people. People will
continue to migrate to cities as long as they expect urban wages to exceed their current rural wages.
Employment opportunities, higher incomes, joining other rural refugees, freedom from oppressive
lifestyle, access to better health care and education, are the “bright lights” for rural people. One of
the main reasons for people to move to the urban areas is that the situation in the rural areas is very
difficult. With the income level they have it is not possible to survive. In this case even the low
salaries in the rural areas are more attractive than non-existing salaries in the rural areas (Gugler
1997, Girardet 1996, Sajor 2001).
2.3.2.2
Migration and gender
Increased industrialization, education and urbanization may provide more opportunities for women
to advance economically and socially. More women will be able to join wage-earning labor force.
Education and industrial activities are viewed as the only two ways for women to advance in
economically underdeveloped countries. These activities are normally associated with lower
fertility rates (Gugler 1997, Girardet 1996).
Men are more active in migration. Many men migrate alone, without family, to the cities to work in
factories, companies or the informal sector. Normally this kind of migration is seasonal or
periodical. Due to this women become head of the families, which puts a lot of pressure on them.
Their responsibility is to take care of the house, children and money. Even the men will send some
money to their families women have to earn some "household money" too. It is common to women
to have their own shops or businesses on top of their household duties. This is very normal
especially in Lagos ( Rinne 2001 ).
2.3.2.3 Modernization theory
The modernization theory means that industrial employment attracts people from rural to urban
areas. In the urban areas people work in modern sector in the occupations that facilitate national
economic expansion. This means that the old agricultural economic is changing to a new nonagricultural economy. This is the trend, which will create a new modern society (Gugler 1997).
This theory states that inequality in welfare between country and city increases rural to urban
migration and thereby expands urbanization. The city’s “ bright lights” are the main pull factors to
the people. The divergence ultimately reduces economic growth and efficiency in the developing
world (Gugler 1997).
2.3.3 Defining city
The definition of what constitutes a city, changes from time to time and place to place. The United
Nations has recommended that places with more than 20,000 inhabitants living close together are
urban. Still the nations compile their statistics on the basis of many different standards. The United
States, for instance uses “urban place” to mean any locality where more than 2,500 people live
(Envio Facts 2001).
In many cities the city borders are invisible and it is hard to say where the city ends and where it
starts. This confuses the calculation of urban habitants. Because of this many studies give different
data and comparison of the cities becomes unreliable. City description differs between cities and
countries, which makes it hard to know the real size of the cities. Also the cities are growing all the
time, which makes the data quite quickly old. Sometimes even nearby towns are connected to the
city due to the population growth, like for example, in Mexico City.
2.4 Factors that encourage urbanization
2.4.1
Population growth
There are three components of urban population growth: natural growth of urban population, ruralurban migration and the reclassification of areas previously defined as rural. Natural increase
provides a base for urban population growth rates, and rural-urban migration and reclassification
supplement this growth. Anyhow the natural increase of the population in the city often declines
sharply together with the urbanization process, that has happened for example, in Thailand,
Malaysia and Indonesia. (Stutz and Souza 1998)
2.4.2 Population growth in the future
World population reached 6.1 billion in mid-2000 and is currently growing by 77 million people per
year. By 2025, world population is expected to be between 7.9 billion and 10.9 billion, with the
medium variant 9.3 billion. The different prospects changes with the calculation way and HIV.
Even the fertility is high in many countries the impact of HIV/AIDS epidemic is huge. Morbidity,
mortality and population losses are increasing ( PDDESA 2001).
The population in today's developed countries is not expected to grow in next 50 years because
fertility levels are remaining below replacement level. On the contrary, the population in developing
countries is projected to rise from 4.9 million in 2000 to 8.2 billion in 2050. The rapid growth is
expected among the group of 48 least developed countries. Their population is expected nearly to
triple in the next 50 years. International immigration is projected to remain high in 21st century. The
more developed areas are expected to continue being net receivers of international migrants. This
has an high impact to the population growth in developed areas and cities ( PDDESA 2001).
2.4.3 Poverty
Poverty is hard to define. Poverty means that human needs are not met. Poverty is every day life in
every country, even in developed areas. In every country can be identified individuals who have so
small income that they cannot afford even the very basic goods. These physical needs are adequate
diet, housing, work, water supply, sanitation and health care. For humans a few mental demands are
also important, like basic civil and political rights and feeling of safety (HABITAT, 1996).
Poverty can be measured by income level. This is not always the best way to define poor people
because some level of personal income cannot substitute problems with health, crime, physical
violence or life expectancy. Still using this kind of income level is normal in every country. People
whose income is under this minimum level are considered poor. At least 20 per cent of the world’s
population live in absolutely poverty. More than 90 percent of these live in the developing
countries. These numbers are only rough averages because it is in reality difficult to estimate the
amount of people who suffer from absolute poverty (HABITAT, 1996).
2.4.3.1 Rural poverty
At the moment in many countries the trend is that the poverty of rural population is growing. In
rural areas poverty is associated with different circumstances like drought, seasonal changes in food
prices and lack of adequate land. Poverty also fluctuates more in rural areas and causes seasonal
migration to the urban areas. When the situation is bad in the rural area migration is evident. By
improving rural economy, migration flows can be better controlled.
The economic situation of the family depends on their family cycle as well. Many families with
small children or elderly people to take care of are poorer than others. Accidents might also change
the whole economic of the family because social security is not often provided in rural areas. In the
developing countries accidents occur more often due to bad roads, vehicles, misused laws and
orders (HABITAT, 1996).
2.4.3.2 Urban poverty
It is not equitable to compare poverty by poverty lines, such as the used income of US$ a day,
between urban and rural areas, because costs in the urban areas are usually higher than in rural. The
costs of fuel, food and shelter are much higher in big cities and central regions. Also people in rural
areas have wider surviving ways; they can grow their food on the wastelands and collect their
firewood from the forests, which is impossible in the crowded urban areas. Environment is also
much more polluted in the urban areas which decreases the health of the urban poor. Due to these
poor people in urban areas are even poorer than they seem to be and the total income level is much
lower than in the rural areas. Studies show that more than half of the urban population is below the
poverty line in several Asian and Latin American countries (HABITAT, 1996).
The urban environment has some positive sides too; in urban areas it is easier to find a job, health
care, education and other facilities which might help poor people to stand up from the poverty hole.
This is not simple but might be possible. In the cities production and sales jobs are quite easy to get
with adequate language abilities and other skills. Anyhow, informal sector is very important source
of income for many poor people (HABITAT, 1996).
2.4.4
Standard of living
The differences in standard of living are major issues when considering factors that encourage
urbanization. Higher living standards and higher salaries in the city attract people to move to the
cities. As long as the income gap between rural and urban areas is big, people tend to move to the
cities. Economic factors and employment are the main reasons for migration. Sometimes the
employment in rural areas is non-existing. In these cases moving to the city, even for very low
salaries, is more profitable than staying in the countryside (Sajor 2001, Brookfield and Byron
1993).
Political and social factors are also better in the urban areas and they are one reason for migration.
In the city health care and social relations are much easier to organize which makes the inhabitants
feeling more secure. In the city people may more easily have they voices heard by joining different
political groups and by this poor people can require better living standards and services.
2.4.5 Environmental pressure
The biggest environmental pressure for rural people is the lack of profitable land. The land inherited
from the parents is divided to the children and their children. At last the land per farmer becomes so
small that it is unprofitable to farm. On the other hand erosion and land deterioration makes farming
even more difficult. Even when poor farmers have enough land space they can’t always afford and
compete for non-sufficient water resources or fertilizers. Water is sometimes very polluted and
regulations forbid the use of that kind of water because of food contamination. This gives no
opportunity to the poor farmers. They can either continue farming with contaminated water and get
caught with the contamination of crops or try to find some other livelihood. This is the problem in
lower basins of many rivers in developing countries (Sajor 2001).
Water shortage increases social inequity. Poor farmers cannot sink boreholes to the necessary
depths to extract water. Wealthier farmers can benefit by moving inland to buy up more land or
water. The only way to survive for these poor farmers is to move to cities to find some nonagricultural livelihood (UNEP 1999).
2.5 Models to control urbanization
2.5.1
Socialist model
In the past there have been many successful ways of controlling urbanization. Socialism in old
China and Russia was one of these. The method was to control urbanization by the place where
people had born. People who were born in the countryside were not allowed to move permanently
to the urban areas. This means that people have to live at place similar they have been born. They
belong to the rural areas if they were born in there and vice versa. Although, rural people can move
to other rural areas and urban people could move to the similar rural areas. This method was very
effective when controlling urbanization. Thus it doesn’t give alternatives to the inhabitants (Sajor
2001).
2.5.2 South-African model
Other successful method was used in South Africa. The main idea of this method was not to control
the migration of single people but decrease migration with families. Normally, if the migration is
permanent, people bring the whole family to the city. This increases the city population with much
more people than only single migration. The method prohibited migrant people to bring their
families with them. This decrease the rate of permanent migration because normally people do not
want to be in the city alone and the family cannot survive without help on the rural areas. Thus, this
method puts lot of pressure to the women in the countryside because they have to take care of the
whole family when their men are working in the city, even for some part of the year (Sajor 2001).
2.5.3 Example of successful countries
Hong Kong and Singapore are success stories. The question arises how these countries have
achieved and maintained their well-being. This question can be examined by looking at migration,
which is the main problem in the rapid urbanization in many countries. These countries are city
states where uncontrolled migration is impossible. Hinterlands are non-existing so the countries do
not have any countryside to support. The city is easy to control and the only urbanization is
occurring by natural increase and international migration. The international migration is much easy
to avoid than internal migration. Because the natural increase in these developed areas is already
low, the city and infrastructure planning in the region is easy to keep in touch with the slowly
growing demand (Sajor 2001).
There is some irony in city management. The situation is not similar in other countries than in the
city states. If the city is properly management and the facilities are offered, people from rural areas
want to move there. Migration again creates new problems, migrant people need more facilities and
city is unable to keep up with the speed of migration. Thousands of people move to the mega-cities
daily. This is why improvements have to start from rural areas. This can be done by increase of land
production, education, and land reform (Sajor 2001).
3. URBANIZATION AND ENVIRONMENT
3.1 The effect of urbanization on nature
3.1.1
Complexity of environmental problems
Probably most of the major environmental problems of the next century will result from the
continuation and sharpening of existing problems that currently do not receive enough political
attention. The problems are not necessarily noticed in many countries or then nothing is done even
the situation has been detected. The most emerging issues are climate changes, freshwater scarcity,
deforestation, fresh water pollution and population growth.
These problems are very complex and their interactions are hard to define. It is very important to
examine problems trough the social-economic-cultural system. Even the interconnections between
environmental problems are now better known, we still lack exact information on how the issues are
linked, on what degree they interact and what are the most effective measures. One problem is to
integrate land- and water use planning to provide food and water security (UNEP 1999).
3.1.2 Overpopulation
The major cause of most environmental problems is the rapidly growing human population. About
90 million babies are born each year. At this rate, by the year 2050, global population will reach 10
billion. The current world population is on average very young and has many years of reproductive
life ahead. Because of this the population will grow even the fertility rate seems to decrease. The
population growth takes mostly place in developing countries. These countries are in charge of 90
per cent of current population growth. It has been estimated that by the year 2025 even 84 per cent
of the world’s people will live in developing regions (ENCARTA 2001).
3.1.3
Growing demand for food and facilities
Due to the growing population, demands for water, food, housing, heat, energy, clothing, and
consume goods are increasing alarmingly. Rapid population growth not only lessens available
calorie supply from food per person but also risks the present food production with pollution.
Increasing demand forces farmers to exhaust the soil or to use marginal land. The only way to
product food to all this population is to create more effective agricultural production. Irrigation is
the most important way, because in the future the arable land is not increasing, probably decreasing,
due to erosion and land deterioration (ENCARTA 2001, Brookfield and Byron 1993).
At this moment world’s population is 6 billion people. The urbanization is about 50 per cent which
means that half of the population is living in the urban areas and the other half in the rural areas.
This means that the other half of the population, in rural areas, has to produce the food to the
population in urban areas. Most of the population growth takes place in urban areas, which means
more pressure to the rural people to produce food for the growing amount of urban people (Varis
1998, Vakkilainen and Varis 1999).
Growing urbanization means more consumption and need of different products. The production of
these needs water and creates more pollutants. In developing countries where the urbanization is
occurring most rapidly the technology is not high enough to take responsibility of water treatment
and clean production. Many Western companies produce their products in developing countries
because of more flexible environmental law and cheaper production costs. This puts extra pressure
on the environment of the developing countries (Varis 1998, Vakkilainen and Varis 1999).
3.1.3.1 Problems to food production
Plants need water, solar energy and nutrients to grow. Humans can only change few things to help
plants to product more, the amount of water and fertilizer. In the areas where these are needed there
is also often uncertainty of water supply and lacking of capital for fertilizers. Water and food
availability is closely linked together because of the enormous need of green water. For example,
each ton of grain needs 1000 tons of water for successful growth (Allan 1997, Varis 1997b).
The quality of water is often threatened in poor areas due to domestic and industrial wastes.
Agriculture as well produces numerous side effects to water resources, including erosion, leaching
of nutrients, accumulation and wash off of pesticides and heavy metals, increased salinity due to
evaporation losses and spearing of various diseases such as schistosomiasis and malaria
(Vakkilainen and Varis 1999, Varis 1997b).
Until now the increasing of the fertilizers have helped to produce bigger yields. The population
growth is nowadays so fast that increasing use of fertilizers is not enough. The next step in
producing more food will be different crops and irrigation methods, like drip irrigation and water
saver plants (Vakkilainen and Varis 1999, Varis 1997b).
3.1.4 Pollutants to air, soil and water
Even the industrialized countries, with higher standards of living and greater numbers of cars,
produce far more air pollution and greenhouse gases than developing countries, they can reduce
environmental hazards by using technology such as smokestack scrubbers, emission systems, and
wastewater treatment plants. Developing countries do not have this new technology or capacity to
do so. The consumption is far lower but the expensive energy-efficient or clean-up technologies are
economically impractical for these countries. For these reasons environmental problems occur more
often in developed countries (ENCARTA 2001).
3.1.4.1 Air pollutants
In many cities the air is already so polluted that it has been causing illnesses and premature deaths
among elderly people and children. Studies show that disease rate rises when the air pollution level
increases. Air pollutants are also harmful for water and environment, for example, by causing acid
precipitation and acidity of waters. Most of the ambient air-pollution in urban areas comes from the
fossil fuels industry, motor vehicles, heating and electricity generation. In some cities the main air
polluter is the domestic heating. Many people heat their houses with firewood and cheap coal. This
kind of heating method will decrease in the future. Although, new heating methods can be even
worse polluters. Instead of carbon dioxide the emissions can include various toxic and carcinogenic
chemicals, heavy metals, trace organic chemicals and fibers, photochemical pollutants, lead and
carbon monoxide, which are much more harmful to human health (HABITAT 1996).
3.1.4.1.1
Traffic
Almost all cities have changed to motorized road vehicles, which has increased the use of fossil
fuels and increased greenhouse-gas emissions. This explosive growth in the number of road
vehicles is a big problem in many cities. Many city centers have major difficulties trying to cope
with the chaotic automobile traffic. The traffic jams are extremely bad in many cities and transport
traffic in the city area at least during the rush-hours is really slow. The pollution is high due to
constant traffic and causes respiratory diseases to city habitants (HABITAT 1996).
Failed or non-existing urban planning is the main reason for these traffic problems. Rapid
population growth has surprised the capabilities of many cities. Many urban plans have failed in
practice because they have been over-ambitious considering the capabilities. The reasons for this
kind of failure include the lack of proper legal and administrative framework, inadequate technical
skills and financial resources (HABITAT 1996).
Picture 3. 1. Small micro-cars in Jakarta.
3.1.4.2 Water pollutants
The lack of sanitation and sewage treatment is the biggest factor regarding water pollution. Local
water bodies are used as a dumping ground for untreated water from urban areas or industries.
Chemical discharge is also a widespread problem. For example, in Bangkok, 90 per cent of
industrial wastes, including hazardous chemicals, are discharged without treatment. On a positive
note, many countries have introduced legislation to combat the problem (UNEP 1999).
Many rivers in developing countries are more like open sewers than rivers. Most of the centers in
these regions do not have drains or even service to collect the garbage. Fisheries are often damaged
and destroyed by liquid effluents from city-based industries. Thousands of people may lose their
livelihood, because of a large city situated close to the world’s productive fishing regions. The cities
that are close to the coast often dump untreated sewage to the sea. Most of the coastal cities have
serious problems with dirty, contaminated beaches and water which is a serious health risk to the
bathers and for the whole city (HABITAT 1996).
3.1.4.3 Solid wastes
Solid waste management means proper collection, transfer, recycling and disposal of solid wastes.
In many cities the solid waste disposal is inefficient or non-existing. Even more problematic than
household wastes are the industrial, hospital and institutional wastes, which often contains
hazardous and toxic chemicals, not to mention viruses and bacteria. These chemicals need special
care when changing, storing, transposing and disposing them. Still they are allowed to go directly
the water bodies from where they can contaminate the whole water cycle. The disposal of the solid
wastes is often similar than with the liquid ones. They end up to the illegal dump on streets, open
spaces, wastelands, drains or rivers. Sometimes they are collected to the land sites but the protection
of water bodies and groundwater is not active (HABITAT 1996, Ogu 2000).
If solid wastes are left in the open spaces, wasteland and streets serious environmental problems
will follow. With the rainwater much of this waste ends up swept into water bodies. This can lead to
the pollution of ground- and surface waters because of leaching. Solid wastes are sometimes used
for landfill but decomposed solid waste can similarly pollute groundwater through seepage,
particularly in humid tropics. This can have enormous health impacts in developing countries where
the use of well water as drinking water is common. The garbage combustion creates yet another
environmental problem. People want to get rid of the wastes and they burn them in their backyards.
The gases produced by burning can cause different respiratory diseases. Uncollected waste spoils
also the aesthetic outlook of the city (Kasarda and Parnell 1993, HABITAT 1996, Ogu 2000).
The volume of per capita of waste is increasing with the income level due to higher consumption.
This is a big problem in rapidly growing cities where it is really hard to keep up with the waste
production. In the big cities the daily amount of waste can be enormous and hard to handle. In the
lower-income countries the amount of waste is not so big but the problems have more to do with the
collection system. The agencies that are responsibility for the collection and disposal of solid wastes
are often understaffed and underfunded. Also the lack of equipment, like collection trucks, makes
the service unefficient. Because many cities also have poor sanitation, wastes contain a lot of faecal
matter. The risk from the uncollected waste is obvious for small children playing in the streets and
for waste pickers (Kasarda and Parnell1993, HABITAT 1996).
Many city authorities face enormous challenges managing solid waste mountains. The collection
and disposal of the solid waste needs effective co-operation with vendors and collectors. In
developing countries it is normal that less than one-half of the solid wastes are collected. In some
poor countries, for example in West Africa, only 10 per cent of the solid wastes are collected. Even
the city provides waste service it is often spatially concentrated, leaving some parts of the city
unserved (Ogu 2000).
3.1.4.4 Noise
In the urban environment there are many sources of noise. The most serious sources are aircrafts,
industrial operations, highway traffic and construction activities. Current noise levels harm
hundreds of millions people and create serious health treats to tens of millions. Sleep disturbance,
loss of hearing, stress, poorer work performance and increased anxiety are effects from noise. The
noise levels that the inhabitants have to suffer, varies between cities and also between different
areas in the city. Especially in every mega-city people are under constant stress from noise, which
has harmful effects on their health and level of living (HABITAT 1996).
3.2 Water Resources and urbanization
3.2.1 Water resources
The water resources on the earth are locally insufficient because water is not geographically equally
divided and seasonal changes are extensive. Some parts of the world’s water resources are
inaccessible and cannot be used. In places where the lack of water is most severe the needed water
rains so intensively and such a short period during the rainy season to the ground that it will flood
and cannot be stored. Heavy rain also fastens the erosion. Engineers are trying to do their best to
level the uneven distribution by controlling even greater portion of nature’s water cycle. Dams,
water reservoirs and pipelines are also one way to store water for food production, industrial output,
and urbanization (Postel 1992).
Already 20 per cent of the world's population fall short of access to safe drinking water. This
situation is set to worsen dramatically. If current trend holds, per capita water supplies worldwide
will drop by more than a third by 2025. This means that 67 per cent of people will live in a waterstressed condition. The problem is most acute in Africa and West Asia. In Africa, 14 countries
already experience water stress or water shortage. Another 11 countries will join that list in the next
25 years (Somlyódy et al. 2001, Postel 1992).
3.2.2 Access to water
Even if there would be enough water for world population in the earth, it is not always sure that
people can reach those supplies. The most important to the habitants are access to water, the price,
quality and quantity of water. Even the people have an access to the piped water supplies it does not
obviously mean that the water is pure, not contaminated and regular. Also the quantity of water
available to the household and the price that has to be paid, can be even more important to a
families’ health than the quality of the water (HABITAT 1996).
If the area has a piped water service the service is not often regular. In many areas tap water is
working only every other day or twice a week. If the area has piped water it means that water is
piped to a housing unit or public standpipe is as close as 200 meters. In many areas, for example, in
West Africa water has to be carried from wells and pipes from backyard or further. Women or
children are normally responsible of fetching the water. Carrying water for long distances needs a
lot of physical effort and takes time. For example, if the water consumption of family water is 40
liters, which means 4 full buckets of water, the total weight of the carried daily water is 40
kilograms (Kasarda and Parnell 1993, Harday et.al. 2001).
If people do not have an access to the water supply ( public standpipes, yard taps, protected dug
wells or bore holes/hand pumps), they usually rely on one of two sources; water from the wells,
streams or other sources which are often very contaminated; or water purchased from the vendors
where quality is not either guaranteed. Often the price that these vendors are asking from the water
is 4 to 100 times the amount that is paid by richer households for publicly provided piped water.
Normally people buy water from vendors only for cooking and drinking, for other purposes they use
water from poorer quality supplies. It is quite normal that a poor family has to use 5 to 10 per cent
of their total income on the water (HABITAT 1996, Harday et. al. 2001).
3.2.3 Water quantity
3.2.3.1 Water quantity needed for humans
Adequate quantities of water are required for healthy living: for drinking, cooking and washing. The
WHO recommends that the minimum daily amount per person is 27 liters per day. Because of the
population growth and urbanization the gap between per capita water supply and demand is getting
bigger. Population growth also has an effect on demand of food and sewage disposal facilities. This
means bigger demand of irrigation water and bigger water resources. These days in many countries
the water demand is between 20 to 40 per cent of the total runoff, even the sustainable amount
would be 5 per cent. The demand nowadays in many countries is so massive that it needs
investments and a large part of GNP has to be used for the water management (Vakkilainen and
Varis 1999, Kasarda and Parnell 1993).
People in developed countries use much more water than in developing regions. Likewise people
with tap water facilities consume more water than people who have to carry or fetch the needed
water. WHO has estimated that residents who depend on communal taps within 200 meters of their
homes use 20 to 40 liters per capita per day. Households with a single tap on their yard consume 40
to 60 liters and in the high-income areas the consumption is around 200 liters per capita per day. It
is evident that people who fetch their water or buy it from the vendors, consume too small amount
of water in many regions (Harday et.al. 2001).
3.2.3.2 Industrial need of water
Household and even municipal water needs are only a small part of the water supply problem.
Globally the industrial water use is at least twice the domestic use. In addition to this use are vast
quantities of water, which is used by power stations as cooling waters. Also from the domestic use
half of the water is normally used for livestock (Clarke 1991).
Many developing countries are still in the beginning stages of industrialization. These countries are
likely to face severe water problems when they are trying to industrialize and modernize their
economies. It is very likely that growing water scarcities will actually lead to substantial
deterioration and perhaps, the demise of many existing and nebulous industries in some countries.
The amount of needed water for production is sometimes really high. Because of heavy water
demand from urban and industrial activities in Kuala Lumpur, water is stored in two dams upstream
in the Kelang River. The stored water is rarely released which has resulted to the extremely low
flows downstream of the dams. These too low flows are unable to dilute and flush the liquid and
solid wastes generated by urban centers and Kelang River has been converted into an open sewer
(Kasarda and Parnell 1993, Davis 1993, Elhance 1999 ).
Quantity of product
Quantity of water consumed
1 liter of petroleum
1 can of vegetables
1 kg of paper
1 ton of woolen cloth
1 ton of dry cement
1 ton of kapron fiber
10 liters of water
40 liters of water
100 liters of water
600 liters of water
4,500 liters of water
5,600 cubic meters of water
Table 3. 1. Few examples about the need of water in production.
3.2.4 Water quality
Even our planet has a great physical, chemical, and biological systems to clean waters we humans
are even more effective in dirtying it. Fast growth in population, more effective agriculture and
industrial development are the main reasons for the growing amount of pollutants in the waters.
Wastewater from the human settlements contains organic material and nutrients, industrial
wastewater contains heavy metals and complexes, insoluble chemical compounds, which are
harmful to people, animals and plants. Fertilizers and pesticides are used in the agriculture and they
are harmful for the surface and groundwater, traffic loads air, soil and water and irrigation burdens
water with salt. In the developing countries these agglomerations are even worse than in developed
countries because they do not have proper sanitation and the technique are often too old and noneffective (Bowman 1994).
The reduction of pollution, guarding of water resources and the quality of them does not have the
priority in the developing countries that it should have. Even the effects of polluters seems to be
local, the problems grow more often global, because of atmospheric transfer and water drifting. The
bad water quality is limiting people’s level of living. About 35 per cent of the deaths in the world
are caused by water-borne diseases and diseases that transmitted by vectors which live in the water
environment. The quality of water is also important to agriculture, industry, and tourism. Polluted
water is not good for agriculture either. When plants and crops are irrigated with polluted water, the
pollutants may contaminate to the plants and be carried to human bodies by eating. This
contamination can also happen in fishes and other animals. Polluted water may involve diseases or
even deaths to farmers who are working in contaminated water (Bowman 1994).
Water quality is not easy to measure. It is generally described through a set of variables relating to
the physiochemical, and biological properties of water. The health effects are not the only reason to
control water quality, the quality of goods and aesthetic beauty of water in the landscape are also
important matters ( Bowman 1994 ).
3.2.4.1 Salinity
Salinity of water is mainly caused by poor irrigation practice. Water logging followed by
evaporation will deposit salt in the soil. A constant flow of irrigation water will strip salt from the
soil and deposit it when the water evaporates. Soil salinity can not be fixed after it has occurred.
Some of the plant species are salt-tolerant but none of them are important agricultural crops.
Salinity is a very big problem for agriculture and food production now and in the future. Humans
cannot either stand salt water. Drinking salt water causes vomiting, and when used continuously
hypertension and madness (Barke 1884).
3.2.4.2 Acidity
Coal burning in power stations, factories, and for household usage has increased the quantities of
sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere. Nitrogen oxides have also been emitted in the air from engines
of different machines and vehicles. These substances are moving with the wind and their influence
can be global. When these substances react with water, rain and snow the results are harmful;
acidity in water and soil (Bowman 1994).
Acidity of the water has an impact on which substances will dissolve into the water from the
surrounding rocks and pipes. The health risks for humans are not only caused by the acidity but by
the metals, which acid dissolves from the rocks. The most harmful metals are heavy metals and
aluminum. Those accumulate easily to plants, fishes and animals. High concentrations of these
metals can be injurious to humans. Industrial wastewater is a main source of these harmful metals
and in developing countries the treatment of this kind of waste is often careless (Bowman 1994).
3.2.4.3 Organic and inorganic substances
In many cities wastewater treatment is not used at all. Rivers and water bodies are used like sewers.
The high level of organisms in fresh water is related to human and animal excreta, rotten plants and
other particles. These organic compounds use oxygen to break up. High amounts of organic
substances lead to lack of oxygen in water, which is extremely harmful for plants and fishes living
in the water. Chlorinated micro-organisms which are widely used in the industry cause, when
leaked into the water, health problems to humans. These health risks cause cancer and birth
abnormalities.
Inorganic substances are in high amounts injurious to the human health. These substances are, for
example, iodine, fluoride, iron, nitrates and selenium. Some substances, which are mutagens and
carcinogens, are harmful at any level. Most of these fatal substances are released from
agrochemicals used for pest and plant disease control and industrial chemicals (Bowman 1994).
3.2.4.4 Microbiological and biological organism
Fresh water contains naturally many organisms that have an effect on human health. These include
species of viruses, bacteria, protozoa and algae. Some species, like parasitic worms, live only some
stages of their lifecycle in fresh water. Not all of these organisms affect human health but they may
still be hosts to a disease organism. The organisms end up into water from human and animal
excreta by rain, floods or wastewater (Bowman 1994).
3.2.4.5 Water related diseases
Water can affect on human health on many levels; disease-causing agents (pathogens) or pollutants
in water, insufficient amounts of fresh water per person, and physical hazards, like flooding. About
90 per cent of the child deaths in developing countries are due to polluted water. In the near future
in the study regions half of the population will suffer from one or more of the main diseases
associated with inadequate provision of water and sanitation (Harday et. al. 2001).
The water related diseases are caused by disease organisms (bacteria, virus, protozoa) as a result of
ingestion, insects that transfer pathogens to humans, and ingestion of chemical pollutants or
biologically produced toxins. Bacteria and viruses cause diarrhea. This disease is very common,
causing probably 5,000 million infections and 10 million deaths per year. Even the disease is
considered common it is very dangerous disease in developing world when combined with
malnutrition. On the other hand Cholera is not that hazardous but has gained a lot of attention in
Africa and Asia. For comparison 50,000 people have died to Cholera yearly (Bowman 1994, Hillary
1984).
Bilharzia is a parasitic disease transmitted by snails. Over 200 million people are infected and one
million die to this disease yearly. Malaria is transmitted by insects, mosquitoes. It is estimated to
affect over 800 million people and cause 6 million deaths per year. The lack of water supplies
affects on the amount of water used for washing of clothes and food utensils. The various skin and
eye infections, such as scabies and trachoma, are normal in these kind of areas. For example in
Bamako which is Mali’s capital 4 per cent of pupils suffer from scabies (Bowman 1994, Harday et.
al. 2001).
3.2.4.6 Sanitation and waste water treatment
In the developing countries waste management, wastewater treatment and drinking water facilities
are often underdeveloped. A big part of the population in these areas lives without access to safe
drinking water and proper sanitation. Most of the urban centers in Africa and Asia have no sewers
at all. This is not the problem in small cities only many cities with a million or more habitants have
no sewers either. Even the adequate water supply has been taken care of, sanitation and wastewater
treatment are unfortunately often delayed. Sanitation and wastewater treatment are the most
important actions for the environment and consequently for the humans. These actions provide
hygiene for users, avoid human contact with the excreta, reduce diseases and increase well being of
the people (HABITAT 1996, Varis 1997b, Harday et.al. 2001).
Sanitation and water supply have a strong effect on living conditions. The World Health
Organization (WHO) estimated that, even 70 to 80 per cent of the developing countries’ hospital
beds are occupied by patients with waterborne diseases. Normally efficient water supply is
positively linked with higher per capita income and therefore to urban areas. Although, the services
in the city can be even worse than in rural areas, especially in slums and poor settlements
(HABITAT 1996).
3.2.4.6.1
Urban sanitation
Developing countries’ major sources of pollution are untreated or partially treated domestic sewage,
industrial waste effluent, and domestic and industrial garbage. In urban centers, where the size and
density of the settlements are high, sanitation problems are very big. In many cities wastewater are
discharged to the rivers, coastal water and water bodies often without any treatment at all. Even the
city has central sewage system water can be only partially treated or just conveyed. The polluted
water can travel long distances underground when conditions allow. For example laterite soils,
commonly found in tropical climate, can allow the piping of water over significant distances. The
safe distance between latrine and water source depends therefore on the soil conditions (Davis
1993, Kasarda and Parnell 1993).
Wells and springs are open to contamination from pin latrines, septic tanks, and other waste
disposal sites. Septic tanks and other sewage systems if not properly constructed, located, and
maintained, can easily pollute the ground and surface water. Insufficiently treated or untreated
industrial and municipal wastes discharged into water bodies pollute water supplies and pose risks
to human health. Water supply facilities have advanced faster than wastewater management. In
developing countries 75 per cent of urban dwellers had water supply facilities, and only 66 per cent
had sanitation services (Davis 1993, Kasarda and Parnell1993).
Many cities in Asia have no sewers at all. These are not only the smaller cities, many major cities
with a million or more inhabitants have no sewers. If the city has sewers they often serve a small
proportion of the population, typically those who are located in the richer residential, governmental
and commercial areas. Most of the city inhabitants also lack connection to septic tanks. For
example, Jakarta, and some smaller Indonesian cities have virtually no sewage disposal system
(Davis 1993, Kasarda and Parnell1993).
3.2.5 Water reliability and sustainability
In most African and Asian cities recurrent supplies of piped water seem to be the norm, because of
scarcity of needed equipment, material, and skilled personnel. Power outages are also normal. This
irregular electricity supply causes pumps to shut down and reduces water pressure, which creates
problems by damaging the water pumps and water treatment plants. In many cities in developing
countries piping systems are reasonably old, and non-effective. The loss of water by leaking is
enormous. Leakage of water may make up as much as 40 to 60 per cent of the total water supply in
developing cities. The personnel are inadequately trained and monitoring is non-existing (Kasarda
and Parnell 1993).
When considering the sustainability of water infrastructure, all the pieces of the puzzle have to be
taken into account: water supply, quality, quantity, sanitation and irrigation. These pieces have to be
balanced with all the other different sectors, political, economical, and financial realities, social
issues, human resources, institutionalization and operations management, such as pricing, water and
food availability and the importance of education. The connections between water supplies, their
use and sanitation has to be remembered. Unfortunately this is not often custom in municipal water
policies. The all too narrow development schemes have created more problems that they have
created good. For example, boring of deeper wells has led to overexploitation of groundwater
resources and enhanced desertification (Varis 1997b).
Land use planning in and around cities and suburbs is important when protecting the local water
supplies. Unplanned development can end up paving over rainwater’s main point of entry in a key
drinking water source. Especially in the areas dependent on local groundwater, protection of these
critical aquifer recharge areas is essential to ensure that water sources get replenished.
Improvements in water supply of community have also a positive effect on community’s social,
economic and health conditions. The social improvements are reducing the effort and time required
to collect water. This is mainly female work. By this improvement the workload of women can be
lightened. The amount of available water will also rise and have an effect on personal hygiene and
health (Davis 1993).
3.2.5.1 Vicious circles
Vicious circles means that for instance population growth is closely linked to poor child health, low
income, fertility, gender, poverty, education issues, etc. These vicious circles, holistic and
integrated face of water has to be taken account. Water management is very much political, social
and economical wholeness. For example, development of infrastructure in a city may raise ruralurban migration, which surpass the development. This reaction can be prevented only with some
balancing actions in rural areas (Varis 1999, 2001).
Similar reaction is happening in the case where water is considered as an economic good. This
perspective forgets the needs of poor people and nature. Even water is sometimes perceived as an
economic good, its priceless value has to be taken account. In many developing countries water is
treated as an economic good, which is due to the inefficiency or weakness of the government to
provide basic services. If water is been thought as an economic good, the side-effects have to be
contemplated in scales and dimension which are far beyond financial rationality (Allan 1997, Varis
1999).
3.2.6 Groundwater
The overuse of groundwater resources is common in all the developing countries. The countries that
suffer from the bad quality of surface water rely often groundwater sources. Overusing of these
supplies causes land subsidence, which is a serious problem in some cities like Mexico City and
Bangkok. Especially in soil, which is clay, is really hard to maintain the water level back to where it
has been, because soil dries and it is not possible to fill the waterholes for the size they have been.
The growing urbanization and associated industrialization may result over-pumping of
groundwater. This leads to the lower water tables and land subsidence. Groundwater levels
decrease, the pumping of water from lower levels is more costly. Groundwater is in many countries
used for irrigation. In coastal areas, saltwater intrusion into the aquifers can occur. This process
decreases access to water supply by lowering supply and increasing contamination (Kasarda and
Parnell1993, Hillary 1984, Starke 2000).
The pollution of groundwater resources is one of the biggest problems in many regions.
Groundwater has often proven to be a clean and reliable source of water, but now it is threatened
due to a careless disposal of organic and chemical wastes. The groundwater resources are also often
taken for granted and not being protected (Somlyódy et al. 2001).
3.2.7 Coastal waters
In many cities, located near coast wastewater are conveyed to the sea. Therefore this many coast
areas suffer from pollution. The situation is the same in all the study areas: Latin America, West
Africa and South- East Asia. In addition to the wastewater from the cities and industries many areas
are under oil boring, or taking of gravel. Many regions also suffer from remains of the feed and
medicaments used in aquaculture. The heavy traffic in the cities has an effect on the carbon dioxin
amount of the sea, which has increased near the mega-cities. Some nuclear power plants discharge
radionuclides especially strontium and kesium, that can convey to the coasts (Hillary 1984).
3.2.8
Flooding
Construction activities increase impermeable or near-impermeable surfaces, which results in a
reduction of infiltration into groundwater. Storm runoff increases and accelerates, and peak flows
grow. Surface runoff from impervious areas may be hundreds of times greater than runoff from
some natural areas. Coupled with the effects of soil erosion and sedimentation in rivers and canals
resulting from urban construction, flooding in the low-lying areas is more frequent (Kasarda and
Parnell 1993).
3.3 City people
3.3.1 The city environment
The problems that are facing cities, towns, and their people are inadequate financial resources,
increased poverty and a widening gap between rich and poor, unsustainable use of land,
uncoordinated development and insecure land tenure, lack of green spaces and inadequate water
supply and sanitation. These main problems have related to many other smaller problems like, lack
of jobs, spreading homelessness and expanding squatter settlements, growing insecurity and rising
crime, inadequate and deteriorating building stock, services and infrastructure, lack of health and
educational services, rising traffic congestion and more pollution (UN 1996).
The primary problem in the Third World is that the cities continue to grow even the city services are
being narrowed. According to GEO-2000, "inadequate provision of water, sanitation, drainage and
garbage removal" means many people's lives and health are under continuous threat. The problems
on the rural areas have driven people into the cities is also a part of the problem (UNEP 1999,
Gugler 1997).
3.3.1.1 Health problems
Environmental problems in most of the urban centers are evident. Environment-related diseases or
accidents remain among the major causes of illness, injury, and premature death. This is common in
the poorer centers of urban areas. Most of these diseases are caused by pathogens in water, food,
soil, or air. Burns, scalds, and accidental fires are common in overcrowded shelters, especially
where five or more persons live in a small room (Gugler 1997).
The cities have two general categories of human environmental risk: those that directly affect
health, such as pollution, and those that may not be less damaging, but operate indirectly by worsen
the ecosystem that human life depends on. The link between environment and health is evident.
Poor environment, housing and living conditions are the main reasons to the diseases and poor
health. Improvements in sanitation, sewage treatment and quality of food, will prevent diseases like
cholera. The lack of these basic facilities is still general in developing countries. Because of this,
diseases like tuberculosis and diarrhea continuous to be common in the developing world (Kasarda
and Parnell 1993).
3.3.2
Crime
Violent crime is more visible in the cities than in rural areas and it affects people’s everyday life,
their movements and the use of public transportation. Crime in the city can create a sense of
insecurity to its habitants. This unsafe feeling in city streets will separate the living areas of the
higher-income and lower income groups, which will reduce people’s solidarity and form areas with
dissimilar incomes, costs and security level (HABITAT 1996).
At least once every five years, more than a half of the world’s population living in the cities with
100,000 or more inhabitants are victims of a crime of some kind. Only in Asia this proportion is
under 50 percent. Even the overall rate of crimes fell in Asia organized violent crime and drug
trafficking have increased considerably. In the whole world urban violence is estimated to grow 3 to
5 percent every year, but this differs between regions and nations. Violent crime rates have been
growing in the most cities and more slowly also in the rural areas (HABITAT 1996).
Urban violence is a result of many factors and it could be considered as a public health problem.
Inadequate income, poor and overcrowded housing and living conditions create fertile ground for
the development of violence. Also the lack of children’s social support in school and home by their
hard working, usually poor parents are not provided. Immigration is also one reason to the crimes.
Immigrants’ original culture identity will be confound, finding an employment and housing is hard
and racism will be expressed (HABITAT 1996).
3.3.3 Housing and Homelessness
In the study regions between 33 to 67 per cent of the population live in housing units that are in
poor condition. These houses are often made of temporary materials, which do not provide proper
protection against temperature changes, winds or rain. The houses are often small and overcrowded
and also lack facilities like; piped water supplies, the removal of excreta and solid wastes, drainage
and roads. Many migrants move from countryside to live with their relatives, which increase the
occupation of rooms. Still this kind of co-operation is the only way for many migrants to start their
new life in the city (Harday et.al. 2001, Sajor 2001).
The slum areas are common in the mega-cities in the developing countries. For poor people and
migrants these areas are the major place to live. Usually these slums are situated either in the
surroundings of the city where the land is cheap, deteriorated, polluted or then near factories or
other work places. The facilities are non-existing in these areas. The location of the slum area is
often hazardous for the health of the habitants. Governments do not want to increase the facilities,
on the area trying to prevent people living there. These land properties are often owned by the
governments. The living areas can be badly polluted, suffer from floods, and locate near polluting
and hazardous facilities. These are the places where nobody wants to live. This gives an opportunity
to poor people to have an accommodation. The location is important, near the working places,
because poor people have no money to pay for the transportation. Also the lack of proper
infrastructure policies gives opportunities for poor housing (Sajor 2001).
Picture 3. 2. Slum settlements near railway in the city of Bangkok.
It is hard to say how many homeless people there are in the world because so many kind of
homelessness exists. Some people live outside (in shop doorways, parks, under bridges), in public
buildings (in railways, buses or metro stations) or in night shelters. There are also people whose
accommodations are unsafe, temporary and often poor. It is said that there are one billion homeless
people in the world, which is 16 percent of the whole world population (HABITAT 1996).
Because of homelessness many urban dwellers lack adequate protection from rain, flooding, cold,
and heat. Their health and even their lives are threatened by contaminated water and inadequate
sanitation. Shelter also takes the major part of the budget for most urban dwellers and informal
settlements are often the only way for them to get roof on their heads. Anything is good building
material for these people; cardboard, plastic sheeting, plywood, corrugated iron. In every bigger city
there are areas for these kinds of settlements, like Villa el Salvador in Lima, or Klong Toey in
Bangkok (Girardet 1996, Gugler 1997).
Picture 3. 3. Slum settlements and proper houses side by side in Bangkok.
3.3.4 Mis- and unemployment
Besides normal employment so called “ misemployment “ is normal in the cities. It means that a
person might be full-time employed, but the task performed promotes little to social welfare. The
example for this kind of job could be begging. There is also wide range of legal activities, which
can said to be employment to these people. Working in these kind of jobs means working in
informal sector, like selling food on the streets (Gugler 1997).
Informal sector is very big in the cities of developing countries. Many migrants work within the
informal sector -driving motorbike taxis, selling low-cost meals, driving tuc-tucs (open taxis) or
collecting garbage. The informal sector is important to low income country the keep the economy
running. For example, cookers of low-cost meals are the only way the poor factory workers can
have their lunch or dinner. These cookers sell the food with so low price that almost all the city
habitants can buy the food from these vendors. Even this low price from food gives cookers better
level of living in the city than in rural areas. The amount of people who are working with the
informal sector is growing because the population, especially the poor population, in the cities is
growing (Sajor 2001).
Picture 3. 4. Informal restaurant near Phaya Thai skytrain station in Bangkok.
3.3.5 Poverty
Poverty is common in developing countries, even in the countries, that are middle-income countries.
For example in Thailand, which is middle-income country, about 16 per cent of people are qualified
as poor. This means that their income level is below 900 baht in month (23 euros). With this
amount even in Thailand it is impossible to have proper housing, food, pure water or social security.
These people often live in the streets or parks, beg for food and do some temporary work in
informal sector (Sajor 2001, STT 2001).
The percentage of poor people is growing in many countries. Due to such a low income the main
goal for the people is to get their daily meal, water and accommodation. For these people the
environmental problems are not in the front line. Because of this the solving of environmental
problems in developing countries is not easy. The main questions that have to take into account are
poverty and welfare of people. Before the basic level of life will be in a bearable state,
improvements in environmental conditions are impossible, at least the proper co-operation is not
possible (Sajor 2001).
4. URBANIZATION IN STUDY REGIONS
4.1. Introduction to the paragraph
The goal of this paragraph is to compare study regions, and find similarities and disparities between
them. This is done by comparing 21 selected indexes and from those some future prospects and
trends of the regions can be derived. This comparison is made easier by grouping. Countries in the
regions are grouped by their economical status. The groups are shown in the figure below. On the
next tables the differences between the study regions is shown. These graphics are based on the
average. For more detailed information there are tables in the Appendices (pages 107-128), that
present the different subgroups within the study regions.
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4
Group 5
Latin America
Argentina
Mexico
Brazil
Costa Rica
Uruguay
Chile
Panama
Colombia
Venezuela
Belize
El Salvador
Guatemala
Paraguay
Peru
Bolivia
Ecuador
Honduras
Nicaragua
SE Asia
Thailand
Malaysia
West Africa
Guinea
Ghana
Cote d'Ivoire
Philippines
Indonesia
Mauritania
Gambia, The
Cameroon
Togo
Senegal
Central African Republic
Cambodia
Lao PDR
Vietnam
Myanmar
Singapore
Benin
Burkina Faso
Nigeria
Chad
Mali
Niger
Guinea-Bissau
Sierra Leone
Figure 4. 1. Grouping of countries to the study
The indexes are chosen so that they present the regions in different ways. It is important that
different aspects are included in the study. With this wide perspective not only the economical
status of the regions can be compared but also the social and environmental matters, which are
important to human well being. The target period of the indexes is 25 years, but this differs between
the indexes. Anyhow the longest available data is taken to the study.
The data varies a lot between different sources and due to this the data is not always reliable. The
variability of the data can especially be seen in the case of West Africa, where corruption is high
and structure of society is not well formed. Due to this the main idea of this study is to show some
basic lines and trends, not to focus only on the numbers. Even the simplifications are sometimes
rough basic future estimations are easily made.
The table below shows the selected indexes, their definitions, taken time periods and sources of the
data.
Index
Fertility rate
Life expectancy
Age structure
Population in
largest cities
Urbanization rate
HIV
Waste water treatment
sectors
Water pollution from
different sectors
PPP
Period
Definition
1980-97 The number of children that
will be born to a woman
1975-99 The number of years a newborn
infant will live
1975-99 The percentage of population
from total 0-14,15-64 and above 65 years
1980-99 The percentage of urban population
who live in the largest cities
1975-15 The growing rate of urbanization
1995-15 The impact of HIV to life expectancy
1998 The percentage of waste water treated
Source
Regions
WB 1999 SEA, LA, WA
WB 1999 SEA, LA, WA
WB 1999 SEA, LA, WA
WB 2001b SEA, LA, WA
WB 1999 Asia, LA, Africa
UN 2001 SEA, LA, WA
WB 2001b SEA, LA, WA
WB 2001a SEA, LA, WA
which is used for different sectors
1980-88 The percentage of total water pollution
WB 1999 SEA, LA, WA
from different sectors
1975-99 Purchasing power parity
WB 1999 SEA, LA, WA
( current international $)
WB 2001b SEA, LA, WA
Household income
1998 Average household income ( $ )
Commercial energy use 1980-97 Equivalent to kilograms of oil
WB 1999 SEA, LA, WA
School enrolment
1980-97 The percentage of population who have
WB 1999 SEA, LA, WA
been enrolment to the secondary educat.
WB 2001b SEA, LA, WA
Travel time to work
1998 The average time from home to work
WB 2001b SEA, LA, WA
Pregnant women re1998 The percentage of pregnant women who
ceiving prenatal care
are receiving prenatal care
WB 2001b SEA, LA, WA
Electricity
1998 The percentage of population
who have electricity facilities
WB 2001b SEA, LA, WA
Telephone
1998 The percentage of population
who have telephone facilities
Employees in agriculture 1980-98 The percentage of population
WB 1999 SEA, LA, WA
working in agriculture sector
Employees in industry
1980-98 The percentage of population
WB 1999 SEA, LA, WA
working in industry sector
Employees in service
1980-98 The percentage of population
WB 1999 SEA, LA, WA
working in service sector
Unemployment
1980-97 The percentage of population
WB 1999 SEA, LA
who are unemployment
( SEA = South-East Asia, LA = Latin America, WE = West Africa, WB = World Bank,
UN = United Nations)
Figure 4. 2. The indexes and their explanations.
4.2.Selected study regions
4.2.1. Latin America
4.2.1.1.Population growth and urbanization
The population of Latin America was 482 million in 1995 and it is estimated to be around 600
million by 2015. The urbanization in the region is very high, much higher than in other study
regions. It was 74 per cent in the year 1995 and it will grow up to 82 per cent in the next 20 years.
Even the percentage of urban population is so high, the urbanization speed in the future will be half
of what is has been during the past 40 years. After this future decrease the urbanization rate will be
only 0.5 per cent by 2015. In last thirty years the rural population increased only slightly and nearly
all population growth in the region occurred in the urban areas. As in other developing regions,
there is considerable variation in the levels of urbanization between countries. In Argentina, Chile,
Uruguay and Venezuela 80 per cent of the population live in urban areas, in some other Latin
America’s countries far less.
Urban and rural population in Latin America
(millions)
600
Population
700
300
Total
population
500
400
Urban
population
200
Rural
population
100
0
1975
1995
Time (years)
2015
Figure 4. 3. Urban and rural population in Latin America.
In Latin America it is common that urban population is concentrated in the large cities. For
example, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Peru and Uruguay are countries where over 25 per cent of the
urban population lived in the capital city in year 1995. Circa 20 per cent of the Latin America’s
urban population resided in the cities bigger than 5 million and 52 per cent lived in the half a
million cities in year 1995 (HABITAT 1996, Bilsborrow 1998a).
Latin America
by Urban population ( % total )
87
74
62
53
39
to
to
to
to
to
91
87
74
62
53
(3)
(3)
(4)
(4)
(4)
Map 4. 1. Urban population in Latin America.
4.2.1.2.Water
Water resources vary between the countries in Latin America due to climate and geography. The
region consists of different kind of areas with different environmental problems. Still some
problems are common. Even the area has enough water supplies the quality of them is not often
adequate because lack of sanitation and water treatment. The economy between countries also
varies which gives some countries a better opportunity to waste water treatment and water quality
control. Even the control of water resources in some countries is proper the total control in the
region is more than inadequate. Extremely high urbanization puts a pressure on water resources and
their quality. Also the seasons in the region have a high effect on water resources.
In some areas during the dry season the cities lack freshwater. For example, Santiago de Chile uses
almost the entire flow of the Rio Mapocho during the dry season. This amount of water is only used
for irrigation of 16,000 hectares of vegetable and salad crops. Many of the water shortages are due
to inadequate pricing of water. Under pricing of water perpetuates the illusion that it is plentiful and
nothing is sacrificed by wasteful practices. Setting prices closer to the real cost of supplying water
is a key component of both urban and industrial conservation (Postel 1992).
The reservoirs, canals, pumping stations, pipes, sewers, and treatment plants that constitute the
modern water and wastewater system require large sums of money to build and maintain. The lack
of money is evident in the region. Under such constrains, many cities in the Latin America and in
other developing regions cannot meet the water demand of their residents, and large numbers of
low-income residents get no service at all. Also water is lost because of leaking problems. More
than half of the urban water supply simply disappears in Lima and Mexico City (Postel 1992).
In 1990 in Latin America 87 per cent of the population was served with water supply in urban areas
and 62 per cent in rural areas. This means that in the whole region 89.20 million people were
without access to water supplies. Sanitation was arranged to 79 percent in urban areas and 37 per
cent in rural areas. 146.10 million people did not have sanitation. Both services in the study regions
are relatively much lower in rural than urban areas (Pernia and Alabastro1997).
4.2.2. South East Asia
4.2.2.1.Population growth and urbanization
The populations in South-East Asia and Latin America are almost of same size. The total population
of South-East Asia was roughly 480 million in year 1995 and it is estimated to almost double in the
next twenty years, to 650 million. The urbanization level in South-East Asia is similar to the level
of West Africa but remarkably lower than in Latin America. The percentage of urban population
was 34 per cent in 1995 and is estimated to be 49 per cent by the year 2015.
Urban and rural population in SE Asia
700
Population (millions)
600
Total
population
500
400
Urban
population
300
200
Rural
population
100
0
1975
1995
Time (years)
2015
Figure.4.4. Urban and rural population in South-East Asia.
About 16 percent of the population resided in the cities bigger than 5 million and 58 per cent in
lived in the half-a-million cities in year 1995. We can draw conclusions that people in South- East
Asia tend to live in the cities but these cities are much smaller than in Latin America. In the region
the most common city size is half million habitants.
(Bilsborrow 1998)
Urban population
( % total)
100
57
27
21
16
to
to
to
to
to
100
100
57
27
21
(1)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
Map 4. 2. Urban population in South- East Asia.
4.2.2.2.Water
The lack of water resources in South- East Asia is not so evident than in Latin America but the
quality of the water is a problem. When considering water quality issues in the region the pathogen
agents, eutrophication, organic matters, heavy metals and sediment load are the main issues. Also
salinity, nitrate, pesticides and acidification have to be taken account. Because of strong seasonal
variety in rainfall flooding is a big. Urban congestion, water resources, deforestation, marine and
coastal deterioration, sea-level rise and acid rain are also problems that has to be noticed. In the
region rivers typically contain 4 times the world average of suspended solids and 20 times the level
in high-income countries. Bacteria and human wastes amounts in the water are also high, 10 times
the guidelines of the OECD. The faecal coliform level is 50 times higher than the recommendation
of WHO (UNEP 1997, Harday et.al.2001).
The lack of finance is also evident in South- East Asia and therefore the water supply networks are
in bad shape and the whole water resource management in the region is not properly maintained. In
Asia 77 per cent of the urban people have access to water supplies in urban areas and 67 per cent in
rural areas. Urban sanitation is covered for 65 per cent of the population in rural area and 54 percent
in rural areas.
4.2.3. West Africa
4.2.3.1.Population growth and urbanization
The population in West Africa is the lowest of the study regions, it is estimated to be 364 million by
2015. This is one and half times more than the population in the region in 1995. This rapid growth
is caused by high fertility rate. The amount of urban population is growing faster than the rural one.
In year 1995 the percentage of urban population was 36 and it is estimated to grow to 52 by year
2015. Even the urban population growth is so high, the urbanization rate will decrease 25 per cent
in the period of 1975 to 2015 (Bilsborrow 1998).
Urban and rural population in West Africa
700
Population (millions)
600
T otal
population
500
400
Urban
population
300
200
Rural
population
100
0
1975
1995
Time (years)
2015
Figure 4. 5. Urban and rural population in West Africa.
Only about 8 per cent of urban population resided in the cities bigger than 5 million and 58 per cent
lived in the half a million cities in year 1995. It is evident that population in West Africa more often
live in the small cities. This rate is similar to that in South- East Asia. The number of residents
living in the mega-cities of West Africa is lowest from study regions (Bilsborrow 1998).
Urban population
( % of total )
46 to 56
42 to 46
33 to 42
29 to 33
18 to 29
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(4)
Map 4. 3. Urban population in West Africa.
4.2.3.2.Water
In Africa 87 per cent of urban and 42 per cent of rural population have access to water supplies.
Sanitation reaches 78 per cent in urban areas and only 26 per cent in rural areas. However in Latin
America the cap between urban and rural facilities is wide. In West Africa this cap is wider than in
the other regions. The actual percentages of services in West Africa are probably lower than what is
given in this study. The percentages are for whole Africa and the situation, for example, in SouthAfrica is better than in West Africa (Pernia and Alabastro 1997).
4.2.4. Summary of the study regions
The population is highest in SE Asia, 484 million, but the population of Latin America is very close
to it 482 million. Both populations will grow rapidly in near future to 645 and 600 million. The
growth rate is somewhat higher in SE Asia. The population in West Africa is the lowest of the study
regions, 210 million, but it has been estimated to grow to 364 million by 2015.
Nowadays and in the near future the urbanization is highest in Latin America. Anyhow West Africa
and SE Asia are getting closer by year 2015. The rapid increasing in urbanization can be seen
especially in West Africa. At the present the urbanization in West Africa is 36 per cent but already
in 2015 the estimated percentage will be 52 per cent. The situation is fairly similar in SE Asia,
present urbanization is 34 per cent and the estimated percentage by year 2015, is 49 per cent.
Urban population ( % total)
Urbanization trend in study regions
90
80
70
60
50
West
Africa
SE Asia
40
30
20
10
0
Latin
America
1975
1995
Time (years)
2015
Figure 4. 6. Urbanization trend in the study regions.
The freshwater resources are highest in Latin America and lowest in West Africa. From these
supplies the annual withdrawals are highest in West Africa, 11 per cent, and lowest in Latin
America, about two per cent. From these numbers, it can be seen that the water pressure is highest
in West Africa. The best, sustainable withdrawals would be at maximum five per cent. The rate in
West Africa is six per cent higher than this guideline.
Freshwater resources in study regions
35
30
25
cu
ma
Latin America
20
SE Asia
15
West Africa
10
5
0
Freshwater resources per capita
Figure 4. 7. Freshwater resources in the study regions.
% total renewable resources
Annual freshwater withdrawals in study regions
12
10
8
Latin America
6
Se Asia
4
West Africa
2
0
Annual freshwater withdrawals
Figure 4. 8. Annual freshwater withdrawals in the study regions.
The situation is best in West Africa and Latin America when considering water supply services and
sanitation. The services are little lower in SE Asia. The services in rural areas of SE Asia are better
than in West Africa’s and Latin America’s rural areas. The gap between rural and urban services in
West Africa and Latin America is really high. Thus, these percentages are not completely reliable,
due to corruption and local customs in every country. The customs of investigations in developing
countries are not similar to the ones in developed regions. That is why the data is sometimes
unreliable or modified.
4.3.Comparison of the study regions
4.3.1. Population
4.3.1.1.Fertility rate
The common trend is the following; when a country is highly urbanized, the rate of fertility is low.
This kind of trend can be seen, especially in SE Asia. There the fertility rate is lowest of the study
regions even the urbanization is similar than in West Africa. This trend is not clear in all the regions
for example, in Latin America both the fertility rate and urbanization are high. In West Africa the
trend is also similar than in Latin America. There the average fertility rate is highest of the study
regions even the urbanization level is the same than in SE Asia.
Fertility rate and urbanization
Urban population (% total)
100
90
SE Asia
80
70
60
Latin
America
50
40
30
West
Africa
20
10
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
7.5
8
Fertility rate ( children per wo man
Figure 4. 9. Fertility rate is lowest in South-East Asia. (See also appendix 3.)
4.3.1.2.Life expectancy
The life expectancy shows very clearly how different SE Asia and West Africa are. The
urbanization levels in these regions are relatively similar but the life expectancy is really different.
The average life expectancy in SE Asia is 62 years, when in West Africa it is only 45 years. In Latin
America the life expectancy is 68 years, which is only few years more than in SE Asia, even the
urbanization level is twice as high. The future prospects look most positive for SE Asia because the
life expectancy has grown more than the urbanization. Although, in Latin America urbanization has
grown more rapidly than the life expectancy, the trend is positive in all the regions.
Urban population ( %total )
Life expectancy and urbanization
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Latin
America
SE Asia
West Africa
30
40
50
60
70
Life expectancy ( years )
80
Figure 4. 10. Life expectancy is low in West Africa. (See also appendix 4.)
4.3.1.3.Age structure
The typical trend is the following; the higher the urbanization the lower the per cent of young
people and higher the amount of older people. This trend can be best seen in Singapore, where the
trend is like in the developed countries. Also in the rest of SE Asia the percentage of young people
is low and quite similar to in Latin America. The low fertility rate in SE Asia has had a remarkable
impact on the amount of young people in the region, which is good regarding the population
growth. Even the urbanization rate is similar in West Africa and in SE Asia the age trends are
different. The population is younger in West Africa, because the region is unable to control the
fertility rate and extend the life expectancy.
Urban population ( % total )
Population 0-14 years and urbanization
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Latin
America
SE Asia
West
Africa
15
25
35
45
Population ages 0-14 (% total )
Figure 4. 11. The amount of young population is highest in West Africa. (See also appendix 5.)
The similar trend can be seen also in the figure below. The percentage of middle age population is
lowest in West Africa and similar in Latin America and SE Asia. The trend in West Africa is not
increasing, but the trend in SE Asia and Latin America shows that in the future there will be more
people with ages 15-64 years even the urbanization is not growing as rapidly as in West Africa.
Urban population ( % total )
Population 15-64 years and urbanization
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Latin
America
West Afrca
SE Asia
45
50
55
60
65
70
Population ages 15-64 years ( %total )
Figure 4. 12. The amount of middle age population is lowest in West Africa. ( See also appendix 6.)
The percentage of elderly people is growing both in the SE Asia and Latin America, although the
growth is most rapid in Latin America. In West Africa the percentage of older people has stayed
still or even decreased, even the urbanization has increased.
Population above 65 years and urbanization
Urban population ( % total )
100
90
Latin
America
80
70
60
SE Asia
50
40
30
West
Africa
20
10
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Population above 65 years ( % total )
Figure 4. 13. The amount of elderly people is highest in Latin America. ( See also appendix 7.)
4.3.1.4.Population in the largest cities
In Latin America the amount of population in the largest cities increases with the urbanization
growth. This means that the population tends to live in the big cities. The situation is different in SE
Asia and West Africa. There the people rather live in smaller cities than in mega-cities.
Population in largest cities and urbanization
Urban population (%total)
100
90
80
70
Latin America
60
SE Asia
50
West Africa
40
30
20
20
30
40
50
60
Population in largest cities (% urban population)
Figure 4. 14. In Latin America people tend to live in large cities.
4.3.1.5.Urbanization
In the past, between 1975 to 1995, the urbanization rate was highest in West Africa. Nowadays the
rate in West Africa has decreased and the urbanization trend is alike in SE Asia. Even the
urbanization is highest in Latin America the urbanization rate is lowest of the study regions, only
one third of the rate in other regions. The future urbanization will occur in SE Asia and West
Africa.
Urbanization rate in study regions
Urbanization rate (%)
3
West
Africa
2.5
2
1.5
SE Asia
1
0.5
Latin
America
0
1975-1995
1995-2015
Time (years)
Figure 4. 15. Urbanization rate is similar nowadays in West Africa and SE Asia.
4.3.1.6.HIV
HIV has a big effect on regions’ population growth and life expectancy. The effect is biggest in
Africa where the age difference can be almost nine years. The situation is almost as bad in Asia. In
Latin America the affect of HIV to life expectancy is not so notable. Anyway the situation is getting
worse in all the regions and more people will get HIV/AIDS contagion. During 2001 it is estimated
that in Latin America 180 000, South & South- East Asia 800 000 and Sub Saharan Africa 4.4
million adults and children will be newly infected to HIV. Due to this the decreasing influence to
the population growth especially in Africa is evident (Unicef 2001).
1995-2000 2000-2005 2010-2015
Asia without AIDS
62.8
64.9
68.9
Asia with AIDS
56.9
57.5
60.4
Difference
5.9
7.4
8.5
Latin America without AIDS
66.9
68.2
70.7
Latin America with AIDS
66.1
67.2
69.5
Difference
0.8
1
1.2
Africa without AIDS
54.8
57.1
61.2
Africa with AIDS
48.3
48.2
52.4
Difference
6.5
8.9
8.8
Figure 4. 16. Aids have an effect on the people’s life expectancy. (PDDESA 2001)
4.3.2. Water
4.3.2.1.Wastewater treatment
Wastewater treatment is not common in any of the study regions, but the percentage of treated
water is biggest in Latin America, where about 24 per cent of the wastewater are treated. The
situation is very bad in West Africa and South- East Asia where the percentage of wastewater
treatment is only 14 per cent. This means that the main part of the waste waters from households
and industries are going straight to the water bodies.
W astewater treated and urbanization
Urban population (% total)
100
90
80
70
Latin A merica
60
SE A sia
W estA frica
50
40
30
10
15
20
W astewatertreated (% )
25
Figure 4. 17. Wastewater treatment is most common in Latin America.
4.3.2.2.Water use for different sectors
Agriculture is the main consumer of water in all the regions and irrigation is the principal reason for
this high consumption. The percentage used for agriculture is highest in South- East Asia, where
almost 90 per cent of the water withdrawals are used for this sector. In Latin America and West
Africa the consumption of water for agriculture is at similar level but not as high than in SE Asia.
Domestic use is the second biggest consumer sector and it is especially high in West Africa, where
it is one fourth of the total use. This sector is not so big in every region, for example, in SE Asia the
water withdrawals for domestic use is only seven per cent. The water use for industry sector is
biggest in Latin America where it is around ten per cent, which tells about the high production.
Industry sector is lowest in SE Asia, only four per cent.
Freshwater withdrawals for different sectors
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Domestic
Industry
Agriculture
Latin America
SE Asia
West Africa
Figure 4. 18. Freshwater withdrawals for different sectors in study regions.
4.3.2.3.Water pollution from different sectors
In all the regions food industry is the main water polluter, thus, the effect has decreased in Latin
America and SE Asia in last twenty years. Especially in SE Asia the decreasing has been
considerable. Textile industry is the second biggest polluter but it has also decreased from the past.
The trend is different with pulp and paper, which have increased, except in West Africa.
Even food industry is the main polluter in the all regions it is highest in West Africa and lowest in
SE Asia. The effects of pulp and paper are biggest in SE Asia and lowest in West Africa. The textile
industry is the biggest polluter in Latin America compared to other regions.
Water pollution from different sectors
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Others
Paper and pulp
Textile industry
Food industry
1980 1998
Latin America
1980 1998
Se Asia
1980
1998
West Africa
Figure 4. 19. Water pollution from different sectors. (See also appendix 8.)
4.3.3. Economy
4.3.3.1.Purchasing power parity, PPP
Normally the PPP (purchasing power parity adjusted gross domestic product) in a country follows
urbanization, which means that higher the urbanization, higher the PPP. (Especially in Singapore
this trend has occurred clearly). In Latin America the PPP is almost twice as high than in SE Asia
and three times higher than in West Africa. The last named trend has occurred in other regions than
in West Africa, where the urbanization has grown but the PPP has not shown any sign of increase.
In South-East Asia the trend has been more positive and due to this it can be projected to move
towards the Latin America’s trend in the future. Especially this increasing trend can be seen in
Thailand and Malaysia.
PPP and urbanization
Urban population (%total )
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
Latin
America
SE ASia
30
20
West
Africa
10
0
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
PPP ( current international $)
Figure 4. 20. Purchasing power parity is highest in Latin America. ( See also appendix 9.)
4.3.3.2.Average household income
The biggest average household income in the study regions is in Latin America, where the amount
is about 6100 $ in year. This is remarkably higher than in other regions. The income in South- East
Asia is half of this and only one fifth in West Africa. Even the situation is not so good in SE Asia
than in Latin America it is better than in West Africa, where the amount of average household
income is less than half of the SE Asia’s.
Average household income and urbanization
Urban population (%total)
100
90
80
Latin America
70
SE Asia
60
West Africa
50
40
30
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
Average household income $
7000
Figure 4. 21. The average household income is higher in SE Asia than West Africa.
4.3.3.3.Commercial energy use
The commercial energy use is highest in Latin America thus the usage in South-East Asia is not far.
Particularly in Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore the use is even higher than in many Latin
American countries. The growing trend is similar in SE Asia than in Latin America. In West Africa
the commercial energy use is much lower than in other regions and it has stayed almost stagnant
from many years even the urbanization has grown.
Urban population ( %total )
Commercial energy use and urbanization
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Latin
America
West
Africa
Se Asia
0
1000
2000 3000 4000 5000
6000 7000 8000
Kg of oil equivalent ( per capita )
Figure 4. 22. Commercial energy use is highest in a few SE Asian countries. ( See also appendix 10.)
4.3.4. Level of living
4.3.4.1.School enrolment (secondary)
The school enrolment in SE Asia is already on the same level than in Latin America even the
urbanization is lower. This is one really important factor when projecting SE Asia’s future. School
enrolment will be one of the main factors in the development of SE Asia. In West Africa the school
enrolment is still very low and the growing trend is almost non-existing. The growing trend in SE
Asia is similar to that in Latin America.
Urban population ( % total )
School enrolment (secondary) and urbanization
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Latin
America
SE Asia
West Africa
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
School enrolment (%)
Figure 4. 23. School enrolment is similar in SE Asia as in Latin America. ( See also appendix 11.)
4.3.4.2.Travel time to work
In Latin America the travel time to work is shortest of the study regions, average 27 minutes.
Anyway this is the average and in many cities the situation is different, for example, in Montevideo
and Buenos Aires the travel time is 45 minutes due to enormous traffic and city population. The
situations are different in many SE Asian and West African cities, where the travel times are easily
more than 40 minutes. In these regions the situation is worst in Bangkok, Lagos, Bangui and
Yangon, where the travelling to work takes over 60 minutes. This is mainly due to lack of finance,
roads, space, vehicles, gasoline and bridges.
Travel time to work and urbanization
Urban population (%total)
100
90
80
Latin America
70
SE Asia
60
West Africa
50
40
30
25
30
35
40
Travel time to work (minutes)
45
Figure 4. 24. Travel time to work is shortest in Latin America.
4.3.4.3.Pregnant women receiving prenatal care
In Latin America about 80 per cent of the women population enjoys prenatal care, which is
relatively lot. Also in SE Asia the percentage is high, only few percents lower than in Latin
America. In those regions the service is quite well organized and this is also one reason for lower
fertility rates. The situation in West Africa is different. There only 62 per cent of the female
population are under prenatal care system. On the other hand, this percentage is high, when
considering West African household income and other similar factors.
Pregnant women receiving prenatal care and
urbanization
Urban population (% total)
100
90
80
Latin America
70
SE Asia
60
West Africa
50
40
30
60
65
70
75
80
Pregnant women receiving prenatal care ( % total)
Figure 4. 25. Prenatal care is poorest in West Africa.
4.3.4.4.Electricity
The percentage of households supplied by electricity is highest in SE Asia, where the percentage is
high, even 92 per cent. In Latin America the electricity facilities are on a quite similar level, only
few per cents lower. In West Africa the percentage is again much lower, less than half of the
population has electricity service.
Electricity and urbanization
Urban population (%total)
100
90
80
70
Latin America
60
SE Asia
50
West Africa
40
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Electricity (%)
Figure 4. 26. Electricity is best served in SE Asia.
4.3.4.5.Telephone
Telephone services are at similar level in SE Asia and Latin America, where about 60 per cent of
the population are served with telephone connections. However in both regions there are countries
where telephone is served with notably lower percent. The percentage in West Africa is remarkably
lower, only less than ten per cent of the people in the whole region enjoy telephone services.
Telephone and urbanization
U rban population (% total)
100
90
80
70
Latin Am erica
60
SE Asia
W estAfrica
50
40
30
0
20
40
Telephone (% )
60
80
Figure 4. 27. Telephone services are very poorly offered in West Africa.
4.3.5. Employees in different sectors
4.3.5.1.Employees in agriculture
The amount of employees in agriculture is high in West Africa and SE Asia. The percentage is
highest in West Africa where three fourths of the population are working in the agricultural sector.
In SE Asia almost half of the population works with this sector and in Latin America the amount is
even lower, only 15 per cent. In West Africa one different factor is that female works with the
agriculture more often than males. This is not the case in other regions. The agriculture as an
employment is the most important for West African people and least important for Latin America.
Urban population ( % total )
Employees in agriculture and urbanization
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Latin
America
SE Asia
West
Africa
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Employee in agriculture ( % of economic.active)
90
Figure 4. 28. Agriculture is the main employer in West Africa. ( See also appendices 12-14.)
4.3.5.2.Employees in industry
Industry is also a big employer in the study regions. In Latin America, which is economically more
developed, more people are working with the industry than in other regions. Anyhow the situation
in SE Asia is not much different and the percentage of employees in this sector is just few per cents
lower. The difference is big when comparing West Africa and Latin America. The per cent of
people in industry sector in Latin America is four times the percentage than in West Africa. In every
region male are more common workers in the industry, still the difference is not so significant,
except in Latin America.
Urban poputation (%total)
Employees in industry and urbanization
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Latin
America
SE Asia
West Africa
5
15
25
35
45
Employee in industry ( % of economic. active
Figure 4. 29. Industry sector is biggest in Latin America. ( See also appendices 15-17.)
4.3.5.3.Employees in service
Service is the most important sector in Latin America, where the percentage of people working in
this sector is average 65 per cent, which is very high. In Latin America females are more likely to
work in the service sector. This similar trend is also occurring in other regions. In SE Asia service is
also an important employer, one third of the employees are working in this sector. In West Africa
service is not that important, the percentage of employees in service in SE Asia is twice as high than
in West Africa.
Urban population (%total)
Employees in service and urbanization
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Latin
America
SE Asia
West
Africa
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Employee in service (% of
Figure 4. 30. Service is the main employer in Latin America. ( See also appendices 18-20.)
4.3.5.4.Unemployment
The unemployment rate in SE Asia is lower than in Latin America. Unemployment seems to be
decreasing in SE Asia with urbanization. In Latin America the trend is not so positive the
decreasing trend seems to be reverse. The unemployment among the young population is lowest in
the SE Asia. It is twice as high in Latin America, although it has started to decline. Unemployment
is highest among the young females in both of the regions. The data of unemployment in West
Africa was not available.
Urban population (%total)
Unemployment and urbanization
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
SE Asia
Latin America
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Unemployment (% total)
Figure 4. 31. Unemployment is higher in Latin America than SE Asia. ( See also appendices 21-22.)
4.3.6. Summary
When comparing study regions by different factors, it can be seen that South-East Asia is different
from the other regions in a positive way. The urbanization in South-East Asia is similar to West
Africa’s and remarkably lower than in Latin America. With these facts it may be assumed that the
signs will be most positive in more developed Latin America and similar in South- East Asia and
West Africa. Anyway the case is not like that because South- East Asia shows many factors that are
in the same level than in Latin America and better than in West Africa.
Fertility rate is lowest in South- East Asia compared to other study regions. In SE Asia the trend,
which is normally seen in developed countries, is occurring already- the higher the urbanization, the
lower the fertility rate. This will have a strong effect on SE Asia’s population growth in the future.
Life expectancy is also high in South- East Asia although little less than the average in Latin
America. Life expectancy is increasing in every study region, thus, not so rapidly in West Africa,
where the life expectancy is lowest of the regions. This means that the quality of life and food and
proper healthcare are increasing in all the areas.
The age structure is also different in West Africa. In South- East Asia and Latin America the
amount of middle-aged and elderly people is increasing, like in the developed areas. The trend is
different in West Africa where young population seems to be increasing and the percentage of older
people is even decreasing. Because of this the population growth is evident in West Africa. Even
the fertility rate will decrease the percentage of fertile people is higher than in other study regions.
Even the urbanization is highest in Latin America the situation may be different in the future. The
urbanization rate in Latin America has been decreasing and nowadays it is lower than in West
Africa and Latin America. The urbanization rate has been highest in the past in West Africa but it
has decreased to the same level than in South- East Asia. From this it can be estimated that the
urbanization trend in these both regions will be similar. Because the speed of urbanization has
decreased from the past in both regions the urbanization won’t be so high in the future than it is in
Latin America.
School enrolment in South-East Asia and Latin America is almost in the same level, even the
urbanization level is different. In West Africa the level of school enrolment is very poor and the
growing trend is almost non-existing. In South- East Asia the growing trend of the school
enrollment is really rapid compared to urbanization growth. This is really positive for SE Asia and
with this fact fair estimations of the region can be made about the positive future, urbanization and
its affects.
The average household income, PPP and commercial energy use are lowest in West Africa and
highest in Latin America, and these factors are not so low in South- East Asia either. In South- East
Asia all these factors are in growing trend which is positive. In West Africa increasing is not
occurring and the factors seem to stay stagnant even the urbanization is growing rapidly. The main
facilities like telephone and electricity is served worst in West Africa. In South- East Asia these
facilities are properly served and the rates are highest from the study regions.
Agriculture is the main employer in West Africa and South-East Asia. In these regions the
percentages of people working in the service and industry sectors are lower but still remarkably,
especially in South-East Asia. In Latin America the service and industry sectors are more common
than agriculture. This shows clearly the stages of developing. In the developed regions agriculture is
the minor employer and the service is the major. Development means in other worlds changing
from agricultural society to service society. This has happened already in Latin America and will
happen soon in South- East Asia. West Africa is still far away from this change.
As a summary of all these factors it can be projected that the future in South-East Asia will be
different from that in Latin America or West Africa. Almost all the factors are more positive in SE
Asia when taking account regions urbanization and economic factors. Even the urbanization level is
similar than in West Africa, the other factors are far above. South-East Asia is almost in the same
level than the Latin America with many factors, which is positive. Due to these factors South-East
Asia will be in better position to control urbanization and environmental problems. This will change
the future trend, and SE Asia will not reach the Latin American levels. The situation of West Africa
is not so rosy; they have to fight first with the basic problems before they can struggle with the
environmental factors. Due to this urbanization will grow uncontrolled and urban and rural planning
will be non-existing, which will make the environmental problems worse in the future.
In the figure below some of the indexes are collected to help comparing the factors between the
regions. In this table the regions’ most positive index is marked with plus (+), next positive with
zero (0), and the worst with minus (-). The total presents the basic trend of each region. From the
results of the table it can be said that the situation is best in Latin America, but as said in the
beginning the situation in SE Asia is not so bad either. Unfortunately the direction of West Africa is
the worst and positive trend cannot be seen.
Fertility rate
Life expectancy
Age structure
Pop.in largest cities
Urbanization rate
HIV
Wastewater treatment
PPP
Av.household income
Commer.energy use
School enrolment
Travel time
Prenatal care
Electricity
Telephone
Unemployment
Total
Latin America
SE Asia
West Africa
0
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
0
+
+
+
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
+
0
+
0
+
0
0
0
-
Figure 4. 32. Summary of the indexes.
5. CASE STUDY OF BANGKOK
5.1 Geography and Climate
Bangkok, which is mega-city of South-East Asia, has been the capital of Thailand already 221
years. Thailand is a democratic monarchy in the hearth of South East Asia and it shares borders
with Burma, Laos, Cambodia and Malaysia. Bangkok is located to the fertile Central Plains of
Thailand, which is very rich rice growing region. BMR is extremely flat, extensively irrigated, and
very rich agriculturally. The city is situated on the banks of Chao Phraya River, which is highly
navigable river and gives a good access to the open seas. The center of Bangkok is about 50 river
kilometers north of the Gulf of Thailand (MWWA 1969, Cummings 1999).
Bangkok lies in the humid tropics and lasts hot throughout the year. There are three main seasons in
the region: the cool season (November to February), the hot season (April to May), and the rainy
season (June to October). These seasons are depending on the monsoon rains in any given year and
they have a strong effect on habitant’s lives. The average annual rainfall in Bangkok region is 1,482
millimeters (Thailand in a Nutshell 2001, Thadanithi 1998).
Picture 5. 1. View of Bangkok.
5.2 Economy
Thailand was affected with the South East Asian’s recent economic crisis. However, the economy
process is recovering today and now the economic in the whole country has an annual growth of six
per cent. One of the reasons for this economy boom is manufacturing export goods rather than
relying simply on agricultural production. There are also many other important factors as fiscal
policy, direct foreign and domestic investments, well educated labor force and the growth of
tourism. Thailand’s major products are jewels, gems, garments, computers and integrated circuits.
Country’s major trading partners are the ASEAN, USA and EU (TDRI 1990, Thailand in a Nutshell
2001).
During the last decade, half of the total national economic growth in Thailand was due to activities
in Bangkok and its vicinity. Bangkok is the center for industrialization and the country’s foreign
trade. The city is the center of Thailand’s distribution network and the largest consumer market.
Export industries are also located in Bangkok due to the port facilities. Unlike other cities in the
developing countries, commercialization is a major factor for the growth of Bangkok rather than
industrialization (Brookfield and Byron 1993, Thadanithi 1998).
5.3 Population
The population of Bangkok has increased slowly in the past until year 1975. After this, in last 25
years, the city has changed a lot due to the international effect. The population of the city was only
1,5 million before Bangkok became a destination for American servicemen during Vietnam War.
The U.S dollars attracted rural poor and development began. The city grew more than 8.5 million in
25 years. This is nearly 15 percent of the country’s population and 40 times the size of any other
city in Thailand. Today 69 per cent of urban population in the country is located in Bangkok
(Cummings 1999).
Population in Bangkok
7000000
Population
6000000
5000000
4000000
Population
3000000
2000000
1000000
0
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
Time (years)
Figure 5. 1. Population in Bangkok.
The population of Bangkok City is nowadays about 10 million but it is projected to increase to 12.6
million by year 2010. In extended BMR the population was 12 million in year 1990, and it is
estimated to be even 17 million by year 2010. This shows that the Bangkok suburban is growing
faster than the city center. The population density in the city is 3,700 persons per km2, which is
highest rate in Asia (TDRI 1990).
5.3.1 Urbanization
In the past Thailand had among the lowest levels of urbanization in Asia but nowadays Thailand is
about to enter a period of rapid urbanization. It is estimated that between 1990 to 2010 the net
increase in rural population in Thailand will be 0.3 million, while urban population will increase by
15 million. Because of this fact it is possible that Thailand will reach the urbanization level of 60 to
70 per cent by 2025, even the urbanization is at present around 27 per cent (TDRI 1990, Awang et
al.1994, Pernia and Alabastro 1997).
5.3.2
Migration
Over-population in Bangkok is mostly caused by uncontrolled migration from rural areas. Due to
strong urban pull and rural push people continue to move in Bangkok. In Bangkok migrants have
more work opportunities and better facilities than in rural areas. Migrants work normally with
production, sales and service. In Thailand males are more likely to migrate to Bangkok than
women. The migration is mostly concentrated in educated people or young adults, between 15-29
years (Thailand in a Nutshell 2001, Bilsborrow 1998c).
About one third of all internal migration to Bangkok is temporary and these flows are dominated by
males. Migration can also change with seasons, economic trends and the amount of work
opportunities. For example, when economy collapsed in 1997 many people moved back to the
countryside and sold their cars, which on the other hand helped Bangkok’s traffic and population
problems. Anyway the economy bounced back in 1999, and the again the migration started to
increase the population of Bangkok as well as the problems (Thailand in a Nutshell 2001,
Bilsborrow 1998c).
5.3.2.1 Push and pull factors
The main push factors for people to move to Bangkok are deforestation, loss of biological diversity,
soil erosion, flooding, constructions, waters shortages and other natural resource related problems.
Most of the reasons are somehow connected with the environment or economy. For example the
northeastern region in Thailand is losing population because of poverty, few economic
opportunities, and declining in potential earning from agriculture (Suphapodok and Chueyprasit
1994, Awang et al.1994).
Bangkok is a big commercial center and attracts people. It seems very fancy and full of economical
opportunities for poor people. Already the name of the city Khrung thep, “The City of Angels”
reflects the positiveness and safety of the city. At least some part of this image is true because the
possibility for poor people to have better level of living is higher in Bangkok than in rural areas
(Sajor 2001).
5.3.2.2 Policies to reduce migration to Bangkok
For the last two decades, the policy of Thai government has tried to reduce the migration flows to
Bangkok. Migration is seen as the main factor deteriorating the environmental and social situations
associated with the rapid population growth. Until the early 1990s the main policy was to develop
growth centers in each of the main regions of Thailand to invite people move to them instead of
Bangkok. In 1992, policies were also adopted to hold back seasonal migration to Bangkok by work
and training schemes during the dry season in areas of high seasonal out-migration (Bilsborrow
1998c).
5.4 Water resources
5.4.1 Water supply
Domestic and industrial water supplies in the BMR are provided by combination of groundwater
and surface waters. In the outlying areas of Bangkok water supply systems are mainly groundwaterbased while the systems supplying central Bangkok area are undergoing a transition from the
groundwater based system to fully integrated, surface water based system of the future. This is very
important to the city because the use of groundwater is already over the supply. The water supply
has become fragile in the city, because groundwater aquifers in and around Bangkok are gradually
depleted and surface waters (rivers) have become unsuitable, due to industrial and domestic wastes.
At least 100.000 persons are estimated to obtain water straight from canals and waterways that are
grossly polluted by human waste and industrial effluent (TDRI 1990).
MWA is responsible for pipe water supplies in Bangkok and surrounding towns. Despite
considerable expansion of the distribution system in last years, the MWA is still able to supply only
43 per cent of the area and 66 per cent of the population under responsibility. Public, or piped
water, is lacking particularly in the urban fringe of Bangkok. Growing sources of demand for pipe
water in BMR include domestic, commercial and industrial establishments (TDRI 1990).
5.4.2 Demand of water
During the 1980s the water demand for MWA in Bangkok was 282 million cubic meters per year.
The demand grew at the rate of 8 per cent annum, to 2.1 billion cubic meters per year by 2000.
Biggest part of this used water is discharged for BMR industries and households. The whole
country’s water demand is 53 billion cubic meters per year, but even 90 per cent of this amount are
needed for irrigation. The demand is estimated to grow to 70 billion cubic meters per year in the
next 10 years mainly due to expanding irrigation and tourism (TDRI 1990, Pattanee 2001).
5.4.3 Waste water treatment and sanitation
The problem is striking in Bangkok where the development of sanitary and water supply facilities
cannot match the rapid industrialization and population growth. In the Chao Phraya River, which is
the main surface water source in BMR, the water quality has been increasingly deteriorated since
more population has settled along it and used the river as a sink to discharge domestic and industrial
wastes. The main pollutant sources to Chao Phraya River are factories, households and restaurants
(Dai 1997, Klemmensen et al.2000).
The existing household water treatment capacity in Bangkok serves only about 2 per cent of the
people. Normally the wastewater from most households is deposited to septic tanks, cesspools, and
then discharged storm water drains. The domestic effluent accounts 75 per cent of the pollutants
discharged into the Chao Praya River (BOD load), while factories account only 25 per cent. Among
the non-industrial sources household effluents account for over 54 per cent of the pollution,
restaurants markets, hospitals, hotels, dormitories are responsible for 46 per cent (Klemmensen et
al.2000, Kasarda and Parnell 1993).
Most of the factories in Bangkok use old and heavily resource-demanding machinery. In Thailand
there are 76.000 companies, which are registered as polluting factories. Still only 10 per cent of
these factories have wastewater treatment and the biggest part of them are concentrated in the
Bangkok region. Although large factories are required to install water treatment facilities, this does
not apply for many medium and small sized plants which normally discharge their effluents straight
to rivers and water bodies (Klemmensen et al.2000, Kasarda and Parnell 1993).
5.4.3.1 The quality of water
The water standards are dependent on the needed purpose: natural beauty, coral conservation,
tourism, domestic or industrial use. The inner Gulf of Thailand, nearest to Bangkok region, is
declared as an industrial zone and the water standards for it do not have standard for chromium,
zinc, nickel or copper. The standardization makes production and pollution much easier for the
companies and similarly deteriorates the quality of the seawater (Klemmensen et al.2000).
The quality of water in Bangkok central area Klongs is less than satisfactory. The water is black
with pollution and unable to support marine life. The canals are suffering from oxygen deficiency
and they often give off offensive odors. The result of water quality monitoring in Chao Phraya
River showed (during the dry season) that at least the lower part of the river is in crisis. DO was
lower than the recommended standard for household purposes. Also BOD did not meet the
standards and either faecal choliform bacteria, mercury, heavy metals, or chemical fertilizers (Ross
and Pongsomlee 1992, Dai 1997).
5.4.4
Flooding
The location of Bangkok is bad for flooding. The city is located to deltaic plain of the Chao Phraya
River, which suffers flooding during the monsoon season. The main reason for this is that the
ground levels in the city rank only 0.5 to 1.7 meters above mean sea level. Other reason is that
natural drainage system and irrigation canals have been filled as a part of the malaria eradication
program and to make way for roads. Due to this and poorly maintained storm sewers, the remaining
canals cannot cope with the runoff on an ever increasing impervious surface area. Dikes, pumps and
water gates are already under construction in eastern Bangkok to provide protection for the people
in flooded areas (Awang et al.1994, Thadanithi 1998, Klemmensen et al.2000).
5.4.5 Subsidence
Unlimited exploitation of aquifers can lead to land subsidence. In 1982, groundwater extraction
from deep aquifers in Bangkok equaled 1.4 million cubic meters per day, far exceeding the
estimated safe limit of 600 thousand cubic meters, through natural recharge. As a result of this,
piezometric levels in the wells have been declining rapidly and the ground level has subsided by
more than 0.5 meters. Some parts of the city subsidence have been 10 centimeters per year. Overuse
of groundwater supply is worst in central and eastern Bangkok (Kasarda and Parnell 1993, Awang
et al.1994).
In Bangkok the total groundwater use is 2 million cubic meters per year, where from industry uses
1.5 million cubic meters. Furthermore industry may use as much as 1.6 million cubic meters in
unreported underground pumping. Industries heavy reliance on groundwater is due to lack of access
to piped water, unreliability or insufficiency of the piped water supplies and the lower cost of
groundwater. The private cost of groundwater pumping is 2 baht per cubic meters while average
rate of pipe water is 6 baht per cubic meter (Sajor 2001, TDRI 1990).
Subsidence is not the only problem when considering groundwater pumping, salt-water intrusion
has become one of the major problems of groundwater. The rapid lowering of the water table by
excessive extraction of groundwater has caused the shallow aquifers in Bangkok to become
contaminated by salt water from the nearby ocean (UNEP 1997).
5.4.6 Water resources management
In the past, Thailand did not pay much attention on water resources management. Water had been
plentiful supply and one could have easily obtained almost any amount of water from the rivers,
lakes, canals and rainfalls. Most of water programs were then dedicated to water resources
development. Such a trend continued even when the population had rapidly increased over the past
few decades and economic activities had significantly expanded. Today the quality of water in
Bangkok is mainly controlled by environmental laws and end-of-pipe-solutions. The controlling is
inadequate and the financing is too low. For example, Thailand spends less than 0.24 per cent of the
GNP on environmental protection, compared to 1.2 per cent by OECD countries ( Pattanee 2001,
Klemmensen et al.2000, TDRI 1990).
Environment and water problems are also controlled by EIA. The government demands EIA for
constructions, industries and projects, which are though to be hazardous for environment. Because
of corruption and social relations the per cent of EIAs which are done is not so high. Corruption is
very high in Bangkok and South East Asia. For Example in Philippines 10 per cent of country’s
GDP is going to corruption (Laaksonen 2001).
5.5 Environment
Environmental deterioration in Bangkok is caused by:
• High development without adequate provision of mass transit and inadequate road network has
led to traffic congestion.
• High water demand without adequate municipal water supply and inappropriate price structure
has led to excessive groundwater pumping and consequent land subsidence.
•
•
High development and population growth without adequate drainage and sewerage have led to
flooding and water pollution.
Industrial development without adequate pollution control, investment and enforcement has led
to increased air, water and solid waste pollution (TDRI 1990).
5.5.1 Solid waste
Total daily production of solid wastes in BMR is about 5.400 tons. Even domestic sources are the
main producers of solid wastes industrial plants produce big part of the total amount, 40.000-60.000
tons of hazardous wastes yearly. Almost 84 per cent of the population in Bangkok have service of
solid waste disposal. This means either door-to-door or block collection. If there is no disposal
system available, uncollected thrash is generally thrown into vacant plots while some are directly
dumped to canals and rivers (TDRI 1990).
Bangkok relies principally on open dumping or open burning for solid waste disposed. Only 40
percent of solid wastes are decomposed. The small budget of BMA limits the improvement of the
inefficient decomposing plants. The toxic wastes require special treatment before being released
into the environment. Unfortunately the existing regulation relating to toxic waste disposal is not
enforced effectively (TDRI 1990, DESIPAPD 1995, Ross and Poungsomlee1992).
5.5.2 Lack of infrastructure
City planning in Bangkok is very poor, which has resulted to a city where factories and buildings
were constructed without prior plans for utilities and services. Infrastructure in BMR is an severe
threat to continuing economic expansion. Roads, telecommunications, water and sewerage supply
and transportation are already responsible for considerable economy losses in the form of
congestion and pollution costs. When industrialization and urbanization grows in the future the
adequate infrastructure will be more and more important. There are three major routes to Bangkok,
towards east, north and west. Urbanization is highest near these routes. Between these routes the
infrastructure is very poor, although the entire region suffers from inadequate infrastructure (PDA
2001, TDRI 1990).
5.5.2.1 Housing
In Bangkok there are over 2 million households and from these about 235.000 households are
situated in slum and squatter settlements. The total slum population in the city is more than 1.3
million and the growth rate is 2.4 per cent annum. Due to high growth rate the amount of slum
population will be even higher in the future. The people living in the slum areas cover a big part of
the city’s population, even 11 per cent (Ross and Poungsomlee 1992).
Slum areas are homes for poor people, migrants and refugees from environmentally bad areas. For
example floods and highway constructions have forced many people to move to Bangkok. Many
slum areas are based in the government’s land and are illegal. This makes habitants future unsafe
and gives unsure feeling for them (Laaksonen 2001).
5.5.2.1.1
Organization of slum area in Bangkok
Samakee Phattana Community, Rom Klan, Bangkok (Laaksonen 2001).
People who are living in Rom Klan are mostly migrants from the poorest North- Eastern region of
Thailand. Their housings are non-permanent because the land is owned by government. Still there
have been 498 housing units in the area for 1500 people, already for 9 to 10 years.
Facilities
Electricity to the area is bought from neighborhood village, which buys it from the government and
sells it by higher price. Gas is bought and used for cooking. Solid waste collection is organized and
it costs 20 baht per month (about 0,5US$). Hired people collect solid wastes and take them outside
from the area, where municipality is disposing it. Many of the people in the area have nonpermanent job and unemployment is high, even they have moved to the city for better job
opportunities.
Water
Water supply is either bought from vendors or groundwater is pumped from the community’s own
wells. Flooding is big problem in the area due to a swampy ground and pond to where the
wastewater is discharged. Wastewater is conveyed straight to the near pond without any treatment.
People also use the water from the pond for irrigation, playing and fishing, which gives a big health
risk especially for children. Anyway the wastewater treatment is planned to be true in near future.
Organization of community
This community is very organized partly because habitants are from the same origin and they have
feeling of togetherness and cooperation. The community has its own leadership-habitants have
chosen 30 committee members, which determinates about water supply, solid waste collection, and
electricity matters. The community has also made plans for the future about wastewater treatment,
drainage, solid waste and tap water. Also small health center is planned with volunteers and twice a
week doctor visits. The education will be organized by training courses and clubs, for example
sewing club.
This community has become so arranged since community has known the problems, and outside
NGO has given the ideas, not funds to tackle with the problems. This kind of co-operation is good
as it forces people to work for their rights. Anyway all cooperation is essential, for example birth
certifications are provided by the near hospital. The major part in this organization is still the effort
of its own habitants. They have elected the committee for 4 years period to organize the problems
occurred in the community. Many problems are solved with co-operation among the habitants. For
example safety in the region is based on mutual co-operation.
5.5.2.2 Traffic
Bangkok has seen the rise of the traffic problems, especially during peak hours. Traffic congestion
in the city is a problem due to uncontrolled automobile growth, low fuel prices, lack of effective
mass transit system, inadequate road networks and private car oriented traffic system. The number
of vehicles has reached to over 2 million cars and 900.000 motor cycles. Traffic speed in the inner
zone of Bangkok during the peak hours is only 8-5 km/hour. The economic losses in Bangkok due
to traffic jams are high, 275 million $ (Suphapodok and Chueyprasit 1994, Awang et al.1994).
About 80 per cent of the air pollution from the traffic is coming from the public transportation,
mostly busses. The use of public transportation is enormous more than 5 million trips are made by
public transport daily. Most of the busses are in very bad condition and pollution is visible. Private
cars are mostly new and in good shape because they are very expensive and only rich people can
afford them. Long-Tail boats, which work as ferries in the Klongs, are also in bad shape and their
engines are highly polluting (Laaksonen 2001, UN 1995).
Picture 5. 2.The Bangkok traffic in daytime, when the congestion is lowest.
5.5.2.2.1
Air pollution
Levels of carbon monoxide and oxidants in the Bangkok air are twice the amount recommended by
WHO. Also Nitrogen dioxide levels are too high. Both of these particles are harmful for human
health, they affect visibility, irrigate lung tissue causing long-term disorders and cancer. Air
pollution is highest in the early mornings, when the traffic conditions are heavy and the air is calm.
Noise levels in the city are also all above the internationally accepted level of 70 dBa (Ross and
Poungsomlee1992).
1. 6. CASE STUDY OF MEXICO CITY
6.1.Geography and climate
Mexico City is located in the south central part of Mexico. The country is situated between North
America and Central America and it shares borders with USA, Guatemala and Belize. Mexico City,
the capital of Mexico, lies in the Valley of Mexico, a basin at an altitude averaging 2,240m. The
Valley is ringed by a series of mountain ranges and it is an old lake. At the colonial time, when the
Spanish came they decided to enlarge the city and convey water away from the lake. Mexico City is
the center of the Federal District, which was created around the capital city in 1824 (Avila 2001,
Mexico City 2001c, Mexico City 2001d).
Mexico City is located in a tropical climatic zone but because of the high altitude, there is only
narrow range of temperatures. The average temperature in the city is relatively low, 16° C. The city
has three main seasons: mild (October to March), dry and hot (April to late May) and rainy season
(June to September). The annual rainfall in the city is 850 mm and during the rainy season 80 per
cent of this rainfall occurs (Climate information 2001, Mexico City 2001c).
Picture 6. 1. View of Mexico City.
6.2. Economy
Mexico City dominates the whole country’s economy. The Federal District of Mexico City
produces a significant portion of the total GDP of the country, for example, 12 percent in the year
1998. Mexico City is the center of manufacturing, and contains about 45 percent of the nation's
industrial production. Manufactures include textiles, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, electrical and
electronic items, steel, and transportation equipment. In addition, foodstuffs and light consumer
goods are produced. The city is also important in Mexico's banking and finance industries (Mexico
City 2001b).
6.3.Population
Since 1950 the population growth in Mexico City has been rapid. The city grew 4.2 percent a year,
which was due to migration from the provinces and a high birth rate in the city. During 1980 to
1990 the annual growth rate decreased in the city to only 0.9 percent which hit the brakes for the
rapid population growth. This was mainly due to government’s population control policy (Mexico
City 2001e).
Population
Population in Mexico City
18000000
16000000
14000000
12000000
10000000
8000000
6000000
4000000
2000000
0
1940
Population
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
Time (years)
Figure 6. 1. Population in Mexico City.
The population of Mexico City proper was 9.8 million in 1995 and the population in the whole
metropolitan area reached 16.9 million at that time. The population density in the city is more than
6,600 persons per km2. In the past, the city center was by far the most densely settled part of the
city. However, since the 1940s the outlying areas have absorbed most of the population increase
(Mexico City 2001e).
6.3.1. Urbanization
Land in Mexico City is being urbanized in a rapid rate and nowadays Mexico City contains 20 per
cent of the population in Mexico. The urban population in the city is still increasing due to
migration and natural increase. During 1950 to1970 the big part of the city’s population growth was
caused by rural migration. The reason for this migration was industrialization and need for
employees in the city. Since 1980 the population growth has been increasing both by migration and
natural increase (Avila 2001, DESIPAPD 1995).
6.3.2. Migration
About 70 per cent of the Mexico City’s family heads are originally from rural areas. They have
moved to Mexico City metropolitan area from places with less than 5,000 inhabitants. The rest of
the population is born in the Federal District, either as sons or daughters of rural migrants, or they
are inhabitants of the small towns, which are now part of the southern residential area of the city.
About 70 percent of the migrants moved with they families and the rest, 30 per cent, were single
(Avila 2001).
6.3.2.1.
Push and pull factors
The primary push factors for people in Mexico are lack of arable land, land deterioration and
diminution of the land area per farmer. Also the lack of education and unqualification for nonagricultural works decrease the employment opportunities in the rural areas and force people to
move to the cities and work in factories or informal sector (Avila 2001, Mexico City 2001b).
Pull factors are high in Mexico. Many people come to Mexico City in the search of better live,
better services and health care. Usually these people end up working in factories or in informal
sector because they are often unskilled workers. Many migrants follow the pull of their relatives
who already live in the shanty towns. The first-aid housing is commonly arranged with their
relatives and sometimes they already have work for their relative migrants (Avila 2001, Mexico
City 2001b).
6.4.Water resources
6.4.1. Water supply
The population in Mexico City is now about 18 million so the consumed amount of water in the city
is enormous. Mexico City’s catchment area is not big enough to supply the demand and the city has
to supplement the ground water supplies by bringing water from more distant river systems and
pump it to the Valley of Mexico. Only 70 per cent of the water supply is taken from Mexico City
area groundwater and springs. The rest, 30 per cent, of the used water is pumped from the other
catchment areas. Because of the hills, that surround the city, water has to be pumped to the city.
This needs a lot of energy and causes leaking problems (Avila 2001, HABITAT 1996).
Mexico City relies currently on groundwater sources for more than 80 per cent of its supplies. The
pumping of groundwater exceeds the natural recharge by 50 to 80 per cent. This overuse has led to
falling groundwater levels, compaction of aquifer, subsidence of the land, and damage to surface
structures. Having outstripped the limits of local groundwater, the city now meets 17 percent of its
demand by bringing water from the Cutzamala river system, 127 kilometers away and lifting it
1.200 meters in elevation (Postel 1992).
6.4.1.1.Water leaking
About 30 per cent of the water supply in Mexico City is lost in the pumping and conveyance of
waters. This is the same percentage that is pumped from the other river basins. By repairing the old
pipes and conveyance methods, significant amounts of water and energy could be saved and the use
of other river basin’s resources would be smaller or even non-existing (Avila 2001).
6.4.2. Demand of water
Water consumption in Mexico City is 364 liters per capita per day, which is 1.4 times higher than
the water consumption in the whole country. This means that the total annual consumption of the
city is 2,4 billion m3. About 94 percent of residents in MCMA is served by either a piped water
connection or a standpipe. In the Federal District the service level, is even higher, 97 per cent. The
residents without service must obtain their water from tank trucks, which are supplied either by
government or private vendors. The water demand is biggest for domestic use in Mexico City and it
takes 67 per cent of the whole water usage. Industries consume 17 percent and commercial and
urban services 16 per cent of the total (WSTB 1995, Harday et.al.2001).
6.4.3. Waste water treatment and sanitation
About 82 per cent of the residents in the MCMA are connected to the sewer system and six per cent
use septic tanks. In MCRA over nine per cent of the population are not served by any kind of
drainage system and 3 million people in the peripheral areas lack sewer system.
Currently, 90 percent of the municipal wastewater from MCMA remains untreated and is diverted
out of the Basin of Mexico through the general drainage system. Industries generate annually an
estimated 3 million metric tons of hazardous wastes, of which more than 95 percent are discharged
directly into the municipal sewage system. Corruption is very high and the decontamination
limitations are low. Even a company has a certification of clean action, the certifications can be
bought illegally and the clean discharge is not actually clean (DESIPAPD 1995, Avila 2001).
The collected wastewater is mainly pumped and discharged to other river basins and river beds. The
water management is Mexico City has caused many of conflicts between near regions and the city.
Mexico City as a richer city uses all the available water and gives back wastewater with harmful
substances (Avila 2001).
6.4.3.1.Water quality
The State of Mexico has reported that 23 per cent of its 242 water supply wells do not meet the
standards for coliform bacteria, and 11 per cent do not meet the standard for inorganic constituents.
An increase in concentration of hydrogen sulfide has also been reported from 21 wells. The main
source of surface water in Mexico City, Cutzamala River, has a too high amount of faecal coliform.
Although, surface water sources undergo chemical coagulation, filtration, and chlorination, the
quality of served water is not often proper. Ground water is normally treated only by chlorination
(WSTB 1995).
Many irrigation areas outside the Mexico City apply raw sewage channeled from the city to their
fields. One district in the southwestern state of Hidalgo receives about 3.5 million m3 of raw sewage
every day. Although farmers are prohibited from using this water to irrigate crops that are
consumed raw, the prohibition is apparently not always respected or enforced. Some vegetables
have found to be highly contaminated with fecal coliforms, posing a direct threat to human health
(Postel 1992).
6.4.4. Flooding
The city is also especially vulnerable to flooding. Because of the valley location city lacks natural
outlets for surface water and water gets easily locked to the city streets. Although many expensive
drainage channels have been built, flooding remains a problem during heavy rainfall (UN 1995).
6.4.5. Subsidence
Nowadays the use of groundwater in the city is 40 per cent of the total water use, although, this
percentage will probably decrease in the future due to overuse of resources. Because of the city’s
location on the old lake, groundwater level in Mexico City has been very high. The city has used a
lot of groundwater resources and now the groundwater supplies are starting to run low. Due to the
unsustainable pumping, the groundwater level in the city has started to decrease, and it is sinking by
1 meter each year (Avila 2001).
Mexico City is an extreme case. During the past 70 years the city has sunk 10.7 meters into the
filled lake, on which it was built. In the central area subsidence have also been as much as 8-10
meters. Since the soil is mostly clay, the subsidence is even more rapid than with other soil-type.
Land subsidence causes structural damage to buildings, roads, railways, and underground pipelines
(Postel 1992, Kasarda and Parnell 1993).
6.4.6. Water resources management
Mexico City has tried to save water and solve water problems in many ways. The goal of the
activities in the city has been cutting of the used water amount per person by pricing, education,
retrofitting and efficiency standards. For example, one effort was to replace 350.000 toilets with 6liter models. This saved enough water to meet the needs of 250.000 residents (Postel 1992).
6.5.Environment
6.5.1. Solid wastes
More than 10,000 tons of solid waste is generated daily in Mexico City. Over one quarter of these
solid wastes is dumped illegally or remains in the streets. Due to this pollutants are accumulation to
the back streets and back yards causing health risk for many people, groundwater pollution and
unaesthetic look. The health problem is obvious for the people who live in the near dumping places
or even in them. Many poor people live in the dumping sites finding accommodation and things to
sell from there. (DESIPAP 1995).
6.5.2. Housing
Lack of adequate housing has long been a problem in Mexico City, although the situation is better
than in other study regions. The average occupation of room in the city is 1.1 persons. About 75
percent of private homes in the Federal District have 3 or more rooms. Housing in the Federal
District ranks higher than other parts of the country in terms of qualitative services, such as water
and sewage (Mexico City 2001a).
6.5.2.1.Slums
Housing standards in Federal District are currently quite high by international standards but on the
edge of urbanized area problems start. Housing is substandard, roads are unpaved, electricity hookups are illegal, water supply, sanitation and waste collection are not sufficient. The general
economic setting of Mexico City’s slums is extreme poverty (Gugler 1997).
Because the price of the land in the central city area is so high, only the high and middle class
people can afford to buy land for houses and proper settlements. Poor people have no other choice
than to rent a house from slum area or even build their own poor house in the outer city. In the outer
city the land is cheaper but it is not often that poor people have an opportunity to buy land even
from there. Because of uncertainty and lack of money poor people live in very poor houses and they
don’t even want to build formal house before they have secure feeling. The houses are commonly
made of cardboard, sheet metal or from other available waste materials (Avila 2001).
A typical dwelling consist of a small single room, containing one or two beds shared by the
members of the family. The facilities are only gas or petroleum stove and sometimes television.
There are few public water taps in the area, which are shared. Public sanitation and drainage are
served to some of the people, but more than 80 per cent of the population use the bottom of gully
for a latrine. The lack of electricity is normal and roads are usually unpaved (DESIPAPD 1995).
6.5.2.1.1.
Slum areas in outer Mexico City (Avila 2001)
Need of land
Many poor people cannot afford houses, so they have to content themselves with bad settlements.
Still they want to get rid of the insecurity and buy cheap land. Because buyable land is not often
available at low price, people have to join with different political groups to be able to buy land.
These groups sell land to their supporters with small service in return. Poor people have to support
the leader and the political group to get the license to buy the land. With the political group poor
people also have some voice to demand rights, housing and services. Some people may lose their
money to the swindler but the risk has to be taken.
Organization with leader
During 1960 to 1980 it was typical to have group of poor people with this kind of political leader.
The leader was in favor of the government when taking care of the poor people. He also enjoyed the
power and support from people. He bought the land from poor farmers, sold the land to the other
poor and got also some extra money from government. Even the price that poor people paid was
higher than it should be (one third of the prices in the city area) it was the only choice for them.
Some of these bad settlements had water service and poor sanitation, but they were often controlled
by the leader. People lived under pressure of cheating but this served an opportunity to them. Sexual
abuse was not uncommon either.
Organization nowadays
Nowadays, since 1990, the groups of poor people have started to impugn against these leaders and
form groups with themselves. With the group they more easily can have their voice heard. They do
not need the leader anymore to get attention from the government. Still even nowadays government
doesn’t want to see the poor people and their needs. This is why social and urban movements are
getting broader in Mexico City.
Environmental problems
This government’s undervaluation of poor people and their problems are very harmful also for the
environment. The bad settlements do not have any water service; the potable water is bought with
very high prices from the dwellers and the wastewater is discharged through the open canals to the
rivers. Because the bought water is so expensive the used amount is usually too low compared to
the recommendations. This results easily to malnutrition and diseases. The open, polluted channels
are also a serious health problem.
6.5.3. Traffic
Mexico City, like so many metropolitan areas worldwide, faces problems with traffic and air
pollution. Traffic problems are big, despite of large metro and buss services. Even the excellent
subway system is extended, it is inadequate to growing demand of daily commuters. Metro is fully
used and crowded most hours of the day. In addition, the freeway system has not kept pace with the
increased use of automobiles (Mexico City 2001b).
6.5.3.1.Air pollution
Comparing to other developing countries mega-cities Mexico City is generally clean. Except the air
pollution, which is one of the most serious problems in Mexico City. Metropolitan Mexico City is
regarded as one of the cities with the worst air pollution problem on the earth. It is six times higher
than the acceptable limit by World Health Authority standards and it reaches harmful levels more
than half of the days each year (DESIPAPD 1995, Mexico City 2001a).
Traffic problems and industry are the main reasons for air pollution. Automobile pollution accounts
67 per cent of all air pollution in the city. It has reduced visibility for more than 12 km in 30 years.
Part of this pollution is also due to the location of the city. City is surrounded by mountains so the
smog often remains trapped in the valley basin. Almost 90 per cent of the respiratory infection and
illnesses in the city originate from air pollution (Mexico City 2001a, Girardet 1996).
7. CASE STUDY OF LAGOS
7.1.Geography and climate
Lagos is the biggest and most important city in the Federation of Nigeria. The country, which is
located in the coast of West Africa, consists of 30 states. Nigeria shares borders with Benin,
Cameroon and Niger. Lagos is the main city of Lagos State, which is situated in the southwestern
coast of Nigeria. The Metropolitan area of Lagos takes up to 37 per cent of the land area of Lagos
State and houses about 90 per cents of its population (Unicef 1995, Aina 1990a).
The area of Lagos constitutes of two major regions: the Island, which is the original city and the
Mainland, which is made up by rapidly growing settlements. The climate in Lagos is tropical, hot
and wet. The environment is characteristic as coastal with wetlands, sandy barrier islands, beaches,
low-lying tidal flats and estuaries. The average temperature in Lagos is 27 °C and the annual
average rainfall 1532 mm (Aina 1994, Peil 1991).
Picture 7.1. View of Lagos from Surulele. (http://www.motherlandnigeria.com/webcards.html#pick_up)
7.2.Economy
Lagos was until 1991 the capital of Nigeria. Nowadays Abuja is country’s administrative and
political capital but Lagos is still Nigeria’s industrial, commercial and financial center. Lagos is
estimated to count for over 60 per cent of nation’s industrial and commercial establishment, 90 per
cent of foreign trade and controlling about 80 per cent of the total value of the imports of the
country. It benefits Nigeria’s oil, natural gas, coal, fuel wood and water. Also about 70 per cent of
the national industrial investment are in the Metropolitan Lagos (Aina 1994, UN 1995, McNulty
1988).
7.3.Population
7.3.1. Urbanization
The population in Lagos started to grow since 1970 due to migration from rural areas and high
fertility rate. Even the fertility rate is lower in Lagos than in the countryside, in the future the city
population tends to grow more than the population in rural areas. Also migration to the city does not
seem to decrease, rather increase. The population growth in the last ten years was highest than ever
and the growth in the future is estimated to be even higher
Population in Lagos
24000000
Population
20000000
16000000
Population in
Lagos
12000000
8000000
4000000
0
1950
1960
1970
1980 1990
Time (years)
2000
2010
Figure 7. 1. Population in Lagos.
Lagos is the biggest city in West Africa. It was the first city in the continent to become one of the
world’s ten largest cities. At the moment the population is about 14 million but the city is projected
to be one of the world’s five biggest cities already by 2005. Population in the city is expected to
grow at the annual rate of 4 per cent for the next 20 years, reaching 24 million people by 2015.
Then it is expected to rank third among the world’s cities. The population density was 20 000
persons per km2 already in 1988, but it has increased a lot from this in the past 13 years (Bilsborrow
1998, Peil 1991).
7.3.2. Migration
The total population growth rate is much higher in Lagos than the national average. Between 1953
and 1980 the annual growth rate was 9.4 per cent which from, net migration rate was 5.4 per cent.
Also at the moment migration takes the biggest part of the population growth in the city and it is
estimated to even increase from the past (Bilsborrow 1998b, McNulty 1988).
Because Lagos is smallest state in Nigeria, the government has tried to change the capital to central
Nigeria, Abuja. This is one way to control the enormous migration and urbanization in Lagos.
Although, the population in Lagos is growing all the time and the pull factors of the city are high,
even higher than Abuja’s (UN 1995).
7.3.2.1.Push and pull factors
Lagos is a unique national center for trade and commerce in Nigeria so the pull factors of the city
are evident. The main motivation for migration to Lagos is economic. Income levels are higher in
Metropolitan Lagos than in other regions of Nigeria. Many people come to Lagos in search for a job
and most of these migrants tend to work within the informal sector (Kuvaja 2001, McNulty 1988).
The main push factors to Lagos are poverty, too small arable land areas per persons, big family
sizes and worse soil quality. Due to these factors many rural people do not have other choice than to
move to the city and try their luck. Fortunately the nepotism is so strong that immigrants are often
welcomed to live in the houses of their relatives and often the first job is household work in their
relatives' houses. ( Rinne 2001)
7.4.Water resources
7.4.1. Water supply
Water supply to Lagos comes from surface and groundwater sources. Water losses caused by
leaking and illegal use are considerable and due to this the water supply of the city is inadequate. It
is estimated that only about 85 per cent of households in Lagos have access to safe water. In Lagos
12 percent of population use piped water, 33 per cent public taps, 35 per cent hand pumps, 11
percent ponds, 2 per cent wells, and 3 percent other sources. The distance to water source in Lagos
is for 11 per cent of the population more than one kilometer and for 89 per cent less than one
kilometer. In Lagos male, female and children participate in fetching of the water (Unicef 1995,
Aina 1994, Uduku 1994).
7.4.2. Demand of water
The demand of water in Lagos is much bigger than the supply. Many people use too small amount
of water because they either do not have access to water or they have to carry it from far away. In
the city only 216.000 cubic meters of treated water is available. The reliability and quality of water
supply is often not adequate and sometimes inhabitants have to survive without water for couple of
days. In this case residents have only two opportunities, buy water from vendors with very high
price or steel it from neighbors well. Often the quality of water bought by vendors is insufficient
and people get illnesses, like diarrhea from it. The price of the bought water from vendors in Lagos
is normally 4 to 10 times higher than the water got from piped water supplies (Harday et.al.2001,
Rinne 2001).
7.4.3. Wastewater treatment and sanitation
Wastewater treatment in Lagos is almost non-existing; only few per cents of it is treated. Also the
sewage systems of the city are poor, the only conventional sewerage system is in the metropolitan
area of Lagos, Victoria Island, which is the first commercial area in the city. Due to an inadequate
sewerage, much of the excreta and sullage is disposed of by the drainage of rainwater through open
ditches. During the dry season, when the flushing action of rainfall is not existing, drainage
channels become blocked with solids, creating stagnant pond of contaminated water. Some people
even use this water for household purposes (UN 1995).
About 94 percent of the population in Lagos have access to sanitary toilets, 56 per cent of
population use sewage toilets, 33 percent of pit latrines and 4 septic tanks. The rest of the
population uses pail, bush, river/stream or other kind of unconventional toilets. Likewise most of
these sanitary toilets are water closets only by name. It is quite normal than water doesn’t run in
these toilets or water is wastewater from other households (FOS 1997, Aina 1994, Unicef 1995).
7.4.3.1.Water quality
Sources of pollution of the Lagos estuary includes breweries, food processing industries, chemical
industries, solid wastes from houses, sawmills and domestic sewage. The estuary is a sink for
disposal of liquid, solid and gaseous wastes for the entire city. Sawdust from the sawmills is very
harmful because it causes silting, eutrophication, and harm the lives of fishes by clogging their gills.
Contamination of groundwater in Lagos is sometimes evident due to flooding which carries sewage
to the wells. Likewise seepage from industrial storage systems is normal. Contamination of pipe
water sources in Lagos is also common. This is either result of inadequate functioning of treatment
plants or lack of treatment. Contamination can also occur due to water tankers, through pipe or
storage systems (Aina 1994).
In piped water Escherishia coli, Salmonella, Streptococcus and Bacillus are normal contaminants.
This indicates to faecal pollution of human and animal origin. This impurity leads to diarrhea,
guinea worm, cholera and typhoid. Malaria, respiratory illnesses and measles are also normal
diseases in the area. In general Lagosian people do not boil the water they drink, they either buy
pure water from vendors or clear the water with aluminum. The visible clarity is more important to
Lagosian than microbiological clearance. Filters are not often used (Rinne 2001, Aina 1994).
7.4.4. Flooding
Flooding is a big problem in Lagos, even during the mild rainfalls streets are flooded and many
times water rises to house levels. Intensity of rainfall in short period, in rainy season, leads to
extremely high runoffs and floods. Lagos is partly extremely flat which makes the situation even
worse and prevents the water discharge to the sea. Due to poor soil infiltration only a small
proportion of rainwater seeps into the ground (Aina 1994).
Due to bad infrastructure planning, buildings often block natural watercourses and canals are too
narrow to convey rainwater away from the area. Roads are often unpaved and the hard rain makes
them muddy and bumpy. Inhabitants of the city wish to have expanded canals, paved roads and
better drainage to prevent flooding of homes and other problems during the rains (Nwangwu 1998,
Rinne 2001).
7.5.Environment
Lagos has often been referred to as the dirtiest, most disorganized, and the most unsafe mega-city in
the world. Lagos is seen as an intolerable place, which offers minimum resources for a healthy,
safe, and productive life. The problems in the city are similar to all the other mega-cities; traffic
jams make transportation inefficient, waste management is malfunctioning leaving tons of waste on
the streets, water resources are overused or polluted and inadequate housing, as well as slums, are
becoming reality for an increasing number of inhabitants. It has been estimated that the
infrastructure of Lagos is able to fulfill the needs of 300.000 people, although the population
nowadays is 14 million. Due to this it is clear that the infrastructure is not sufficient. (Kuvaja 2001).
Picture 7. 2. Tinubu square in Lagos. (http://www.motherlandnigeria.com/webcards.html#pick_up)
7.5.1. Solid wastes
About 66 per cent of the solid wastes in Lagos area are disposed. Waste is either disposed through
private or community efforts or left at various illegal dumps. The disposal is hardly ever done
properly; garbage is being dumped in valleys or swamps or untreated industrial waste is dumped to
public drains or surface water bodies. The solid waste problem is huge in Lagos with mountains of
garbage and hardly bearable stench. The estimated amount of generated solid wastes is almost
million tons per year (Aina 1994, Ogu 2000).
7.5.2. Housing
The lack of housing facilities in Lagos is enormous. Even the middle-income people have to live in
very crowded accommodations. It is normal that the size of the family is five or more persons and
they all live together in the small room, average on 4.30 m2. Most of the houses are in poor
conditions and the facilities in them are shared. The poor condition often includes lack of basic
services, serious flooding and bad house conditions. Most of the people live in the compounds,
face-to-face-facilities. Even in the better houses water often has to be carried from the backyard.
Sewage systems are non-existing, only in some high-income areas sewage is served (Aina 1990).
7.5.2.1. Shomulu local government area in Lagos
Shomulu is one of the most densely populated areas in the central Lagos consisting of more than
one million inhabitants. The area represents common neighborhood in Lagos, about 45 per cent of
Lagosians live in this kind of accommodations. Majority of the houses are low- and middle income
houses, and services such as health care, schools, roads, water systems, electricity, and communal
waste management are somehow provided. However these services are not reliable and people have
to often rely on self-help. Already in 1970’s the majority of Lagosian families lived in one-room
dwellings. At that time the average family size was almost five persons. Due to population growth
in the city the occupation of the rooms is estimated to be nowadays even higher (LHO 1996).
Slum or not?
Commonly the low-income houses are referred to as slums. In Lagos the situation is other. The
common type of housing (face-me-face-you) cannot be considered shelf-help, spontaneous, or
illegal. The houses are well constructed, and the city plans their communal services, either both are
not properly done. The lack of housing in the city is high and different social groups have to live in
this kind of accommodations even they would have more money. The rent is paid regularly and
houses are registered and legal. Even the way of living in Lagosian “slums” is not similar to other
study regions slums, they face many of the same problems; lack of adequate sanitation and water
supply, malfunctioning waste management system, bad roads and limited access to municipal
electricity sources (Nwangwu 1998).
Problems in Shomulu
Shomulu is placed to the unplanned area and the land use is uncontrolled. There is no planned trees
or green places but all the places are full of shops, houses or garbage. The area is often flooded and
it is overcrowded and dirty. There is no sewer system or drainage. Roads are unpaved and bad and
waste disposal is uncontrolled. Buildings are in bad condition, built with poor building materials
and there is no air space between them (Aina 1994).
Water distribution
Most of the compound has one tap, which is located to the backyard of the compound. All the
members use tap water to household purposes, drinking, cooking and washing. This tap water is
also used for flushing the toilet and bathing. The water is carried in containers to the toilet and
bathroom. Because the tap water is not working continuously many compounds have their own well
from where the water is fetched when the tap is out of order. In some compounds the tap water is
not drinkable and they have to fetch water from taps in the other compounds. Responsibility of
fetching the water falls often on women (Kuvaja 2001).
Sanitation
Each compound member is responsible for sanitation maintenance. Cleaning is considered to be
task of women, but each inhabitant is required to clean toilets and bathrooms after use. The use of
facilities is organized by timetable, where the priviledge is for those who work outside the
compound (Kuvaja 2001).
Waste management
The compound members carry the wastes to the waste containers, which are kept in the backyard.
Then household members or “barrow-men” empty the household containers into the communal
containers. After this it is government responsibility to empty these containers. Many times
communal containers are not taken care off and people have to transport the wastes straight to the
dumping sites. Often “barrow-men” are paid to collect the wastes (Kuvaja 2001).
Kitchen
Tab
Toilet
Toilet
Bathroom
Bathroom
Fence
Waste bins
Room (1)
Room (3)
Rented
rooms for
young men
from
villages. Do
not use
compound
facilities.
Store
Room (4)
Room (5)
Room (4)
Store
Room (3)
Room (1)
Shop
Next compound
Kitchen
Shop
Street
The common structure of Lagosian face-me-face-you compound.
7.5.3. Traffic
The traffic congestion is a fact of everyday life also in Lagos, where it takes almost three hours to
travel a mere 10 to 20 kilometers. The motor vehicle fleet is very old and most of the cars are in bad
shape. Even public transportation is quite comprehensive it is very overcrowded. Buses and taxes
are both in poor condition and they pollute a lot. Traffic congestion is common in Lagos and
because of high crime rate, robberies may occur during the peak period. The quality of air is bad
due to traffic and industries like in any other mega-city (UN 1995, Rinne 2001).
Picture 7. 3. Traffic in Lagos. (http://www.motherlandnigeria.com/webcards.html#pick_up)
7.5.4. Crime
Crime is common in Lagos, especially robberies. Due to violence in the area, robberies often end up
to a murder. Police cannot do anything for the mushrooming criminality, so people have taken law
in to their own hands and they do punish the criminals straight away. This has leaded to murders
because robbers do not have anything to lose even they kill people or not. Robberies are normal in
traffic and even inside houses (Rinne 2001).
7.6.Summary of the case studies
All the case study cities Bangkok, Mexico City and Lagos are the main centers for industrialization,
business and foreign trade in their countries. The cities have massive populations and they are so
called mega-cities. Mexico City has the biggest population of 18 million. Even the populations of
Bangkok and Lagos are high they are four million lower than the population of Mexico City. The
population density is extremely high in Lagos, 20 000 persons per km2 and due to this housing
conditions in the city are very poor. The population density in Lagos is many times the density in
other cities. In Bangkok the population density is lowest 3,700 persons per km2 and in Mexico City
more than 6,600 persons per km2.
Over-population in the cities is mostly caused by uncontrolled migration from rural regions. Due to
strong urban pull and rural push people continue to move to the cities. Push factors are
deforestation, loss of biological diversity, soil erosion, flooding, constructions, diminution of arable
land per farmer, water shortages and other natural resource related problems. The main pull factor is
the attraction of the mega-cities. As big commercial centers they attract people in the search of
better live, better services and health care. They seem very exquisite and full of opportunities for
poor people.
The cities are all located in the tropical zone but their average annual rainfall varies from highest
1532 mm in Lagos to lowest 850 mm in Mexico City. In all the cities domestic and industrial water
supplies are provided by combination of groundwater and surface water. The water consumption in
Mexico City is highest of the study cities, 2.4 billion m3. Due to this high demand and location of
the city, water supply of Mexico City is not adequate and water has to be pumped from other areas.
In Bangkok the demand of water is 2.1 billion cubic meters and it is also highly dependent of
groundwater. In Lagos the water demand is only 79 million m3.
The piped water service is relatively well organized in the case study cities. The service is highest in
Mexico City, where about 94 per cent of the residents in metropolitan area enjoy piped water. In
Bangkok the service is lowest, about 66 per cent of the population has piped water connection or
standpipes. In Lagos 85 per cent of households have access to safe water. Even though the
percentages are relatively high there are differences in reliability of the service, quality of water and
type of the service.
Wastewater treatment is very poor in all the cities, at highest 10 per cent of the effluents are treated.
This has resulted to the decreased quality of the surface and groundwater. The situation is worst in
Lagos were only a few per cent of the city’s wastewater is treated. Solid waste disposal is organized
better in these cities. In Bangkok the service is highest, 84 per cent of the wastes are collected. In
Mexico City the percentage is 75 and in Lagos only 66 per cent. Still in all the cities some solid
waste is left on the streets, which has caused health problems and unpleasant odor, especially in
Lagos garbage piles in the backyards are a common sight.
Flooding is a big problem in all the cities, especially in Lagos the situation is really bad and water
rises often to the streets and house levels. Flooding is nuisance during the monsoon seasons in all
the cities. Other big problem is the land subsidence. Due to excessive extraction of groundwater,
water levels in the wells have been declining rapidly and the ground level has subsided. This has
happened both in Bangkok and Mexico City. In Bangkok subsidence has been more than 0.5
meters. Mexico City is an extreme case where the city has sunk 10.7 meters during the past 70 years
due to the enormous water demand.
City planning is poor in all the cities, especially in Lagos and Bangkok. In Bangkok the average
occupation of the room is around 6 persons and in Lagos more than 5 persons. The lack of housing
facilities in Lagos is severe due to high population density in the area. The poor and even the
middle-income people have to live in very crowded accommodations. The situation in Mexico City
is not so bad than in other case study cities. The average occupation per room is 1.1 persons.
Traffic congestion is every day life in the case study cities. The problem is due to poor
infrastructure, uncontrolled automobile growth, lack of effective mass transit system, inadequate
road networks and private car oriented traffic system. Due to massive traffic, air pollution and noise
bother the lives of the inhabitants. Especially in Lagos situation is terrible and it is said to be the
dirtiest city in the world.
Bangkok Mexico City Lagos
Population (million)
14
18
14
Pop. Density persons/Km2
3700
6600
20,000
Average annual rainfall (mm)
1482
850
1532
Annual water use (m3)
2.1 billion 2.4 billion 79 million
Piped water service (%)
66
94
85
Waste water treatment (%)
10
10
2
Solid waste disposal (%)
84
75
66
Persons per room
6
1.1
>5
Figure 7. 2. Table of different factors in the cities.
Although the cities are different they are all facing similar problems. In all the cities the population
growth has surprised the infrastructure. The housing facilities, water supply, road space, transport,
solid waste disposal and piped water service are unable to keep up with the high speed of growing
urbanization. The problems are sharpest in Lagos because of the high population, population
density, lack of finance and poor infrastructure. Due to these matters the air and water pollution and
environmental deterioration in the city are enormous. Especially the very low wastewater treatment
in Lagos has a great impact on the water quality and human health.
The main problems in Bangkok and Mexico City are also related to water supply, housing and
environmental deterioration. The water demand is very high in the cities, especially in Mexico City.
This has led to groundwater over-use and land subsidence. The land subsidence has a strong effect
on houses and other infrastructures. The quality of water has also decreased due to low wastewater
treatment. Flooding is also big problem in the cities again due to failed infrastructure planning.
8. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The effects of urbanization on the environment and water resources are evident. When the number
of inhabitants in a certain area gets too big the environments own power of regeneration decreases
and the problems will occur. Wastes will accumulate to air, soil and water. The level of living
decreases due to pollution, traffic, noise, inadequate housing and lack of own space. The
consumption of the hinterland’s goods will increase above the production and food has to be
transported from far away.
Also water resources are under a great pressure because of urbanization. Overpopulation in the
cities consumes enormous quantities of water and produces tremendous amounts of wastewater.
The water supplies are used at their maximum capacity and sustainable use is underestimated. This
have led to declined water resources and deteriorated their quality. In many cities wastewater
treatment is non-existing and this has caused enormous water problems. Due to shortage of finance
many poor people have to use contaminated water straight from rivers and wells. In many cities this
has led to widespread health problems and has caused more economical losses than the proper
sewer system and wastewater treatment would have. Even the effects of urbanization are
unavoidable to the cities’ water resources they would be relatively lower with proper care.
The big cities, mega-cities are becoming our primary places of living even they are unsustainable in
many ways. These cities are highly overpopulated, which has caused various problems. The
problems are deepening even in the developed countries were financing is better and infrastructure
well planned. Even with good technology, environmental policy, financing and food production
fighting with the problems is hopeless, if the population growth is ever increasing. At the moment
the fastest urbanization is occurring in developing countries, which makes the struggling even
harder. The lack of finance, education, knowledge and action does not make the situation any
easier.
The problems in the big cities are similar even they are situated in different regions, cultures,
languages and economies. When the city population is calculated in millions and the population
density is over 3,000 persons per km2, problems are obvious. These comparable issues are also seen
in the case study cities considering tremendous demand of food, water resources, road space, and
housing units. Due to low infrastructure, lack of finance, and proper policy, these dilemmas are
sharpening. Already now the land subsidence, flooding, traffic jams, pollution, and decrease of
water quality are at unbearable level in many cities including case study cities, and this have put
sticks to the tires of development. The situation is worst in Lagos where political uncertainty,
economical troubles, and mushrooming corruption are everyday life.
This similar trend can be seen when comparing the selected study regions, Latin America, SE Asia
and West Africa. The future of West Africa doesn’t seem so bright when compared to SE Asia’s
and it is most evident that West Africa will follow the Latin America’s urbanization route rather
than SE Asia. The situation is better in SE Asia, due to education, economy, environmental policy,
and health care. This area is more organized and the policies of the countries are more effective.
The age and employment structure in the area is already more similar to the developed than the
developing regions. This is one reason that may affect positively on the region’s population growth
and urbanization in the future.
Anyway the situation is best nowadays in Latin America, expect urbanization. The urbanization rate
in the region is extremely high and many matters are best organized. Although SE Asia is quite near
in many services, even the urbanization is almost half of the one in Latin America. With these
matters it may be estimated that South-East Asia won't even reach similar urbanization level in the
future and can hold back the population growth with education and better economy.
In West Africa the situation is very bad and it can be estimated that the future of the region will be
even worse than Latin America’s. The region is unable to control the population, health care,
production, migration, and environmental protection. In all the study regions corruption is high but
it is extremely high in West Africa. One reason for this not so bright future can be the structure of
the society and the customs.
The problems of urbanization can be solved with rural and urban improvements, environmental and
migration policy, and education programs. Rural improvements are the most important when
considering urbanization. Even some improvements are made in the city, without any rural action, a
new migrant flow will occur, and make the situation even worse. This is why both rural and urban
development has to be taken into the programs. They support one and another and with these
actions the whole society will work together and with the environment, which will make the cooperation more fruitful.
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