Chapter 6 Early Societies in the Americas and Oceania
Chapter 6: Early Societies in the America
n Early Societies of Mesoamerica q q q q n Early Societies of South America q q n The Olmecs Heirs of the Olmecs: the Maya Maya Society and Religion Heirs of the Olmecs: Teotihuacan Early Andean Society and the Chavín Cult Early Andean States: Mochica Early Societies of Oceania q q Early Societies in Australia and New Guinea The Peopling of the Pacific Islands
Why did civilization develop later in the Americas
than in Southwest Asia?
Origins of Civilization in the Americas
n The Americas were originally populated by peoples from Asia who moved during the last Ice Age – c. 13,000 B.C.E. and possibly as early as 20,000 B.C.E. when the ocean levels fell q n from a group of only 25 original migrants that doubled every generation, a population of 10 million would result in 500 years By 9500 BCE people reached southernmost part of South America
Agriculture in the Americas
n n n Plant domestication by 5000 B.C.E., as in Old World, by women 100 different crops, including peppers, beans, avocados, gourds, squash, tomatoes, and the grains amaranth and quinoa Principal crops: ________, _______, and _______ q n These crops require less labor than grain does – so there was always a large pool of people who were available to do labor projects (construct buildings, serve in standing armies, etc.) Principal domesticated animals: q q q _______ _______ NO draft animals (no development of wheeled vehicles)
Early Civilization in the Americas
n 2 major areas of complex cultural development: 1. ______________ q 2. ______________ q n Other areas of the Americas – people living as hunter­gatherers or semi­sedentary farmers and hunters
Early Mesoamerican Civilization:
n Several American civilizations arose between 1500 B.C.E. – 900 C.E. Olmecs q Maya q Teotihuacan q n Later civilizations (Chapter 21) Toltecs q Aztecs
q Early Mesoamerican Civilization:
The Olmecs, 1200-100 B.C.E.
n n n n n n n Olmec civilization appeared quite suddenly – i.e., without much evidence of gradual development in the archaeological record Irrigated agriculture Monumental sculpture Urbanism (ceremonial centers) Elaborate religion Beginnings of calendar and writing systems “The Rubber People” (derived from the word “Olmec”)
Early Mesoamerican Civilization:
Major Sites:
n Ceremonial Centers q q San Lorenzo (1200­ 800 B.C.E.) La Venta (800­300 B.C.E.) n q Huge 110 foot Great Pyramid Tres Zapotes (c. 400 ­ 100 B.C.E.)
Early Mesoamerican Civilization:
The Olmecs
n Modern knowledge of the Olmecs comes entirely from archaeological evidence: q q q q q q q q q q q q q Pyramids Jade objects (see B & Z, p. 138) Obsidian objects Axes Figurines Stone monuments Palaces Plazas Temples Ball courts Human sacrifice Drainage systems Olmec Head, Basalt. 9’4” high; Tombs 10 tons. It probably took 1000 workers per head. See also B & Z, p. 137.
Olmec Society
Probably authoritarian in nature n Large class of conscripted laborers to construct ceremonial sites n q Also tombs for rulers, temples, pyramids, drainage systems
Mysterious Decline of the Olmecs
Ceremonial centers were destroyed and deserted n No evidence of warfare n Revolution? n Civil war?
n Early Mesoamerican Civilization:
The Olmecs
n n Olmecs have been called the ______________ of Mesoamerica After the Olmecs, the period from 150­900 C.E. was a great age of cultural achievement in Mesoamerica­ the Classic period q q Maya in southern Mexico, Yucatan, and Guatemala Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico
The Maya
n n n n Maya civilization encompassed modern Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and southern Mexico Huge cities discovered in 19th c. 300 BCE­900 CE Terrace Farming q Cacao beans n n n Hot chocolate Currency Major ceremonial center at Tikal
The Maya, 300 B.C.E.-900 C.E.
n Not a unified political state Numerous independent “city­states” or confederations q Centered on major rival Maya sites with monumental architecture (pyramids, plaza, citadels, ball courts) n Largest Maya city­states dominated neighboring city­states q q q q n Tikal (Guatemala) Copán (Honduras) Chichén Itzá (Mexico) Elite tombs with valuable artifacts (jade, pottery)
Maya Warfare
n Increasing competition and warfare between polities throughout Classic Period Wars fought for captives, not territory q Elite captives were sacrificed q Commoners were enslaved q n Small kingdoms engaged in constant conflict until Chichén Itzá began to absorb captives Some nevertheless chose death q Center of empire develops
q Maya City-States
Tikal (Guatemala) n Copán (Honduras) n Chichén Itzá (Mexico)
n Tikal
Second largest and one of two most powerful Mayan city­states of Classic Period n Height, 600­800 CE n Best known for elaborate architecture q Six enormous temple pyramids (Temple 4­ 229 ft tall) q Acropolis, Plaza q 10 reservoirs for drinking water n Ongoing war with neighboring states n Population c. 40,000
n Copán
Western Honduras n Medium sized city­state; one of best preserved sites n Ball court (best preserved for Mayan Period) q Hieroglyphic stairway q Elaborate stone carvings of Mayan rulers and supernatural figures q n Majority of monuments built by 13 th ruler “18 Rabbit” 695­738 C.E. q n Later captured and executed by a rival city Elaborate artifacts
Mayan Writing
n Ideographs and a syllable­alphabet q q Most writings destroyed by Spanish conquerors Deciphering work began in 1960s Individual glyphs represent syllables or complete concepts q At present, partially translated by epigraphers and linguists Writing used for religious and political purposes (rather than economic) q Preservation of myths and astrological data q Used by elite to record the events of their rule; source of legitimization of elite rule Preserved mostly in stone carvings on monuments and stelae (mostly political representations) q Pottery decorations also q Codices (folding paper books) mostly contain religious and astrological information q n n n n Only four survive Popol Vuh: Mayan creation myth q Bentley & Ziegler, p. 143
Maya Religion
n Importance of bloodletting rituals q q q q n Elaborate pantheon of gods q q q n Human sacrifices followed after removal of fingers, piercing to allow blood flow Self­mutilation of tongues, earlobes Association of blood with rain and agriculture (Chapter opener – bloodletting rituals of September 683 C.E. at funeral of Pacal, King of Maya city of Palenque) Individual gods had numerous avatars based on cardinal direction, color, upper and lower world versions Major deities include Maize God, Rain God (Chak) and Death God (Xipi Totec) Rulers often appeared in clothing of gods on political monuments (legitimization of elite authority) Elaborate ritual schedule based on 260 day religious year in 52 year cycle
Mayan Ritual Calendar
n Complex math q n Invention of “Zero” Calendar of 365.242 days (17 seconds off) Solar calendar of 365 days q Ritual calendar of 260 days q 52 year cycle q n Management of calendar lends authority to priesthood q Timing of auspicious moments for agriculture
The Maya Ball Game
Ritual form of ball game n High­ranking captives, prisoners of war contestants n Execution of losers immediately follows the match n Bloodletting ritual for the gods
n The End of Maya Civilization
n n Maya city­states were abandoned or destroyed between 800­900 C.E. Possible causes: q q q q q Disruption of Mesoamerican trade when Teotihuacan fell Geologic evidence for increasing drought after 800 C.E. Environmental pressure caused by overpopulation Epidemic disease Possible internal revolt by non­elite population
Classic Era Culture and Society in
Mesoamerica, 200-900
The Maya – Mesoamerican Lowlands n Teotihuacan – Highlands of Mexico
n Teotihuacan, 200 B.C.E. – 750 C.E.
n Large Mesoamerican city­state q q q q q n Height 450­650 C.E. q q q n n Advantageous location near obsidian Cloth and pottery soon also economically important Large and important religious center Dominated most of Valley of Mexico Extensive trade network Regional towns were abandoned as people moved to the city (ceremonial center) Control of a wide ranging economic empire Population 125,000­200,000 Centralized government – Headed likely by a semi­divine priests and/or ruler. City supported by agricultural surplus q Chinampas (“floating gardens”) n Maize, beans, squash
The Valley of Mexico
n Highland mountain valley surrounded by volcanoes (3,000 m elevation) q Rich soils, swamps and lake systems n Idea for raised field “chinampas” agriculture q q Abundant raw materials n n Maize, beans, squash Especially obsidian Adequate rainfall and temperate environment q Rich environment (agricultural surplus) supported large population (as many as 2 million by 16 th century C.E.)
Teotihuacan Culture
Pyramids, temples n Sacrifices n Use of sports like “the Ball Game” both as entertainment and religious nature n Collapsed c. 650 C.E. n q War? Invasion?
Post-Classic Period in Mesoamerica,
900-1500
n The Toltecs Power vacuum left by collapse of Classic Maya culture filled by neighboring societies q 987 C.E.: Mexican Toltecs invade from highlands; establish elite, non­Mayan dynasty in Yucatan lowlands q The Aztecs n After 1500: Spanish Conquest n (Chapter 21)
n Andean Societies
n n n n Migration into South America c. 12,000 BCE Climate improved c. 8000 BCE Largely independent from Mesoamerica Highly individualized due to geography
Andean Civilization
n A peculiar geography of complex micro­regions with extreme changes in altitude and temperature q q q n n n narrow strip on the western coast, cut by a few rivers that flow to the Pacific the high Andes, where some peaks rise to more than 15,000 feet between the 2 lie high valleys and steppes, or puna, that form the highlands The cool uplands supported potatoes and maize Good grazing for llamas and alpacas, the “sheep of the Andes” Harsh environments forced human inhabitants to organize labor efficiently in order to produce enough food to live
Early Developments in Andean
Civilization
3000­2000 B.C.E. ­ permanent agricultural villages were established in the Andean highlands and on the arid Pacific coast n New discovery – c. 2600 B.C.E. – civilization in Peru at city of Caral
n Early Developments and the Rise of
Chavín
n Chavín – the 1 st major urban civilization in South America 900­250 B.C.E. q ceremonial centers with large stone buildings q in the highlands and on the coast q the most important center was Chavín de Huantar in the Peruvian highlands
q Chavín Civilization
n The essential characteristics of later Andean Civilization q Architecture n n Platforms of packed earth used for ritual purposes and residences Platform at Chavín de Huantar known as the Castillo – 250 feet on each side and 50 feet high q q q q Hollow interior housed the remains of royal ancestors Statecraft – kings Decorative elements – serpents, condors, jaguars, humans Textile production
Chavín Cult
New religion in central Andes, 900­300 BCE n South America, contemporary Peru n Little known about particulars of religion q Intricate stone carvings
q End of Chavín Civilization
n Civilization collapsed around 200 B.C.E. q n Warfare disrupted trade 400+ years later, other major Andean Civilizations: q Moche, 200­700 C.E. n Undisturbed Moche royal tombs at Sipan Tiahuanaco, c. 200 C.E. – 1200 C.E. q Nazca (not easily dated) q Chimu, c. 850 C.E. – 1460s q Incas, c. 1400 C.E.
q The Mochica State
Valley of the Moche River n Dominated northern Peru, 200­700 CE n Painting survives n One of many states in region, none able to consolidate into empire
n Moche
n n n n n Moche culture in the north coastal region of Peru, c. 200 C.E. Extensive irrigated agriculture – maize, quinoa, beans, manioc Society led by priests and military leaders Artistic work known from Moche graves – elaborate textiles, gold and silver jewelry Decline of the Moche attributed to natural disasters in the 6 th century and to pressure from the warlike Wari people in the 8 th century
Oceania
60,000 B.C.E. Human migration to Australia and New Guinea n Prehistoric land bridges, lower seas permit migration n Outrigger canoes for open­sea travel n Early hunter­gatherer societies in Australia n Early agriculture in New Guinea, c. 3000 BCE
n Lapita Peoples, 1500-500 B.C.E.
n n n n Found throughout Pacific Islands Agriculture, animal herding Political organization based on chiefdoms Trade over open ocean declines 500 BCE q Greater independence of settlements
Americas and Oceania
n In what ways did the civilizations of the Americas and Oceania resemble those of the eastern hemisphere? n In what ways did the civilizations of the Americas resemble those of the eastern hemisphere?