REPUBLIC OF KENYA
Programming Framework to End
Drought Emergencies in the Horn of
Africa
ENDING DROUGHT EMERGENCIES IN KENYA
Country Programme Paper
August 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acronyms .................................................................................................................................. iv
Preface........................................................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... vi
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................. 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Context ............................................................................................................................... 2
1.1
Introduction .................................................................................................................2
1.2
Principal features of the ASALs..................................................................................2
1.3
Impact and extent of recurrent droughts .....................................................................5
Rationale and Objective of the Country Programme ................................................... 8
2.1
Rationale......................................................................................................................8
2.2
Objective of the country programme ..........................................................................9
Opportunities and Challenges ....................................................................................... 10
3.1
Opportunities for Ending Drought Emergencies .......................................................10
3.3
Challenges to Ending Drought Emergencies ............................................................11
Foundations of the Country Programme Paper .......................................................... 12
4.1
Policies, strategies and legal frameworks .................................................................12
4.2
Past and current programmes and projects ................................................................13
4.3
Summary of lessons learned ......................................................................................15
Strategic Response Areas and Proposed Interventions............................................... 16
5.1
Peace and human security .........................................................................................17
5.2
Humanitarian preparedness .......................................................................................18
5.3
Climate-proofed infrastructure development ............................................................19
5.4
Building human capital .............................................................................................21
5.5
Sustainable livelihoods adaptive to climate change ..................................................23
5.6
Multi-sectoral and multi-stakeholder coordination ...................................................26
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6.
Implementation and Institutional Arrangements ........................................................ 28
6.1
Overall responsibility ................................................................................................28
6.2
The National Drought Management Authority (NDMA) .........................................29
7.
Reporting, Monitoring and Evaluation ........................................................................ 31
8.
Financing Framework .................................................................................................... 31
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Acronyms
ASALs
Arid and Semi-Arid Lands
ASCU
Agricultural Sector Coordination Unit
ASDS
Agricultural Sector Development Strategy
AU
African Union
CAADP
Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme
CEWARN
Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism
COMESA
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
CPP
Country Programme Paper
DSG
District Steering Group
EAC
East African Community
EDE
Ending Drought Emergencies
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GOK
Government of Kenya
HDI
Human Development Index
ICT
Information Communication Technology
IGAD
Intergovernmental Authority on Development
KFSM
Kenya Food Security Meeting
KFSSG
Kenya Food Security Steering Group
NACONEK
National Commission on Nomadic Education in Kenya
NDDCF
National Drought and Disaster Contingency Fund
NDMA
National Drought Management Authority
NGO
Non-Governmental Organisation
PDNA
Post-Disaster Needs Assessment
SALW
Small Arms and Light Weapons
SRA
Strategic Response Area
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Preface
Today, more than ever before, droughts are predictable phenomena. Technological advances
have made weather forecasting an increasingly exact science. Over the past two decades the
Government of Kenya and its development partners have built a drought management system
that generates credible early warning information, drawn from a range of environmental,
economic and welfare-based indicators.
However, the recurrence of drought emergencies in Kenya tells us that we are not yet reacting
to this information in the right way and at the right time. With drought vulnerability
increasing, and with climate change now a reality, the challenge of effective response is
becoming ever more urgent.
This paper signals two important changes in the Government’s approach to drought
management. The first of these is the recognition that successive drought emergencies are an
indicator of chronic vulnerability. They will only be ended through investment in the
foundations necessary for sustainable development. These foundations, echoing Kenya
Vision 2030, include peace and security, climate-proofed infrastructure, and human
capacities in education, health and nutrition. In all these areas the arid lands lag behind other
parts of Kenya. Pastoralism will fully thrive, like any other production system, once these
basic life-support mechanisms are put in place.
The second direction of change is in our institutional and financing frameworks. The
Government has established a National Drought Management Authority. This is a
specialised, permanent institution to ensure coordinated, high-quality interventions at all
stages of the drought cycle. It will be supported by a contingency financing facility which
will enable timely response to the earliest signs of drought and in so doing prevent the
downward spiral into crisis which has sadly become all too familiar. The Authority will lead
the Government’s efforts in achieving the goals set out in this strategy.
Similar shifts are now required at regional and global levels. International attention and
funding must be driven by imperatives other than images of the suffering and distress of our
children. Drought-prone countries need new and additional finance to strengthen
communities’ adaptation to climate change and to protect those who have polluted least. And
Africa needs partners who understand the latent potential of its drylands – who see promise
and opportunity, where others see only problems.
Hon. Mohamed Elmi MP, EGH, MBE
Minister, Ministry of State for Development of Northern Kenya and Other Arid Lands
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Acknowledgements
I wish to acknowledge the efforts of the technical experts who helped compile this document.
Although I cannot possibly mention all of them, I will mention a few.
The work of my colleagues and members of the Inter-Ministerial Coordination Committee,
listed below, is particularly acknowledged:
Dr. Mohamed Isahakia, Office of the Prime Minister
Mr. Mutea Irengo, Office of the President
Mr. Kenneth M. Lusaka, Ministry of Livestock Development
Dr. Romano Kiome, Ministry of Agriculture
Prof. Micheni Japhet Ntiba, Ministry of Fisheries Development
Eng. David N. Stower, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation
Mr. Seno Nyakenyanya, Ministry of Cooperative Development and Marketing
Eng. Carey Orege, Ministry of Regional Development Authorities
Ms Dorothy N. Angote, Ministry of Lands
Mr. M.A.M. Wa-Mwachai, Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife
Dr. Edward Sambili, Ministry of Planning and Vision 2030
Mr. Ali Mohamed, Ministry of Environment and Mineral Resources
Mr. Joseph Kinyua, Ministry of Finance
Mr. Andrew Mondoh, Ministry of Special Programames
Eng. Michael Kamau, Ministry of Roads
Prof. George Godia, Ministry of Education
Ms. Mary Ngari, Ministry of Medical Services
Mr. Patrick Nyoike, Ministry of Energy
Special thanks go to the FAO Country Director, Mr. Dan Rugabira, for his generous and
unceasing support in the process of finalising the EDE CPP. Special mention also goes to the
EU and the Technical Consortium (ILRI) for their commitment and contributions.
The coordination and compilation role of the ASAL Secretariat and resource persons under
the leadership of Prof. Kassim O. Farah is also highly acknowledged.
Lawrence N. Lenayapa, CBS
Permanent Secretary
Ministry of State for Development of Northern Kenya And Other Arid Lands
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Executive Summary
This paper presents the Kenya Country Programming Framework for ending recurrent
drought emergencies in Kenya. It combines the efforts of the communities concerned, the
Government of Kenya, civil society, the private sector, states in the Horn of Africa, and
development partners.
The framework begins from the premise that because droughts have a slow-onset nature and
are predictable, better management of their impact on communities is possible and will
eliminate their worst effects. The focus is on creating a more conducive environment for
building drought resilience. Stronger foundations and institutions for development in
drought-prone areas will increase the efficiency and impact of all activities across all sectors,
whether led by government, the private sector, or communities themselves.
Although Kenya has suffered from periodic droughts throughout its recorded history, their
magnitude and severity has increased in the recent past as a result of global climate change.
This is particularly true of the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) which make up more than 80
per cent of Kenya’s land mass. The economic and social consequences of drought affect the
entire country. Severe droughts and floods are estimated to cause an annualised reduction in
GDP of 2.4 per cent. Early and appropriate response to emerging drought would therefore not
only save lives but also enhance Kenya’s overall economic and social development, besides
improving livelihoods in some of the poorest regions of the country.
The Programming Framework has six Strategic Response Areas (SRA):
SRA1: Peace and human security
SRA 2: Humanitarian preparedness
SRA 3: Climate-proofed infrastructure development
SRA 4: Building human capital
SRA 5: Sustainable livelihoods adaptive to climate change
SRA 6: Multi-sector and multi-stakeholder coordination
Implementation of the programme will require effective coordination of all stakeholders. The
government has created the National Drought Management Authority (NDMA) to provide
leadership and coordination of drought management in the country. A monitoring, evaluation
and reporting system will be developed in line with the National Integrated Monitoring and
Evaluation System (NIMES).
Finally, a five-year indicative budget for the EDE has been developed which will now be
reviewed and the detail fine-tuned in consultation with the relevant sectors.
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1.
Context
1.1
Introduction
The 2010/2011 drought in the Horn of Africa was the worst in 60 years. It caused a severe
humanitarian and food crisis affecting more than 10 million people. The combined economic
impact of the drought and related shocks was estimated at approximately 0.7–1.0 per cent of
GDP.1
While the damage was significant in the whole of Kenya, the impact on food security and
livelihoods in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) was greatest. According to the interagency Kenya Food Security Steering Group
(KFSSG), an estimated 4.5 million people were
affected: 3.8 million people in the ASALs and
700,000 in non-ASAL areas. During that period
Kenya also hosted approximately 530,000
refugees, mostly from Somalia, further straining
local resources.
According to the Kenya Post Disaster Needs
Assessment (PDNA) report (2012), the damages
and losses from the 2008–2011 drought are
estimated at KShs. 968.6 billion (US$12.1
billion). This figure includes the destruction of
physical and durable assets and the loss of
income flows across all sectors of the economy.
Appropriate management of drought is therefore
critical to national development.
1.2
Principal features of the ASALs
The ASALs cover more than 80 per cent of Kenya’s land mass (see map), of which 70 per
cent is arid and 19 per cent semi-arid, and host slightly more than one-third of the total
population (Table 1).
Aridity is the defining feature of the ASALs. Annual rainfall in arid areas ranges between 150
mm and 550 mm, while in semi-arid areas it is between 550 mm and 850 mm. Temperatures
in arid areas are high throughout the year, with high rates of evapo-transpiration. Owing to
these climatic conditions, most of the ASAL landmass is suitable for extensive and intensive
livestock agricultural systems. More than 70 per cent of the country’s livestock and 75 per
cent of its wildlife are found in the ASALs. The region’s low and erratic rainfall, frequent
1
World Bank (2011): ‘The Drought and Food Crisis in the Horn of Africa: Impacts and Proposed Policy
Responses for Kenya’
2|Page
droughts and extreme vulnerability to climate change present severe economic and social
consequences for the whole country.
Table 1: ASAL Population Data, 2009 Census
Arid counties
Garissa
Mandera
Semi-arid counties
623,060 Kitui
1,025,756 Makueni
1,012,709
884,527
Wajir
661,941 Meru
Marsabit
291,166 Tharaka-Nithi
365,330
Isiolo
Turkana
Samburu
143,294 Embu
855,399 Nyeri
223,947 West Pokot
516,212
693,558
512,690
Baringo
555,561 Narok
850,920
Tana River
240,075 Kajiado
687,312
Laikipia
Kilifi
Kwale
399,227
1,109,735
649,931
Lamu
Taita Taveta
Total
% national population
4,620,199
12%
1,356,301
101,539
284,657
9,424,648
24%
Most arid counties in the north are remote and constrained by rudimentary transport, energy
and communications infrastructure. The population is sparse and scattered across large areas
of relatively small settlements inhabited by pastoral communities. For pastoralists, mobility is
a strategic and sophisticated response to conditions of non-equilibrium. The social system is
mostly communal, governed by customary (informal) institutions.
Past development strategies have concentrated on developing Kenya’s high-rainfall areas. As
a result, many ASAL areas have the poorest service provision in the country (Table 2), the
highest incidence of poverty and the lowest human development – in some places only half
the national average. The Human Development Index (HDI) for five arid districts in 2009
ranged between 0.21 and 0.37, compared with the national HDI of 0.50.2 Counties most
affected by drought register an average poverty rate of 73 per cent.
In most arid counties human capital is poorly developed. Literacy levels are low. Few
institutions of higher learning provide training in subjects that are relevant to the ASALs.
There is no university in the north, and vocational and technical institutions are poorly
2
GoK/UNDP (2009) Kenya National Human Development Report
3|Page
equipped to provide science-based courses. Relevant research centres are few and dispersed;
as result, there have been fewer scientific breakthroughs in the livestock sector than in the
crop sector. Health services are also thin and scattered resulting in low vaccination rates
among children, poor antenatal care, and high prevalence of disease outbreaks.
Table 2: Social service provision in North Eastern Province3
Service Provided
Primary net enrolment
Primary girls’ completion
Secondary net enrolment
Electricity at home
Access to safe drinking water
Women using antenatal care
Vaccinated children (12-23 months)
NEP (%)
36.3
25
2.2
3.2
9.9
31.7
54.3
National average (%)
78.7
75
12.5
16.0
56.3
89.9
92.6
Arid areas are also the most poorly equipped with information communication technologies
(ICTs). The fact that some groups are difficult to reach also means that information about
them is less reliable. An important cross-cutting strategy within the social pillar of Vision
2030 calls for investment in gender-disaggregated systems of data collection and analysis in
order to enhance understanding of people’s welfare and inform gender-balanced
interventions.
Agriculture is the mainstay of the Kenyan economy, directly contributing about 24 per cent
of annual GDP and 65 per cent of total exports, and providing more than 60 per cent of
informal employment in rural areas. Livestock contributes more than 50 per cent of
agricultural GDP and 13 per cent to national GDP. The livestock sector in Kenya employs
about 50 per cent of the agricultural workforce and about 90 per cent of the ASAL workforce.
Approximately 70 per cent of livestock are found in the ASALs.
Over the past few decades, the ASALs have witnessed several transformations that have
affected pastoralists’ livelihoods. People are migrating from over-populated informal urban
settlements into semi-arid areas where they practise farming in areas that are not well-suited
for agriculture. Large areas of grazing land have been converted to settlements and removed
from communal use to conservation. Rangelands have also been targeted by large
government schemes such as the Turkwell Electricity Project and the Olkaria Geothermal
Project, thereby reducing accessible pasture and leading to overgrazing and deterioration of
rangelands. This in turn hampers herd growth, reducing stock numbers below economic
thresholds and driving many pastoralists out of their traditional occupation and exposing
them to human-wildlife conflict.
3
HPG (2010): ‘Pastoralism demographics, settlement and service provision in the Horn and East Africa:
transformation and opportunities’
4|Page
1.3
Impact and extent of recurrent droughts
In recent years, and especially since 1981, cyclical droughts have become more severe and
frequent and are progressively eroding livelihoods in pastoral, agro-pastoral and agricultural
zones. Figure 1 shows the average number of people receiving food aid between 2000 and
2010. The number of people receiving food aid as a proportion of the total affected by
drought increased from 60 per cent in 2006 to 91 per cent and 88 per cent in 2009 and 2010
respectively.
Figure 1: Average number of people on food aid
The livestock subsector sustained significant losses from the 2008-11 drought (Figure 2).4
However, the negative impact of drought is felt most acutely by pastoralists who have lost
their livestock.
Figure 2: Sector damages and losses caused by the 2008–11 drought
4
Republic of Kenya (2012) ‘Post Disaster Needs Assessment: 2008-11 Drought’
5|Page
The second most drought-affected sector in the 2008-11 period was agriculture; the
production of food and industrial crops reduced by Kshs. 121.1 billion. Finally, the financial
cost of humanitarian aid is substantial (Table 3).
Table 3: Financial cost of emergency response in Kenya5
Major drought
events
Humanitarian aid from GoK &
development partners (US$m)
Number of people
affected (in millions)
1998-2000
287.5
2.36
2003-2004
219.1
2.23
2006
197.0
2.97
2009
2011
423.0
427.4
3.79
3.75
Insecurity of tenure to land and other productive resources is a major factor increasing the
vulnerability of pastoralists and other rangeland users to drought. This has exacerbated
access-related conflicts, particularly for key resources such as riverine dry-season grazing
areas.
The consequences of drought on pastoralists’ livelihoods have always been devastating (Box
1). As drought progresses, livestock owners are forced to sell their animals before they die,
which leads to low sale prices. Lack of food at the household level is caused by low milk
production and depressed purchasing power (as food prices rise). Increased competition for
scarce grazing and water resources may lead to inter-communal conflict and insecurity and a
consequent reduction in access to markets and other services. Poor infrastructure makes it
difficult to transport relief assistance or food supplies to deficit areas. Wealth divisions
increase as the poor are less able to hold on to the assets necessary to maintain (and rebuild)
their livelihoods after the crisis has ended, and as social support mechanisms come under
pressure. These poorer herders require support either to return to pastoralism or find
alternative livelihoods. Successive droughts have led to many families falling out of the
pastoral economy.
Other social impacts are being caused by environmental and socio-economic changes in
drylands. For example, gender roles are shifting. Women, culturally viewed in the past as
vulnerable and in need of protection, are now playing key roles in ensuring the survival of
their families. With the depletion of livestock, and with some men migrating either in search
of pasture or employment, women are acting as heads of households with all the
accompanying responsibilities and associated impact on the social fabric of pastoral societies.
Increased awareness and opportunities for education, combined with high levels of
unemployment and limited income generation opportunities, are leading young people to
challenge traditional authority and decision-making systems that previously resided with
5
UNOCHA financial tracking service and KFSSG
6|Page
elderly men. This is leading to a breakdown in the respect and control exercised by customary
institutions, thus making it increasingly difficult to resolve inter- and intra-community
conflicts. The commercialisation of cattle raiding, and the increase in small arms, has further
complicated peace building processes. Feelings of marginalisation among many in ASAL
communities undermine the sense of national unity that the country urgently needs.
Box 1: The effects of drought on a pastoral economy
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Loss of livestock: Kenya lost livestock worth US$ 77 million in 1999-2001
Reduction in pastoralists’ purchasing power / deteriorating terms of trade
Deterioration in nutritional status
Disruption in the flow of livestock to market
Disruption to animal reproductive cycles
Undermining of animal health systems as herders become less able to pay for services and
some organisations distribute free or subsidised drugs
Increased sedentarisation causing localised environmental degradation
Increased risk of conflict
Increased workload for women
Extended migration, including cross-border
Increase in school drop-outs and reduction in academic performance
Rise in levels of poverty and food insecurity
There is growing demand for meat and livestock products both within the region and beyond,
which in theory expands the marketing opportunities for livestock producers. However, these
opportunities are not being realised because of the poor road network and marketing
infrastructure and the lack of financial institutions.
There is accelerated ecological deterioration in the ASALs. This is evident in the loss of
vegetation cover, land degradation through soil erosion, fragmentation, destruction of wildlife
habitats, and degradation of water catchments. The poor resort to destructive strategies such
as felling indigenous trees for charcoal, river-bed sand harvesting and the cultivation of
marginal lands. These have negative social consequences, such as increasing the distance
women have to walk in search of fuel wood and water, leaving little time for productive
engagements. While some pastoralists have resorted to fishing, they have limited skills and
lack appropriate equipment.
However, the climatic and cultural diversity of the ASALs offers significant economic and
livelihood opportunities, most of which are under-exploited. The ASALs are a landscape rich
in biodiversity, both fauna and flora. There are untapped underground water resources as well
as stretches of land that could be used for food and animal feed production. The ASALs are
potentially rich in oil, gold and other non-renewable resources. If properly managed, and
supported by reliable infrastructure and social services, these could provide sustainable and
prosperous livelihoods for ASAL communities and spur significant economic growth for the
nation as a whole.
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2.
Rationale and Objective of the Country Programme
2.1
Rationale
The programme to End Drought Emergencies was a consensual response of all the countries
affected by the drought of 2011. In response to the ensuing humanitarian crisis, the Heads of
State and Government of the Horn and East Africa came together on 8–9 September 2011 in
Nairobi. There was also high-level representation from the United Nations, development
partners and international agencies. The Heads of State directed IGAD to lead and coordinate
member states in implementing the Ending Drought Emergencies initiative.
Box 2: Factors contributing to drought emergencies
Environmental
 Weather variability, drought frequency and intensity, climate change
 Land degradation, over-exploitation of natural resources (including woodlands),
destruction of water towers
 Lack of alternative sources of energy
Humanitarian assistance
 Over-reliance on relief assistance, particularly food aid
 Reactive, crisis management approach
 Late response
 Lack of drought contingency funds
 Failure to link relief operations adequately to recovery and development
Socio-economic
 Under-investment in critical sectors (livestock, infrastructure, health, education) that
weakens adaptive capacity
 Macro-economic instability (for example, maize prices in 2011 in areas of key concern
were 70–130% higher than the five-year average)
 Conflict
 Lack of livelihood options outside the pastoral system
Production
 Lack of security over natural resources; poor land use policy
 Limitations on mobility
 Lack of / high cost of agricultural inputs, storage structures
 Poor extension services and adoption of agricultural technology
Regional
 Disjointed approaches to pastoralism across the region
 Lack of harmonised cross-border policies
 Lack of transboundary disease control policies
This programme will benefit from the lessons learned from past national and regional
development projects and from managing previous droughts. These lessons suggest that a
more comprehensive, strategic and coordinated response is required. In the past, the Kenyan
government and international community attempted to address the recurring problem of
drought primarily through humanitarian interventions. More resources and attention were
devoted to emergency response than to preventive, risk-reducing measures. However, this
8|Page
failed to reduce the number of people affected or address the underlying factors that
contribute to drought emergencies (Box 2). Relief efforts may save lives but risk undermining
people’s survival strategies. Evidence also suggests that preventive measures are more costeffective than late response.6
A concerted effort is now needed at both national and regional levels to invest in the
opportunities presented by the ASALs in a way that avoids or mitigates future shocks. To
achieve this vision there must be a paradigm shift that strengthens the resilience of the
ASALs’ various forms of capital. Increased occurrence of droughts should be expected, given
increasing variability caused by climate change. But given their slow-onset nature, droughts
can be predicted and managed and should never evolve into emergencies.
This Country Programme Paper (CPP) therefore aims to enhance resilience to drought in the
ASALs within the framework and timeline of Kenya Vision 2030. Its main thrust will be to
create a more conducive environment for building resilience to drought by investing in the
essential foundations for development, such as infrastructure, human capital, and security,
while at the same time strengthening the link between relief, recovery and development
through long-term planning. It presents a unique opportunity to tackle the issue in an
inclusive, coordinated and holistic way.
2.2
Objective of the country programme
The objective of the country programme, which will be implemented through two successive
Medium Term Plans (MTP), is to transform the management of drought, substantially reduce
its impact and eventually end drought emergencies in Kenya. This will be achieved by
focusing on the following strategic issues:
1. Investing in the foundations for development as articulated in Kenya Vision 2030 (i.e.
infrastructure, security and human capital).
2. Developing an effective institutional framework to sustainably manage drought and its
consequences.
3. Enhancing the adaptive capacities of communities to the effects of climate variation and
climate change through the application of relevant ecosystem approaches.
4. Comprehensive monitoring and evaluation towards the achievement of these objectives.
6
Fitzgibbon, C. (2012) ‘Economics of Resilience Study: Kenya Country Report’
9|Page
3.
Opportunities and Challenges
3.1
Opportunities for Ending Drought Emergencies

Strong traditional institutions and customary mechanisms of conflict resolution,
knowledge sharing, and social support (such as loaning of animals). These are
complemented by openness to new ideas (such as new technologies) and synergy between
formal and traditional institutions. The pastoral coping strategy for risk and uncertainty
involves opportunistic mobility and herd diversification and maximisation.

Diversification of income sources. Key areas of investment include natural resource
management and environmental protection, herd growth, livestock-based enterprises,
alternative livelihoods, and institutional capacity building. The public sector has a critical
role in creating a favourable enabling environment. Scaling up successful innovations
requires careful planning. Care should be taken to ensure the inclusion of the most
vulnerable segments of communities, such as the non-literate, and those who depend on
unsustainable or destructive activities, such as charcoal burning, which offer short-term
and low-impact solutions while undermining ecosystem resilience.

Investing in human capital development to make the most of social and economic
opportunities. Investing in youth, women and community education will build a solid
foundation for sustainable growth, while also helping the government fulfil its national
and international obligations and commitments.7

Developing infrastructure, including roads, markets, health facilities, irrigation/waterharvesting structures, ICT and energy. Infrastructure must be properly planned, for
example in accommodating likely climate impacts and ensuring sustainable natural
resource use.

Creating marketing opportunities for livestock and other dryland products within
Kenya and beyond, supported by a market value chain analysis and within an overall
regional economic integration strategy. Increased engagement of pastoralists and
smallholder farmers in national, regional and international markets is possible through
strengthening institutions such as marketing cooperatives and producer associations and
harmonising trade policies.

Enhancing options for food security by advancing sustainable irrigation to increase
production, adopting drought-tolerant crops and animal breeds, reducing post-harvest
losses and food waste, and promoting indigenous high-value edible, herbal or medicinal
plants.
7
For example, the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), the African Charter on the Rights and
Welfare of the Child (1999) and the Millennium Declaration (2000), all of which oblige their signatories to
realize the right of every child to education. Kenya has now made education a constitutional right.
10 | P a g e

A drought contingency fund linked to the National Drought Management Authority will
ensure that funds are available for early drought response.

New sources of income may become available through the global climate change
framework.
3.3
Challenges to Ending Drought Emergencies

High poverty levels hamper community participation in development and reduce the
extent to which drought-prone communities are cushioned against shocks.

Insecurity is a major challenge that deters investment and development. Both the formal
justice system and customary institutions are proving unable to deal with conflict.

Inadequate social and physical infrastructure, in large, remote and sparsely populated
areas with many mobile groups.

Poor management of rangelands and water resources. Weak controls over the spread
of settlements and water points have created localised degradation and conflict. The
subdivision of rangelands and the influx of non-pastoral land management systems have
led to range degradation and the loss of dry-season grazing areas.

Inadequate coordination. There are many agencies with diverse policies and mandates
and uncoordinated activities, leading to delays and ineffective response.

Lack of mainstreaming of drought preparedness and risk-reduction in planning and
budgeting.

Unemployment, particularly of youth aged 18-35. Urban centres are growing but not
creating sufficient jobs to serve those graduating from colleges. School leavers lack skills
and the necessary qualifications to compete in the limited labour market. Labour laws are
problematic in traditional systems of production where there is over-reliance on
household labour.

Weak research and knowledge base. The ASAL research network is weak; very few
government centres target ASAL-specific research problems. Decades of neglect have left
a gap in knowledge and a dearth of trained and qualified researchers capable of solving
the problems of dryland livelihoods, particularly under the effects of climate change.
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4.
Foundations of the Country Programme Paper
4.1
Policies, strategies and legal frameworks
To build a firm foundation for the Country Programme Paper (CPP), information was
obtained from the following documents that reflect the government’s position on drought
management and ASAL development.
Kenya Vision 2030: This is the overarching national development plan that aims to move all
Kenyans towards the future as one nation, in a way that respects and harnesses the diversity
of peoples’ values, traditions, and aspirations for the benefit of all. It re-affirms the
government’s commitment to addressing the particular priorities of Kenyans living in the
ASALs.
Vision 2030 Development Strategy for Northern Kenya and other Arid Lands: This
deepens Kenya Vision 2030 by showing not only how national goals will be pursued in the
specific context of the ASALs, but how the development of the region will enhance national
prosperity.
Draft Sessional Paper on the National Policy for the Sustainable Development of
Northern Kenya and Other Arid Lands: This emphasises three distinct policy challenges
that are particular to the region: first, how to close the developmental gap between Northern
Kenya and the rest of the country, which is a product of its historical experience, and in so
doing strengthen national cohesion; second, how to protect and promote the mobility and
institutional arrangements that are so essential to productive pastoralism; and third, how to
ensure food security across the ASALs where unpredictability is certain to increase as the
impact of climate change deepens.
Draft Disaster Management Policy: This emphasises preparedness in disaster risk reduction
by the government, communities and other stakeholders. It aims to establish and strengthen
disaster management institutions and mainstream disaster risk reduction in the development
process.
Agricultural Sector Development Strategy, 2010-20: The ASDS is the national policy
document for the agricultural sector and outlines the measures that will be taken to propel the
sector into the future.
National Climate Change Response Strategy: This affirms the Government’s commitment
to enhance the resilience of communities to drought and other climate-induced disasters and
strengthen Kenya’s capacity for adapting to climate change.
Food and Nutrition Security Policy: This provides an overarching framework for the
multiple dimensions of food security and nutrition. It recognises the need for multistakeholder involvement in both the public and private sectors, and that hunger eradication is
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a shared responsibility of all Kenyans. The policy is framed in the context of basic human
rights, child rights and women’s rights, including the universal ‘Right to Food’.
Draft National Social Protection Policy: This provides a framework for social protection
interventions which can also contribute to drought resilience.
Policy Framework for Nomadic Education in Kenya (2010): This recognises that Kenya’s
nomadic communities, the majority of whom are pastoralists, face multiple barriers to
education, and that unless these barriers are removed, Kenya will not achieve the Millennium
Development Goals for education nor the Education for All goals. The government will
establish a National Commission for Nomadic Education in Kenya (NACONEK) to provide
services appropriate to the realities of nomadic areas.
Ending Conflict Among Communities in Northern Kenya and other Arid Lands, 20102012: This strategy was developed jointly by the Ministry of State for Provincial
Administration and Internal Security and the Ministry of State for Development of Northern
Kenya and other Arid Lands, in collaboration with political leaders from the region. It argues
that successful reduction of inter-communal conflict will only be achieved if there is
coordinated action by four types of stakeholder: the Kenyan state, political leaders,
communities, and neighbouring countries. It argues for measures to incentivise peace
building and conflict management at all levels, and to work with clusters of conflict that cross
administrative boundaries.
Other documents on which the country paper is based include: the National Environment
Action Plan (NEAP, 1994); the Strategy for Dryland Forestry Development, the
Environmental Management and Coordination Act (1999), the East African Community
Trans-boundary Ecosystem Management Bill (2010), and IGAD’s Horn of Africa National
Adaptation Plan of Action (NAPA). Finally, a pan-African Policy Framework to secure and
protect the lives, livelihoods and rights of pastoral peoples and to reinforce the contribution
of pastoral livestock to national, regional and continent-wide economies has also been
developed and is relevant to this programme.
4.2
Past and current programmes and projects
There is a rich history of development in the ASALs since independence in 1963. The first
phase (1963-1980) focused on landscape management by promoting commercial livestock
production and the registration of pastoral group ranches, primarily in Kajiado, Narok,
Samburu and Laikipia. In the more arid districts in the north and east, a block-grazing model
was promoted (1968-1982).
The first 10-year ASAL development programme was formulated in 1979 and implemented
until 1988. In 1989, the government created the Ministry of Reclamation and Development of
Arid and Semi-arid Areas and Wastelands (MRDASW) to coordinate the policy formulation
of all ASAL development. During the life of this Ministry, the Environmental Action Plan
(EAP) was developed. Its main objective was to enhance the ability of ASAL communities to
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manage their resources in a sustainable manner. The significance of the EAP to Ending
Drought Emergencies is its emphasis on the need for policies, legislation and institutions to
address economic development and the environmental problems of the ASALs, with
emphasis on improved pastoralism, dryland farming, wildlife integration, drought
management, reclamation of wastelands, community participation and overuse of wood forest
resources.
The following programmes and projects are some of those implemented in the ASALs.
Kenya Livestock Development Programme (KLDP), 1968–1982: The World Bank-funded
KLDP was a large, complex, multi-donor project which cost approximately US$81.2 million.
Its planning was primarily top–down, complicated by the lack of consideration for the
ecological functions of rangelands under non-equilibrium systems. Although KLDP was
considered one of the most promising rangeland management programmes, planners’ lack of
knowledge of conditions on the ground, and the absence of a holistic community-based
approach, led to its failure.
Emergency Drought Recovery Project, 1991–1996: A key lesson from this World Bankfunded project was that short-term emergency interventions are insufficient for reducing the
vulnerabilities of ASAL communities and building their resilience to shocks. Its key
achievement was the formation of water users associations and livestock drug users
associations, both of which enhanced community participation in drought management.
Arid Lands Resources Management Project (ALRMP), 1996–2010: The main thrust of
ALRMP was to institutionalise drought management and carry out integrated ASAL
development. A key lesson was that building community structures and institutions, such as
pastoralist associations and community-based organisations, greatly increases local capacity
to manage droughts and respond to emergencies in a timely and effective manner prior to the
arrival of external assistance. The project emphasised the importance of community-level
contingency planning and early warning systems. It also facilitated the introduction of mobile
schools into the mainstream education system.
ASAL-based Livestock and Rural Livestock Support Programme (ALLPRO), 2004–
2010: ALLPRO was implemented by the Ministry of Livestock Development and funded by
the African Development Bank. It focused on improving livestock productivity, marketing
and support for drought management and food security in 22 districts.
Kenya Drylands Livestock Development Programme, 2010–2013, is funded by USAID
and implemented by the Citizen’s Network for Foreign Affairs (CNFA). It aims to increase
income and food security for pastoralists in Garissa, Mandera, Wajir and Tana River by
investing in the livestock value chain to enhance trade in livestock and livestock products.
Kenya Rural Development Programme (KRDP) is an ongoing project that aims to increase
the capacity of ASAL communities to respond effectively to drought and other
vulnerabilities. It focuses on securing long-term food security by improving agricultural
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productivity nationwide, and improving livelihoods and drought response in the ASALs. It
builds on lessons from the previous Drought Management Initiative (DMI).
The Hunger Safety Net Programme is an ongoing project funded by DFID and AusAID
that uses biometric technologies to disburse cash transfers using electronic point-of-sale
devices managed by a network of traders. The project is demonstrating that increasing the
penetration of new technologies into remote areas is both beneficial and achievable. One key
lesson learnt from the project is the use of ICTs to minimise the effect of distance on social
service delivery.
Education for Nomads: The Ministry of State for Development of Northern Kenya and
other Arid Lands supported a process of participatory research during 2009-2010 which
resulted in the development of a people-centred distance learning strategy for nomadic
communities. The Ministry has also facilitated the establishment of the independent Northern
Kenya Education Trust (NoKET), which is supporting the education of students from
pastoralist families, particularly girls, at secondary, tertiary and university levels, and which
has now absorbed the previous UNICEF-supported secondary scholarship scheme for girls
from North Eastern Province.
Capacity Kenya is an IntraHealth project supported by USAID which is helping to improve
capacity in Human Resources for Health (HRH). Although a national initiative, Capacity
Kenya recognises the distinct HRH challenges facing the arid lands, and is implementing a
series of affirmative action measures in the training and development of health service
personnel. Other projects in the health sector are also reorienting themselves to respond to the
difficulties experienced by remote and nomadic communities in accessing quality health care,
such as APHIAplus Northern Arid Lands, which was implemented between 2010 and 2012.
4.3
Summary of lessons learned
Successful projects have the following qualities:

Priority given to active community involvement and participation: in many previous
interventions participatory planning was not a feature of project design.

Recognition of the potential of the ASALs, particularly in the livestock and renewable
energy sectors, and in the region’s strategic position as the gateway to markets in the
Horn of Africa and beyond.

Complementary investment in the foundations for development, and particularly in the
region’s economic and social infrastructure (roads, renewable energy, water, education,
and health), to increase private sector and civic engagement and reduce basic inequalities.
This investment underpins the productivity of pastoralism and other production systems.

Integration of alternative models of service delivery that take account of mobility, low
population density, and pastoralism’s distinct institutional arrangements.
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
5.
Adoption of appropriate technical solutions to the challenges of ensuring food and
nutrition security in dryland environments in the context of climate change.
Strategic Response Areas and Proposed Interventions
The Nairobi Summit in September 2011 called for an end to drought emergencies in the Horn
of Africa. In response, the Government of Kenya made a commitment to provide the political
leadership required. This commitment was based on the understanding that although drought
itself cannot be avoided, drought emergencies can be mitigated through long-term sustainable
development of the ASALs. This is clearly underscored by the Kenya Vision 2030
Development Strategy for Northern Kenya and Other Arid Lands which envisages a
comprehensive approach to the development of the region as an integral part of Kenya Vision
2030.
The Kenya Country Programme Paper is based on the following considerations:
1. The traditionally resilient livelihoods practised by ASAL communities are being
undermined by multiple challenges, leaving people increasingly vulnerable to risk.
2. Local communities should be empowered and integrally involved in the planning and
development of ASAL areas.
3. ASAL communities are not homogeneous and have different needs and entitlements.
4. The strategies to ending drought emergencies should consider environmental threats (such
as climate change and water scarcity) as well as geopolitical changes, and must take into
consideration the diversity of ASAL ecosystems.
5. Sustainable development of the diverse resources and communities of the ASALs is
complex, and requires effective coordination of many actors.
6. The basic human rights and dignity of ASAL communities must be observed when
investing in the development of the region’s renewable and non-renewable resources.
All elements of the CPP are designed and will be implemented in ways that take full account
of the likely impacts of climate change.
The strategy focuses less on individual projects and more on ensuring that the overall
environment is more conducive to building drought resilience. With stronger foundations and
institutions for development in place, the efficiency and impact of all interventions in the
ASALs, whether led by government, the private sector, or communities themselves, will be
increased.
The interventions proposed under each Strategic Response Area (SRA) are described below.
These are indicative, and will be reviewed and refined in collaboration with each sector as the
first Medium Term Plan is developed.
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5.1
Peace and human security
Situation analysis
Insecurity and violence can be high in the ASALs, particularly in times of drought. In
general, insecurity is not directed at outsiders; it tends to be clan-based, complex, and
episodic. Insecurity has international dynamics and ramifications given the volatility of some
neighbouring countries and pastoralists’ need for mobility. This applies most particularly to
Kenya’s extensive international borders in Northern, Upper Eastern, North Eastern and Rift
Valley, where border control measures are weak.
Conflicts can arise from increased competition over shared resources. For instance, the need
to re-stock after losses from livestock raids, encounters with armed raiders during migration,
or the sharing of grazing and water resources with wildlife are all flash points for the
conflagration of conflicts. The slow pace of advance negotiations with neighbouring
communities, and the lack of security for mobile pastoralists while accessing grazing and
water resources, render both pastoralists and host communities vulnerable to attacks and
confrontation with law-enforcement agencies. Various cross-border peace mechanisms have
been tried, but they tend to be sporadic and under-resourced and take place in the absence of
a comprehensive policy that facilitates interaction and coordination between states.
Customary institutions still play a major role in resolving and transforming conflicts,
especially during their early stages. However, as new types of conflicts arise and new actors
get involved, the effectiveness of customary institutions is being challenged and in some
cases eroded.
Peace and human security are pre-requisites for investment, development and the facilitation
of pastoral livelihoods, including mobility for trade and access to resources. The government
has declared peace building, human security and national cohesion as major goals for
sustainable development in Kenya. The National Steering Committee on Peace Building and
Conflict Management has taken a proactive role by establishing peace committees at
provincial, district, divisional and community levels and by its efforts to contain the influx of
small arms and light weapons into the country.
Successful interventions to address the underlying causes of conflict and strengthen peaceful
coexistence between communities include the development and enforcement of community
social agreements, CEWARN’s ICT for Peace Project, conflict early warning desks linked to
CEWARN, women-led interventions including women’s peace forums, peace caravans, and
the establishment of peace dividends.
A full understanding of the root causes of conflicts is necessary if effective and sustainable
solutions are to be found.
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Possible interventions

Develop a coherent strategy for peace and conflict transformation and prevention. This
will be integrated across all major sectors and include all actors in order to strengthen and
institutionalise the peace infrastructure at all levels.

Encourage and strengthen community-led peace and human security institutions,
processes and actions in order to pre-empt, prevent and resolve conflicts at the local level
where early response and effective resolution are more likely. Conflicts over natural
resources and livelihood assets including livestock will be given particular attention.
Additional resources, such as rapid response kits, will be made available to district
security and peace committees. Government, private sector and NGO partnerships will be
explored. Interventions will build on existing mechanisms, but integrate innovative
approaches to tackle new challenges.

Improve the deployment and capacity of law enforcement agencies and the police force
(police posts, training, provision of better equipment, communication / radios / power
supply) to enhance security in the ASALs. Particular attention will be given to curbing
the cross-border influx and use of small arms and light weapons.

Develop effective systems to monitor conflicts and ensure early response. Drought
contingency plans will include conflict mitigation measures.
5.2
Humanitarian preparedness
Situation analysis
Despite recent approaches to early warning and contingency planning systems, humanitarian
assistance in Kenya continues to take a reactive crisis management approach rather than an
anticipatory and preventive risk management approach. It is characterised by late response
leading to over-reliance on emergency food aid, which can disrupt socio-economic activities
and does not build resilience. Failure to respond appropriately to drought early warning
information and the lack of a national drought contingency fund contribute immensely to
emergencies.
Other factors which exacerbate crises include lack of roads to reach affected communities,
disease outbreaks, and inadequate staff at community and institutional levels to deliver
essential services. Under-investment in critical sectors such as livestock, infrastructure,
agriculture, health and education weakens adaptive capacity to climate variability and climate
change. Low levels of community involvement in public decision making and cultural
barriers to participation in development also increase vulnerability. Food insecurity is
aggravated by the loss of production, the high cost of food and fuel, limited access to a
strategic food reserve, and constrained livelihood options for those who have dropped out of
pastoralism. An additional concern is the failure to link humanitarian assistance with
recovery and long-term development. At the same time, climate change is exacerbating all
these threats and increasing vulnerability.
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Humanitarian assistance has an important role to play in the short term but contributes little
to long-term social and economic growth. The fact that droughts are manageable and are
known to be recurring phenomena has not always been translated and incorporated into
strategic response plans.
Kenya is well positioned to undertake a strategic approach to drought management. The
country has relevant strategic, policy and legal instruments in place as well as a track record
of developing and piloting technical instruments and programmes. An example is the
proposed National Drought and Disaster Contingency Fund (NDDCF).
It is envisaged that in the long term, and with investment in the other elements of the CPP,
the need for emergency humanitarian assistance will decline.
Possible interventions

Consolidate and coordinate scattered drought management initiatives that currently
operate independently of each other under one institution (the National Drought
Management Authority).

Strengthen and support early warning systems to ensure timely response by building on
traditional and community-based interventions, risk management initiatives and a reliable
flow of finance from the National Drought and Disaster Contingency Fund.

Ensure an effective and coordinated transport system to facilitate access to humanitarian
assistance.

Support the National Cereals and Produce Board (NCPB) to ensure that the strategic food
reserve maintains adequate physical stocks and cash equivalent.

Prioritise and pursue drought risk reduction strategies that use non-food interventions to
support dryland economies early in the drought cycle.

Develop effective cross-border distribution channels and mechanisms for the efficient
delivery of humanitarian assistance.

Strengthen meteorological monitoring and reporting capabilities in the ASALs to ensure
that weather and climate information is shared in a timely manner.

Strengthen public–private partnerships in humanitarian assistance.
5.3
Climate-proofed infrastructure development
Situation analysis
The lack of adequate infrastructure in the ASALs undermines investment and reinforces the
perceived separation of the region from the rest of the country. The transport infrastructure is
thin, disjointed and in some places non-existent. Impassable or non-existent roads increase
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the cost of goods and services. Livestock markets are under-developed (Box 3) and poorly
integrated locally and regionally. The ICT infrastructure is rudimentary, while that for water,
hygiene and sanitation is poor. Renewable energy resources are substantial but hardly
exploited. Demand for electricity in Kenya is projected to grow at 7% per annum over the
next 10 years; the natural endowment of renewable energy in the ASALs offers an excellent
opportunity to help meet this demand and build a greener economy.
Box 3: Markets in the ASALs
Market infrastructure in northern Kenya is poor. In many locations there are no clear market days.
Because of poor road conditions it takes approximately 48 hours by lorry to transport animals on
the 730km road from Moyale to Nairobi at a cost of around US$723 for one lorry load of 18 cattle.
The lack of an integrated policy and institutional framework between the Ministry of Livestock
Development and County Councils has constrained the development of livestock marketing.
Source: Sara Pavanello (2010): ‘Livestock Marketing in Kenya-Ethiopia Border Areas: A Baseline Study’,
London: ODI
A more robust infrastructure in the arid lands will improve the food supply chain (packaging,
transportation and storage), strengthen market access (retail and wholesale outlets, market
information) and improve terms of trade. It will stimulate investment and economic growth
and improve operational efficiency for both the public and private sectors. It will help reduce
poverty and lower the cost of doing business. In parts of Ethiopia, public investment in roads
and extension services increased consumption growth by up to 16% and reduced poverty by
nearly 7%. Better infrastructure will stabilise the ASALs and enhance its integration with the
rest of the country.
Expanding infrastructure in dryland areas risks exposing pastoral societies and environments
to a rapid process of change that can bring new challenges, such as the breakdown of
customary support systems and environmental degradation. To avert such risks, communities
will require assistance in adapting to, managing and controlling infrastructure changes
through capacity building, empowerment and the provision of a central role in relevant
decision-making processes, as well as clear rights over the proceeds from resources.
Environmental and social impact assessments will be conducted on all infrastructure projects,
which should also be part of participatory land-use planning systems.
Possible interventions

Construct priority roads. Those requiring finance include Modogashe/Mandera (600 km),
Kitale/Lodwar (300 km), Bura/Garsen (100 km), and Rumuruti/Maralal (200 km).

Develop and equip physical markets and growth poles to promote value addition and
enhance regional trade.
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
Map all established settlements in arid lands without permanent water and identify and
implement sustainable technical solutions for each. This is a one-off intervention that will
substantially reduce the need for water trucking during drought periods, improve health
status, and expand the options for urban and peri-urban livelihoods.

Construct strategic multipurpose dams where it is socially and environmentally
appropriate to do so.

Develop mechanisms that ensure the timely maintenance of existing water sources (poor
management being a major cause of drought stress). This involves establishing
appropriate management structures, including water resource users associations.

Develop and expand ICT capabilities and infrastructure including the provision of
information through the local press, community radio, and mobile phones/SMS. This may
include information on markets/prices, development/extension messages, weather/climate
trends and related rangeland/vegetation quality trends.

Reactivate and develop livestock disease control mechanisms and livestock marketing
infrastructure (water points, feeding points, disease surveillance and control centres)
along stock routes and grazing areas and develop watering and feeding points in parks
and reserves.

Develop and harness energy sources, including solar, wind, biogas, coal and oil, and
where possible connect these to the national grid.
5.4
Building human capital
Situation analysis
There are major inequalities in human wellbeing between the arid lands and the rest of Kenya
that are obstacles to development. These are caused by the near-absence of quality education
and training institutions, leading to the region’s chronic dependence on skills from the rest of
the country. Most employment is informal and confined to the pastoral sector that can only
absorb a finite number of people. Limited urban employment and inadequate enforcement of
labour laws and standards aggravate the human capital problem in the ASALs. The region is
also constrained by high fertility and mortality, as well as reverse migration from highpotential areas. There is acute understaffing in all sectors, including education, because most
qualified personnel avoid being posted to ASAL areas, which are considered remote and with
poor infrastructure and social amenities. Girls are particularly disadvantaged due to cultural
biases and practices. Free Primary Education is hampered by inadequate teaching staff and
dilapidated learning facilities. The performance of most ASAL districts in national
examinations has been very poor.
There are few and scattered health facilities staffed by inadequate numbers of qualified
personnel and with intermittent drug supplies. The average distance to a health facility in
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Northern Kenya is 52 km, 10 times further than the national average of 5 km. There is also a
lack of effective health referral systems. At the time of an assessment by the APHIA II
programme in North Eastern Province in late 2007, 49 of the province’s 153 health facilities
(32%) were closed due to lack of personnel.
Ex-pastoralists are vulnerable to health and nutrition risks as they move from a relatively
mutually-supportive social system to a more individualised one. Evidence shows that child
nutrition and morbidity worsen in the transition to sedentarisation. There are also examples of
household wealth differentiation and exacerbated childhood malnutrition.8 Women too are at
greater risk as they have less security, assets and power to ensure positive health outcomes.
Measures to reduce these inequalities must recognise the distinct needs of service delivery in
arid lands.
Possible interventions

Increase participation rates in all sectors of education and training in the region as a longterm measure to address human capital challenges and support livelihood diversification.
The specific challenges faced by nomadic communities will be addressed by the new
National Commission on Nomadic Education in Kenya (NACONEK), and will involve
activities such as developing demand-driven teaching materials for each level of
education (primary, secondary and tertiary) and promoting the adoption of alternative
service delivery channels, including the use of technology.

Increase access to education at all levels by constructing new schools, improving and
expanding existing school infrastructure, supporting adult education, and improving the
quality of education.

Guarantee an annual allocation to the Northern Kenya Education Trust.

Other measures to increase access to education include the provision of bursaries,
government scholarships, and conditional cash transfers, the construction of middle-level
colleges, and the recruitment of qualified school-leavers into middle-level technical and
teacher training institutions.

Increase access to health facilities by building new and improving existing health
facilities as well as providing adequate qualified personnel.

Share experiences and approaches in building human capital across the region for synergy
and efficiency.
8
Fratkin, E., Nathan, M. and Roth, E. (2011) ‘Seeking Alternative Livelihoods in Northern Kenya: Costs and
Benefits in Health and Nutrition’. Paper presented at the conference on the ‘Future of Pastoralism’, March 2011,
Addis Ababa
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5.5
Sustainable livelihoods adaptive to climate change
Situation analysis
In spite of extensive natural wealth and biodiversity, ASAL populations are often poor and
marginalised with limited access to and control of productive resources, especially by women
and young people.
There has been a general decline in both the quantity and quality of water for productive and
domestic use. During drought, reduced water tables are common leading to low yielding
boreholes and longer waiting times at the few water points available. Other changes include
the drying of surface water sources, high siltation and long trekking distances. However, and
contrary to the generalized misconception of water scarcity in the ASALs, the most critical
considerations in water development are equitable water resource management and linking
water use with community livelihoods.
Rangelands are being subjected to increasing pressure from competing forms of land use. The
change from customary communal land tenure to private tenure is threatening pastoralism,
which remains the most viable source of livelihood for a majority of the ASAL population.
Disjointed regional approaches to sustainable pastoralism, such as poor harmonisation of
natural resource management, cross-border trade and trans-boundary disease control, have
impeded investment in sustainable production systems. This has been aggravated by macroeconomic instability and challenges such as inflation and trade constraints.
Formal veterinary services are nearly non-existent in many areas. Herd mobility and their
concentration in dry-season grazing areas expose livestock to disease. Poor vaccination and
disease surveillance services are another risk factor. Failure to control livestock diseases has
been one of the main obstacles preventing pastoralists from exploiting regional and
international markets. Community-based animal health initiatives are sporadic and lack
sustainability. An outstanding policy challenge is the need to integrate community-based
animal health workers within the formal animal health delivery system in marginal areas.
ASAL woodland and bushland provide primary products for livestock grazing, fuel wood,
and a habitat for diverse wild animals and plants. During drought there is overexploitation of
these resources, leading to overgrazing and the destruction of water towers, and
overexploitation of woodlands for fuel wood due to the lack of alternative sources of energy.
Fishing is practised in Lake Turkana and parts of eastern, central and coastal regions. Fish
landings in Lake Turkana and the Indian Ocean have decreased over the past decade.
However, fishponds are becoming very popular and will boost fish production in the ASALs.
Many research results have been generated in the past, but these are poorly disseminated to
decision-makers.
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Possible interventions
Natural resource management and environmental protection

Support improved rangeland management through grazing management, dry season
reserves, and the re-seeding of degraded land, drawing on indigenous knowledge and
practices.

Support environmental protection and management including sensitisation on the benefits
of environmental protection, stronger enforcement of relevant laws, and actions to
promote conservation, such as reforestation or sustainable energy use.

Establish mechanisms to control the spread of invasive species such as Prosopis juliflora
and Sanseveria spp. Investigations should also be done to understand how these species
can benefit households as livestock feed, fuel wood or construction material.

Enact the Climate Change Bill and ensure full implementation of the National Climate
Change Response Strategy. This will include adaptation and mitigation measures to
enhance the resilience of communities to the adverse effects of climate change.

Develop regional ecosystem management approaches.
Water resource management and irrigation

Develop surface water through appropriate community-owned water-harvesting
structures, such as pans and dams, and harness groundwater based on social and
environmental sustainability criteria.

Manage field water resources through water storage and spreading techniques, such as
road runoffs, roof catchments and sand dams.

Scale up successful water-harvesting models.

Exploit irrigation potential, especially in semi-arid areas along the main rivers where it is
technically feasible and socially appropriate to do so. These programmes should be
identified through land-use planning processes that allow all interested parties to
influence decisions. Access to permanent water and dry-season grazing should be
considered in order to support pastoral systems that may be affected by the establishment
of such schemes. Small household units will be targeted as past experience has shown
that large irrigation schemes have generally not been successful. Sprinkler and drip
irrigation systems minimise total losses.
Agriculture

Support the establishment of dry season fodder and forage through practices such as
irrigated local fodder production systems, strategic fodder reserves, seed bulking for
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pasture, forage and fodder, and water-efficient fodder crops and by discouraging the
expansion of high water-consuming food crops under rain-fed irrigation.

Promote research on drought-tolerant crops and pastures suitable for the ASALs.

Promote seed bulking for sustained agricultural production.

Improve the management of crop diseases.

Develop cold storage facilities for irrigated agricultural products.
Livestock value chain and market development

Develop livestock value chains through product development and farmer training.

Ensure cross-border mobility of livestock and people while addressing disease control,
sanitary and phytosanitary issues, livestock quality and traceability.

Integrate the activities of animal health workers within formal animal health delivery
systems in marginal areas.

Provide financial services to small business in urban, peri-urban and rural settings,
particularly for women and young people.

Support the establishment of pastoralist-owned quarantine facilities vertically linked to
markets through well-structured and cost-effective value chains.

Develop highly competitive ‘green livestock’ systems for regional and international
markets owned by pastoralists themselves.

Develop policies and strategies to facilitate and foster competitive cross-border trade in
livestock and livestock products.

Preserve livestock as a source of livelihood and means of reducing poverty among
pastoral communities by improving disease prevention and control and improving herd
management.
Sustainable development and management of dryland forestry resources

Sensitise communities and law enforcers on the laws and regulations for sustainable
forestry through effective forestry extension services.

Promote community forestry in commercial schemes.

Promote appropriate technologies for the sustainable management of dryland forests.

Commercialise non-wood forest products, such as gums, resins, essential oils, honey,
insects and carvings.
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Effective use of fish resources

Support the sustainable exploitation of fish resources by developing and training
commercial fishers’ organisations and cooperatives.

Train fishers and traders on modern fish preservation.

Support private investors and fishers’ community organisations to establish fishprocessing plants.

Support auxiliary businesses such as ice-making, boat-building, packaging, transportation
and value addition.

Promote the construction of fish ponds..
Sustaining livelihoods

Establish social protection mechanisms such as index-based insurance, cash transfers,
food for assets and food vouchers.

Initiate and support programmes for youth empowerment.

Improve the capacity of financial institutions to provide appropriate services in ASALs.

Establish cooperatives, producer associations and other self-help groups that empower
communities as full contributors to the economic growth of ASAL regions.
Research and knowledge management

Support participatory action and adaptive research methods targeting new innovations and
adaptations.

Support mechanisms that disseminate knowledge and scale up proven innovations.

Ensure regional collaboration in research and knowledge dissemination.
5.6
Multi-sectoral and multi-stakeholder coordination
Situation analysis
Drought management is a cross-cutting issue that requires collaborative action by various
public and private sector agencies at national, county and community levels. At present there
is considerable duplication, lack of synergy, confusion and poor accountability between the
various actors involved.
Existing drought management coordination structures include the Kenya Food Security
Meeting (KFSM) and the Kenya Food Security Steering Group (KFSSG) at national level,
and the District Steering Group (DSG) at the sub-national level. The National Drought
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Management Authority (NDMA) provides a sustainable and specialised institutional base for
the drought management system. It is responsible for the supervision and coordination of all
drought management activities and the coordination of all stakeholders implementing drought
management programmes in Kenya. It is also charged with leadership and coordination of the
EDE country programme.
More broadly, the Constitution of Kenya 2010 is explicit in its elevation of equity and nondiscrimination to the status of national values and principles of governance. If the
constitutional requirement for equitable development is to be met, including special
provisions for marginalised groups and areas, then an appropriate and effective institution is
needed to monitor progress towards that goal and ensure that the necessary actions are taken.
The ASAL Secretariat will fill this critical gap in the institutional landscape for ASAL
development. It will be a permanent and specialised institution with a mandate to champion
and coordinate development in the ASALs in order to ensure that their distinct challenges and
opportunities are appropriately and equitably addressed in national policy, programming and
resource allocation, and in support of ongoing reform processes. The scope of its work will
embrace all sectors relevant to the region’s development. Previous development initiatives in
the ASALs have suffered from short timeframes and lack of sustainability, which a
permanent Secretariat and its associated institutional structures will be well-placed to address.
Given the on-going process of devolution to the counties, and the expected post-election
reorganisation of government, it may not be possible to suggest the full features of the
coordination framework for the EDE programme at this stage.
Possible interventions

Support multi-sectoral and multi-agency coordination efforts at all levels.

Fully operationalise and strengthen the National Drought Management Authority and its
structures to the grassroots.

Institutionalise the ASAL Secretariat within appropriate government structures with the
necessary authority to undertake effective cross agency co-ordination.

Establish the National Drought and Disaster Contingency Fund.

Support regional disaster risk reduction initiatives under IGAD, EAC and COMESA.

Strengthen county and sub-county structures to carry out their coordination functions.
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6.
Implementation and Institutional Arrangements
6.1
Overall responsibility
The goal of Ending Drought Emergencies will be achieved through careful understanding of
the roles, policies, responsibilities and institutional mandates of the stakeholders involved in
disaster risk reduction and resilience-building at national and regional levels.
The Kenya EDE strategy is part of the regional Horn of Africa initiative spearheaded by
IGAD. The entry point for the IGAD platform will be the IGAD Focal Point at the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, who laterally connects with the ASAL Inter-Ministerial Coordination
Committee (ASAL-ICC) and the Ministry of State for Development of Northern Kenya and
Other Arid Lands. The ASAL ICC will be governed by the ASAL Cabinet Sub-Committee
which is responsible for providing policy and strategic support. These institutions are part of
the broader institutional framework for ASAL development (Figure 4). Previous ASAL
initiatives had little impact because they lacked a mechanism to ensure that the commitments
made by sectors and stakeholders were followed through.
Figure 1: Institutional Framework for ASAL development
The overarching authority for coordinating and implementing the Ending Drought
Emergencies (EDE) will be the National Drought Management Authority. Kenya is fortunate
in having an active and diverse group of actors working on drought management, including
UN agencies, international, national and local NGOs, and research institutes. The institutional
arrangements for this programme will harness the efforts and goodwill of these various actors
in a more concerted and coordinated manner. The NDMA will foster collaboration with state
and non-state institutions at the national and regional levels and coordinate harmonised and
timely response to drought. Appropriate coordination mechanisms will be established at
county level, in consultation with the future county governments.
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Kenya will also engage with its international partners to promote the changes required at the
global level: for example, a re-balancing of climate finance in favour of adaptation, and the
more rapid flow of adaptation finance towards both resilience (specifically in the foundations
for development) and the underwriting or replenishment of national contingency funds.
6.2
The National Drought Management Authority (NDMA)
The NDMA was established as a State Corporation in November 2011. It is the government’s
principal instrument for implementing ASAL policies on drought management. The
formation of the NDMA provides the statutory underpinning for activities related to the
supervision and coordination of all matters relating to drought management. The NDMA will
be the main institution charged with leadership and coordination of the EDE strategy.
Implementation of specific projects within the EDE strategy will rest with the relevant sectors
and with the NDMA. These will be elaborated in a Medium Term Plan.
The ALRMP formed coordination structures for drought management and food security at
both national and sub-national levels (Figure 5): the Kenya Food Security Meeting (KFSM),
the Kenya Food Security Steering Group (KFSSG), and the District Steering Group (DSG),
with corresponding sector working groups. Membership of these technical steering groups is
limited to organisations that are committed to working collaboratively and that possess
technical and administrative capabilities in food security and drought management issues.
Figure 2: Kenya Food Security Institutional Structure
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These structures will continue to provide a forum to integrate the major goals, policies, plans,
and actions in food security and drought management into a cohesive whole. DSGs provide
the vital linkage between the national and the community structures. Community groups will
be responsible for mobilising resources and preparing disaster risk reduction plans, and must
be involved in implementing drought management projects.
Various sector-based coordination structures are represented in the food security structures.
For example, the Agricultural Sector Coordination Unit (ASCU) is the main coordinating
body of the agriculture sector actors. Among its functions is implementation of the
Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) Compact in Kenya,
and resource mobilisation for the medium-term investment plan of the Agricultural Sector
Development Strategy 2010-20. ASCU will continue to fast-track EDE priorities within the
agriculture sector through its five thematic working groups, which focus on legal, regulatory
and institutional reforms; research and extension advisory services; agribusiness and financial
services; food security and nutrition policy and programmes; and environmentally sustainable
land and natural resource management. IGAD is also developing a Greater Horn of Africa
regional CAADP Compact to support the Horn of Africa Ending Drought Emergencies
initiative.
A possible coordination structure for the Ending Drought Emergencies programme in Kenya
is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 3: Proposed EDE Coordination Structure
THE PROPOSED COMPLETE IMPLEMENTATIONAL STRUCTURE FOR THE EDE PROGRAMME
OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT
ASAL Cabinet Sub- Committee
AC/IGAD/EAC, etc
ASAL Inter-ministerial Coordination
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
(IGAD Focal Point)
ASAL Inter-ministerial
Technical Committee (ASALITC)
Committee (ASAL-ICC)
Ministry of State for Development
of Northern Kenya
and Other Arid Lands
ASAL Secretariat
NATIONAL DROUGHT
MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY
(NDMA)
ASAL Stakeholders Meeting
(MDA, DPs CSO, PrS, etc,)
Kenya Food Security Meeting (KFSM)
(MDAs, DPs, Donors, CSOs, PrS, etc)
County/District Steering Groups
(DSGs)
Community Groups e.g. CMDRR or
Water User Associations (WUAs)
Agriculture Sector
Coordination Unit (ASCU)
Sector Working Groups
(KFSSG/SWGs)
County Sector Working
Groups
Specialized committees
Group
30 | P a g e
7.
Reporting, Monitoring and Evaluation
The Ending Drought Emergencies strategy will require a carefully planned reporting,
monitoring and evaluation system. This will be based on the action plan to implement this
strategy, and will ensure the learning and sharing of credible data, information and
knowledge. The reporting, monitoring and evaluation system will be developed in close
consultation with relevant sectors and other stakeholders.
8.
Financing Framework
Financing for EDE should support interventions that prevent the recurrence of crises and
strengthen the capacity of ASAL communities to cope with and adapt to shocks. This will
reduce the need for large-scale emergency response. All those supporting this programme
should be assured of probity in the use of funds, which must be directed to priority areas of
greatest need in an accountable and transparent manner. Further, a coordinated,
institutionalised approach will reduce transaction costs and enhance cost-effectiveness.
Sources of finance for this CPP include regional development funds secured through IGAD,
the Government of Kenya (through the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework), the private
sector, development partners, county-level funds and communities.
The National Drought and Disaster Contingency Fund (NDDCF) will make finance available
for rapid non-food response earlier in the drought cycle. It will allow contributions from both
GoK and its development partners. The Fund will have two accounts: one for drought (to
ensure prompt action at the earliest signs of drought) and one for disasters (to ensure rapid
response to sudden-onset emergencies). An independent Board of Trustees appointed by the
Minister for Finance will manage the fund. The Drought Contingency Account will finance
activities in drought contingency plans triggered by the early warning system managed by the
NDMA. The Fund will be replenished by the government, development partners and other
agencies.
A five-year indicative budget has been developed based on the six Strategic Response Areas
described above. Table 5 contains the summary budget and Table 6 the detailed budget. The
sources for the budget figures are the documents available at the time of writing this report.
These indicative figures need verifying and adjusting once the specific activities to be
implemented have been agreed and costed, in consultation with each sector. Financial
commitments will be integrated within the Medium Term Plan. In principle the government
aims to meet between 30% and 40% of the total budget.
31 | P a g e
Table 4: Indicative Summary Budget for a 5-year period (Kshs. million)
Strategic response area
1. Peace and human security
2. Humanitarian preparedness
3. Infrastructure development
4. Human capital
5. Sustainable livelihoods
6. Coordination
7. Drought contingency finance
Budget
11,439
2,192
107,062
16,560
59,072
7,021
23,375
Commitments
4,600
2,192
15,300
4,700
27,400
3,100
10,000
Funding gap
6,839
0
91,762
11,860
31,672
3,921
13,375
TOTAL
226,721
67,300
159,429
Table 5: Summary 5-Year Indicative Budget (Kshs. million)
Elements of Strategic Response
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
189
189
170
170
153
871
626
701
701
701
701
3,430
1,245
1,121
1,121
1,121
1,121
5,729
283
283
281
281
281
1,409
2,343
2,294
2,273
2,273
2,256
11,439
270
243
243
243
243
1,242
90
90
90
90
90
450
100
100
100
100
100
500
460
433
433
433
433
2,192
3. Climate-proofed infrastructure development
Priority road construction
15,500
15,500
15,500
15,500
15,500
77,500
300
270
243
219
1,332
1. Peace and human security
Development and institutionalisation of a
coherent strategy for peace and conflict
resolution and prevention
Establishment and strengthening of
community-led institutions
Improvement of deployment capacity of
law-enforcement agencies
Effective systems of monitoring conflicts
and trends within and across borders for
timely response, including curbing influx
of SALW and aliens/immigrants
Sub-Total
2. Humanitarian preparedness
Creation and maintenance of early
warning systems
Strengthening meteorological monitoring
and reporting capabilities in ASALs
Livestock restocking and enterprise
development fund
Sub-Total
Expansion of road network (feeder
roads)
300
Year 5 TOTAL
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Elements of Strategic Response
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
Permanent water solutions in wellestablished settlements, based on
mapping in first year
Water, sanitation and hygiene in ASALs
227
375
375
375
375
1,727
60
60
60
60
60
300
Construction of strategic multipurpose
dams
Energy connection to the national grid;
harnessing solar, wind and biogas energy
Development and expansion of ICT
infrastructure
National livestock market information
system
5,085
4,729
3,734
312
288
14,148
2,600
2,600
2,340
2,106
1,895
11,541
120
96
96
96
96
504
2
2
2
2
2
10
23,894
23,662
22,377
18,694
18,435
107,062
877
877
877
877
877
4,385
135
135
135
135
135
675
1,475
1,475
1,475
1,475
1,475
7,375
Increase access to secondary, tertiary and
university education in pastoral areas
through an annual allocation to the
Northern Kenya Education Trust
495
495
495
495
495
2,475
Collaborative research and extension
education for ASAL development
Sub-Total
330
330
330
330
330
1,650
3,312
3,312
3,312
3,312
3,312
16,560
1,500
1,500
1,500
8,500
270
243
219
1,365
20
20
20
100
1,500
1,500
1,500
7,500
4,224
4,224
4,224
22,370
425
425
425
2,125
Sub-Total
4. Building Human Capital
Increase access to health facilities with
trained personnel
Operationalise the National Commission
on Nomadic Education (NACONEK)
Increase participation rates in all sectors
of education and training in arid lands
5. Sustainable Livelihoods in a Context of Climate Change
Sustainable irrigation projects along the
2,500
1,500
main rivers
Water harvesting infrastructure for
333
300
pasture, fodder and crops
Water and feeding points in parks and
20
20
reserves
Rehabilitation and sustainable
1,500
1,500
management of existing water sources
Livestock production, marketing
5,474
4,224
infrastructure, value chain development
and disease control in pastoralist areas
Pastoralist and agro-pastoralist
marketing cooperatives
425
425
Year 5 TOTAL
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Elements of Strategic Response
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
Rangeland management activities
1,200
1,200
1,200
1,200
1,200
6,000
Environmental protection activities
60
60
60
60
60
300
Implement the National Climate Change
Response Strategy and Plan
20
20
20
20
20
100
Youth empowerment programmes
80
80
80
80
80
400
Financial services and small business
support
GoK contribution to HSNP Phase 2,
increasing by 10% each year from year
2, and equivalent to 30% of total budget
Upscale dryland forestry
Support traditional coping mechanisms
16
16
16
16
16
80
312
624
1,248
2,496
4,680
120
80
108
80
108
80
108
80
108
80
552
400
560
560
560
560
560
2,800
120
120
120
120
120
600
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
600
600
12,748
10,765
11,047
11,644
12,868
59,072
118
118
118
590
586
586
586
2,931
500
500
500
2,500
Upscale alternative livelihoods (honey,
gums and resins, wood carvings,
ecotourism)
Maintenance of one strategic food
reserve for ASALs
Enhance the fisheries industry
Upscale fodder/forage production and
storage seed building and dissemination
Sub-Total
6. Multi-Sector and Multi -Stakeholder Coordination.
Multi-sector and multi-agency
118
118
coordination
Establish and operationalise the NDMA
587
586
and its structures to the grassroots level
Institutionalise the ASAL Secretariat
500
500
within appropriate GoK structure
Regional disaster risk reduction
initiatives under IGAD, EAC and
COMESA (e.g. regional trade, disease
control, CEWARN Protocol, etc)
Sub-Total
7. Drought Contingency Finance
Allocation to the Drought Contingency
Account in the National Drought and
Disaster Contingency Fund
TOTAL
Year 5 TOTAL
200
200
200
200
200
1,000
1,405
1,404
1,404
1,404
1,404
7,021
4,675
4,675
4,675
4,675
4,675
23,375
48,837
46,545
45,521
42,435
43,383
226,721
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