VILNIUS PEDAGOGIcal UNIVERSITy
FAcULTy of philology
department of english philology
Linas Selmistraitis
Seminars in english lexicology.
semantics
Teaching aid for students of English Philology
Vilnius, 2011
UDK 811.111’37(076.5)
Se63
Metodinė mokymo priemonė „Anglų leksikologijos seminarai.
Semantika“ apsvarstyta Filologijos fakulteto Anglų filologijos katedros posėdyje 2011 05 05 (protokolo Nr. 14), Filologijos fakulteto tarybos posėdyje 2011 05 16 (protokolo Nr. 5) ir rekomenduota spausdinti.
Recenzentai:
doc. dr. Janina Buitkienė (Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas)
doc. dr. Daiva Verikaitė (Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas)
© Linas Selmistraitis, 2011
ISBN 978-9955-20-629-3
© Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas, 2011
––
Contents
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1. THE WORD AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS. SEMANTIC
FIELDS. COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2. MEANING OF THE WORD. POLYSEMY OF THE WORD. TYPES OF MEANINGS. CHANGE OF MEANING. CONTEXT . 15
3. SYSTEMATIC CHARACTER OF THE VOCABULARY:
SYNONYMS, ANTONYMS, HOMONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4. AMERICANISMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5. PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
LIST OF THE AUTHORS QUOTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
––
––
PREFACE
“Seminars in English Lexicology. Semantics” is the second teaching aid on English Lexicology meant for students majoring in
English. The first teaching aid written under the title “Seminars
in English Lexicology. Word Structure” was published in 2006.
The current book follows the principles outlined in the teaching
aid 2006 and helps students with:
• comprehension of the English language;
• language acquisition, especially with enriching the vocabulary;
• developing of communication skills which in their turn lead
to a higher level of competence in English.
The teaching aid pursues practical aims, and its focus is on practice. Students are encouraged to identify and characterize the
linguistic phenomena which deal with the word meaning and semantic relations between words in Modern English. These skills
are of great significance to the learners of the English language.
Besides its practical value, the book gives students a significant
insight into the system of the language. The exercises included
reveal paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations between/among
lexical units. The awareness of word correlations develops students’ linguistic competence which is also a part of the university curriculum. Thus, the practice and theory combined are supposed to produce desired results.
The book consists of 5 parts which cover material coined in different patterns and analysable by means of different linguistic
methods. The exercises differ depending on the task set. They
help to promote students’ analytical abilities and linguistic insights.
––
Preface
The exercises in the teaching aid broaden students’ knowledge
in the following areas:
1) lexical fields and componential analysis of words;
2) lexical meanings of words and types of transferences of meanings which can be identified only by studying the semantic interplay of meanings;
3) synonyms, antonyms and homonyms which raise students’
awareness of systematic character of the vocabulary and phonetic, graphical and semantic relations between words;
4) meanings of Americanisms and their equivalents in British
English;
5) phraseological expressions and their figurative meaning.
The words for analysis are given both in isolation and in context.
In cases when the context is required to comment on different
linguistic characteristics of particular words, sentences and passages from authentic sources indicated at the end of the book
are provided.
The author of the teaching aid must here record his appreciation
to the 2nd year MA students of English Philology of Vilnius Pedagogical University who pilot tested material from “Seminars in
English Lexicology. Semantics” in 2010. Their critical attitude
helped to improve the book.
Sincere thanks go to Associate Professor Dr. Daiva Verikaitė and
Associate Professor Dr. Janina Buitkienė who kindly agreed to
review the book. The author is thankful for their professional
practical advice and helpful critical comments.
Hopefully, students will benefit from working with this teaching
aid and enjoy studying the meanings of words.
March 2011
Associate Professor Dr. Linas Selmistraitis
––
PART 1
THE WORD AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS.
SEMANTIC FIELDS. COMPONENTIAL
ANALYSIS
––
Part 1
Exercise 1.
Divide the following words into three groups and count the
number of the words in each group: a) orthographic words; b)
grammatical word forms; c) lexemes.
How does our brain store information? How is it possible to make
learning faster and easier? Is there any way not to forget what
we have learned and to remember things more easily? Of what
importance is the fact that information is never deleted from
our memory, even if we have forgotten it? These are among
many of the questions for which answers have been sought over
the years (A. M.).
Exercise 2.
Characterise the words taking into consideration the features
which are common for the word.
I took the beakers of orange juice and carried them back to the
cubicle. Fiona drank hers slowly and gratefully; then she drank
half of mine. She said that I looked a bit distracted and asked me
what had happened.
“This guy’s just been brought in. He’s unconscious, and he’s in a
pretty bad way. It just gave me a bit of a shock.”
Fiona said: “I’m sorry. This is a terrible way to start the New
Year” (J. C.).
Exercise 3.
Ascribe the words to their lexico-grammatical classes. Note that
one and the same word can belong to different classes.
––
The word and its characteristics. Componential analysis. Semantic field
Affect, back, carry, collocation, draw, dream, eager, fair, finger,
go, hatred, just, icon, idol, kneel, linger, miniature, nausea, oral,
premeditated, settings, standing, still, tricolour, whoever, yet.
Exercise 4.
Arrange the following words into three lexico-semantic fields.
Give the name to these fields.
Affection, back, backbone, chest, curriculum, calf, calmness,
chin, colleague, contentment, delight, dictionary, drill, elbow,
empathy, eyelash, exhilaration, faculty, fee, forehead, frustration, heel, ignorance, indignation, jealousy, journal, knee, knuckle, lecturer, limb, malice, master, notebook, palm, professor, passion, pedagogy, postgraduate, principle, rapture, relief, sadness,
scholar, schooling, seminar, session, smattering, staff, sympathy,
syllabus, syntax, temple, tenderness, thigh, thumb, toe, tutor,
university, unrest, wrath, zeal.
Exercise 5.
Following are two sets of words with 1) ‘hair’ and 2) ‘head’ as
their semantic nuclei (or one of them). Classify the words according to their parts of speech, stylistic, morphological, etc. characteristics.
1. Hairbrush, haircloth, haircut, hairdo, hairdresser, hairdryer,
hairgrip, hairless, hairline, hairnet, hairpiece, hair-raising,
hair-splitting, hairspray, hairy, hairiness, hairdressing.
2. Headache, headband, headbang, headboard, headcase,
headed, header, headfirst, headgear, headhunter, headlight,
headline, headlong, headmaster, headman, head-on, head––
Part 1
piece, headquartered, headstone, head-to-head, headway,
headword, heady.
Exercise 6.
Carry out the componential analysis of the following sets of
words.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Coffee, juice, tea, lemonade, milk, petrol, water.
Lake, pond, river, sea, swimming pool, ocean.
Chop, cut, tear, smash, slash.
Cottage, mansion, palace, bungalow, villa, house.
Ship, boat, barge, canoe, steamer, ferry, submarine.
Exercise 7.
Provide your own examples of semantically related sets of words
for componential analysis. Carry out the componential analysis
of 5 different sets, each consisting of at least 6 members.
Exercise 8.
Group the following words into associative fields. Give the name
to the field.
Acquisition, bat, bucket, challenge, coach, course, development,
dig, draw, fertilisers, fans, goal, grow, irrigation, jump, lawn, luxuriant, mastery, match, outrun, overrun, participate, pitch, race,
score, spade, team, test, weed, whistle.
– 10 –
The word and its characteristics. Componential analysis. Semantic field
Exercise 9.
Suggest the words that can be included in a semantic field of ‘library’. Arrange the words within the field, if possible.
Exercise 10.
Which of the following words are semantically related with the
nouns ‘book’, ‘education’, and ‘sport’. Provide collocations.
After-school, amateur, approach, assessment, audio, basic, betting, bilingual, bind, branch, channel, clothing, college, competitive, compulsory, conflict, cover, culmination, establishment,
event, facilities, forthcoming, ground, leaves, marketing, nutrition, online, part-time, pedagogy, plot, promote, proofread, pursue, reviewer, single-sex, smart, tertiary, test, thick, title, venue,
vocational, well-rounded.
Exercise 11.
Find the markers joining the meanings of polysemantic words.
1. Bulb: a) the glass part that fits into electric lamp to give light
when it is switched on; b) a root shaped like a ball that grows
into a flower or plant.
2. Beat: a) to hit against something many times or continuously; b) to mix things together quickly with a fork or special
kitchen machine.
3. Duty: a) a moral or legal obligation; b) a task or action that
somebody must perform; c) a tax charged on particular
goods, especially on imports.
– 11 –
Part 1
4.Guide: a) a person who shows others the way, especially a
person employed to point out interesting sights on the journey or visit; b) a thing that helps somebody, e.g. to form an
opinion, make a decision or calculate something; c) a person who directs or influences somebody’s behaviour or gives
somebody advice; d) a book for travellers or tourists, giving
information about a place.
5. Store: a) a quantity or supply of something kept for use as
needed; b) a large collection or amount; c) a shop; d) [pl]
goods, etc of a particular type, or for a special purpose; 5) a
device in a computer for storing information.
Exercise 12.
Find the markers and distinguishers for the following pairs of the
words.
Commuter – traveller, ear – eye, ellipse – rhombus, fog – smog,
fusion – mixture, kneel – squat, pen – pencil, pitch – court, red
– vermillion, referee – judge, sweater – cardigan.
Exercise 13.
Classify the following words into semantic fields comprising the
general and the particular. Add more words to these semantic
fields.
Abbey, animal, aubergine, broccoli, building, bull, buffalo, cathedral, cauliflower, cheetah, courgette, cucumber, donkey, ewe,
hippopotamus, gazelle, lettuce, leopard, mansion, monastery,
mule, onion, radish, skyscraper, vegetable, wigwam.
– 12 –
The word and its characteristics. Componential analysis. Semantic field
Exercise 14.
The following sentences contain the words from the following
semantic fields: a) arts; b) children; c) health; d) wisdom; e) learning; f) politics; j) work. Find them in the sentences.
1. No one can explain how the notes of a Mozart melody produce their essential effects. If you do not feel it, no one can
be reasoning make you feel (J.R.).
2. There is no finer investment for any community than putting
milk into babies (W.C.).
3. He that spares his rod hates his son: but he that loves him
chastens (B.).
4. The best doctors in the world are Doctor Diet, Doctor Quiet
and Doctor Merryman (J.S.).
5. The desire to take medicine is perhaps the greatest feature
which distinguishes men from animals (W.O.).
6. Before God we are all equally wise – equally foolish (A.E.).
7. Natural forces within us are the true healers of disease (H.).
8. There is only one good, knowledge, and one evil, ignorance (S.).
9. Governments never learn. Only people learn (M.F.).
10.A teacher affects eternity; he can never tell where his influence stops (H.A.).
Exercise 15.
Classify the following words into logical groups going from
hyperonym to hyponym.
Animal, beetroot, birch, buffalo, building, bulldog, bungalow,
bush, cabbage, carnation, collie, comedy, cottage, cow, dahlia,
dandelion, dog, drama, fiction, file, flower, goat, grass, husky,
– 13 –
Part 1
in-tray, linden, maple, mansion, marker, novel, oak, onion, pin,
plant, poodle, scotch, stationery, stapler, story, tulip, vegetable,
vertebrate, villa.
Exercise 16.
Draw tree-charts to illustrate the hyponymy relations. Give hyponyms to the following hyperonyms.
Container, crockery, vegetable, bird, tree, dog, flower, vehicle,
Exercise 17.
Propose a meronymy tree to illustrate the meronymy relations.
Give meronyms to the following superordinates.
Bicycle, book, cat, flower, knife, shirt.
Exercise 18.
Give the hyperonyms for the following hyponymic groups. Provide the Lithuanian equivalents for hyponyms.
1. Bream, carp, catfish, cod, eel, herring, jellyfish, pike, piranha,
salmon, sole, starfish, swordfish, trout, tune.
2. Blackbird, canary, crane, crow, eagle, falcon, humming bird,
lark, ostrich, oriole, owl, peacock, penguin, raven, seagull,
sparrow, woodpecker.
3. Arrow, canon, dagger, knuckleduster, missile, pike, rifle,
sword, truncheon.
4. Camomile, carnation, daffodil, forget-me-not, fox glove,
poppy, rose, tulip.
– 14 –
PART 2
MEANING OF THE WORD. POLYSEMY
OF THE WORD. TYPES OF MEANINGS.
CHANGE OF MEANING. CONTEXT
– 15 –
Part 2
Exercise 19.
Specify grammatical and lexical meaning of the words in bold.
1. Everything was revealed the other day when I was by chance
walking through Covent Garden.
2. “I called you”, he whispered in a softer voice. “But your boys
denied my call”.
3. She takes my hand and stands up in front of me.
4. Do you know that this morning I went to buy a new husky.
5. Sometimes, lying awake at night, I could hear her dry, irritable cough.
6. The guests have whetted their appetite with a light soup
and have made short work of their trout.
7. The Republicans should not be afraid of to walk in with a series of positive ideas and to work with Democrats on legislation in a genuinely bipartisan fashion.
Exercise 20.
Define denotative and connotative meanings of the words in
bold.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
I suppose muggins will have to do it.
Give mummy the doggie then.
My brother is terrible. Let’s get rid of this little beastie.
Let me get you the aforementioned.
We are away to the sunnier climes.
Anastasia had to fork out a lot for that present.
For us it’s been a real catch-22, because we had the time to
take a vacation without having any money.
– 16 –
Meaning of the Word. Polysemy od the Word. Types of Meanings. Change of Meaning. Context
Exercise 21.
Build sentences with primary and two secondary meanings of
the following polysemantic words. Bind, board, boil, broad, catch, collapse, course, lemon, long,
passage, pure, quick, review, spell, tell.
Exercise 22.
What meanings does a polysemantic word ‘nice’ have in the following sentences? What is the role of the context?
1. One of the nicest things about her is her sense of humour.
2. I asked him in the nicest possible way not to park in front of
my garage.
3. He is not very nice to her when he has had a few drinks.
4. The discussion on one of the nice points of law seemed to be
endless.
5. You need a nice hot bath after such a tiring day.
6. He has a nice taste in garment.
7. This is a nice mess you’ve got us into!
8. She’s not too nice in her business methods.
Exercise 23.
Discuss the meanings of the words and word forms of ‘die’,
‘white’, ‘black’, ‘house’. How are the meanings of each of these
words related?
1. The old traditions are dying out. Die in the car crash. Die of
embarrassment. Die of cancer. Die in ones’ bed. The day is
– 17 –
Part 2
dying. Die in harness. Die a lingering death. His secret dies
with him. The flame flickered and died. I’m dying for a drink.
The play quickly died the death. Never say die. The noise
died away. The rabbits died out.
2. White face. White lie. White elephant. White sugar. White
meat. White hair. White teeth. A white youth in his twenties.
White coffee.
3. Black clouds. Black tea. Black community. Hands black with
grime. Black despair. To be in a black mood. A black comedy.
4. The White House. An ancient trading house. Don’t wake
the whole house. On the house. A two-bedroom house. He
played to packed houses. To urge the house to vote. Bring
the house down. To keep house.
Exercise 24.
Which of the following words are monosemantic? Explain their
meanings. Look up the meanings of the words in the dictionary.
Ape, archive, blood, candle, cancer, college, colossal, euthanasia, eureka, false, famous, gender, intermediate, jailbird, jaw,
mood, newfangled, nun, octopus, pedant, pork, profile, runway,
saliva, seal, soldier, textile, vandal, verify, wiggle.
Exercise 25.
In the sentences below, the words in bold in lexical system are
polysemantic. What meanings do they have in a dictionary and
what meaning do they have in this particular context?
– 18 –
Meaning of the Word. Polysemy od the Word. Types of Meanings. Change of Meaning. Context
1. The past year and a half has reminded me in many ways of
what it was like when we started the business.
2. The main entrance hall looks like something out of a video
game, with a huge vaulted ceiling set off by moody lightning
and a row of ejection seats rescued from World War II-era
fighter jets.
3. In one test, a quarter-inch steel ball is fired at eyewear
at more than 160 km/h; in another, a heavy steel spike is
dropped on a lens.
4. Audiences are so used to easy seductions by movies, with
big jokes and jolts, that they may misread or discard potent
message of the pictures.
Exercise 26.
From the words in brackets choose correct one to go with each
of the synonyms below. In what contexts can these collocations
be used?
Deep, profound, intense (knowledge, river, silence, personality, cold); bald, hairless (chest, patch, head, tyres, facts, hands);
sharp, keen, acute (teeth, knife, turn, patient, eyesight, blade,
mind); maintain, perform, do (relations, house, a family, service,
ceremony, research, dishes, aerobics); discover, invent (continent, restaurant, ball-point pen, the truth, treasure, characters).
Exercise 27.
Explain logical associations in the following groups of meanings
for the same word. Define the types of transferences.
– 19 –
Part 2
The foot of a hill – the foot of a young boy, the leg of a table – to
hurt one’s leg, the glasses on the nose – the nose of the plane,
the wing of a bird – the wing of a building, Peter’s head – the
head of a company, my eye hurts – the eye of a needle, the
bridge over the river – the bridge of the nose, the tip of the
tongue – the tongue of a bell, the root of a tree – the root of
a word, the neck of a girl – the neck of a bottle, the mouth of a
river – the mouth of an infant.
Exercise 28.
Find metonymies in the following sentences. Define the type of
contiguity they are based on.
1. If the key matched the lock, the participant took the grand
prize – a Ford.
2. People might think they’re cutting down on fat when they
order the fish sandwiches in McDonalds.
3. About 35% of American women like guys with beards and
moustaches, so if you have either, you don’t have to buy a
Gillette.
4. Bone china was invented in England in the late eighteenth
century, and was apparently superior in strength, translucency, thinness, and whiteness to the porcelain then being
produced in Europe.
5. Recognizing the increasing popularity of smartphones
among government users and everyday citizens, the White
House announced a mobile version of its Website optimized
for portable devices like BlackBerrys and iPhones.
6. I have never read Simon de Beauvoir in the original, but I’d
like to.
– 20 –
Meaning of the Word. Polysemy od the Word. Types of Meanings. Change of Meaning. Context
7. Londoners were welcome to come to Trafalgar Square to enjoy Handel, one of the most famous composers of the 18th
century.
Exercise 29.
In the following sentences, state what the metonymies stand for.
Group the sentences according to the type of contiguity. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
We need a couple of strong bodies for our team.
There are a lot of good heads in the university.
I’ve got a new set of wheels.
We need some new blood in the organization.
He’s got a Picasso in his living room. I hate to read
Heidegger.
6. You’ll never get the university to agree to that. I don’t approve of the government’s actions.
7. Washington is insensitive to the needs of the people.
8. The Kremlin threatened to boycott the next round of talks.
9. Paris is introducing longer skirts this season.
10.Hollywood isn’t what it used to be.
11.Wall Street is in a panic.
Exercise 30.
Explain the meaning of a polysemantic word ‘go’ in each of the following sentences. Could you give more meanings of this word?
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– 21 –
Part 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
We are going to Canada in the summer.
I first went to a rock concert when I was 15.
What time does the last train go?
The bread’s gone mouldy.
I don’t think all that will go in the suitcase.
The door was open and all his things gone.
When I go, I’d like to have my ashes scattered at sea.
A house like this would go for £250,000.
Exercise 31.
In the following sentences, comment on the change of meaning of the words. What similarities are the association based
on?
1. The sun was sinking over the hills and the gnats were fooling around all over the place <…>, and I was just beginning
to feel a little soothed by the peace of it all when suddenly I
heard my name spoken (P.G.W.).
2. Uncle Willoughby meandered back to the library, and there
was a silence that you could have dug bits out of it with a
spoon (P.G W.).
3. I‘d have preferred an undertaker; but I told him to stagger in,
and he floated noiselessly through the doorway like a healing zephyr ( P.G W.).
4. Far away in the misty distance a soft voice spoke: “If I might
explain your ladyship”. Jeeves had projected himself in from
the dining-room and materialized on the rug. Lady Malvern
tried to freeze him with a look, but you can’t do that sort of
thing to Jeeves ( P.G.W.).
5. In the slanting beams that streamed through the open window the dust danced and was golden.
– 22 –
Meaning of the Word. Polysemy od the Word. Types of Meanings. Change of Meaning. Context
6. Even the ray of hope was hidden from him.
7. After a relaxed afternoon savouring the warmth of the fireplace Mr. White spit away a storm of indignation.
8. Misunderstanding quickly melted away after a honeymoon
journey to Jamaica.
9. Dombey’s cup of satisfaction was so full at this moment, that
he felt he could afford a drop or two of its contents even to
sprinkle on the dust in the by-path of his little daughter (Ch.
D.).
10.Thunder struggles and howls. Nobody will escape the downpour.
11.The wisps of cloud streaking the sky made me think of candy
floss, setting in motion a train of thought which led inevitably to a booth by the pier, where my grandparents bought
me a huge pink ball (J.C.).
Exercise 32.
Read the poem “Ghetto” by Judita Vaičiūnaitė. Find poetic metaphors. Explain their meaning.
Six in the morning
when newspaper stands
and milk bars are closed
six in the morning
in the streets of Vilnius’s ghetto
dandelions open;
a golden dust settles;
like yellow stars of David blooming
pushing, breaking their way through splitting cobblestone,
above underground cloisters
above grotesquely defined arcs,
– 23 –
Part 2
deep, blackened passageways
redolent still of garlic, fish;
rising through courtyard cellars and rubble
the dandelions’ golden halo spreads.
six in the morning
an amber light flows into a blind alley,
a dirty courtyard
where a Jew’s forgotten shadow
is maybe praying, maybe muttering a curse.
Exercise 33.
In the following sentences, state what the metonymy stands for.
Analyse the logical associations of the metonymy and the idea it
expresses.
1. In came two boyish caps, out came two bright skirts.
2. Miss Fox trembled, when she felt herself escorted up the
steps preceded by a black hat and a white collar.
3. She was bejewelled with gold, what made her look like she
wanted to sell it to me.
4. I bought some china in a nearby shop.
5. Wall Street announced that interest rates are not going up,
contrary, they are falling sharply.
6. The Pentagon was sure that nobody could attack the country.
7. Then they came in. Two of them, a man with long fair moustache and a silent dark man. Definitely, the moustache and I
had nothing in common.
8. The hall applauded when the landlady appeared in front of
the audience.
9. The round game table was flabbergasted and vigorous.
10.The shelves of the library were full of Dickens.
– 24 –
Meaning of the Word. Polysemy od the Word. Types of Meanings. Change of Meaning. Context
Exercise 34.
In the following sentences, comment on the change of meaning
based on associations of similarity and contiguity. Define the
type of transference.
1. When actors finished their performance on the stage, the
stalls applauded and shouted “Bravo”.
2. Mr. Pickwick bottled up his vengeance and corked it down
(Ch.D.).
3. When the stars threw down their spears
And water’d heaven with their tears,
Did he smile his work to see?
Did he who made the Lamb make thee? (W.B.)
4. She has just listened to Chaikovsky, which brought her relaxation.
5. The clouds were sleeping on the peak of the mountain.
6. I haven’t managed to eat the whole plate I was served at the
dinner.
7. What light through yonder window breaks?
It is the east, and Juliet is the sun! Arise, fair sun, and kill the
envious moon (W.Sh.).
8. The whole classroom was laughing and shouting in exaltation.
9. All shelves in the library were full of Byron. However, they
seem to be covered in dust.
10.She looked out of her window one day and gave her heart to
the grocer’s young man.
– 25 –
Part 2
Exercise 35.
In the following sentences, comment on the change of meaning
of the words in bold: find the cases of narrowing and widening
of meanings.
1. The singer made an outstanding impression in London at the
5th season of the theatre and had a tremendous success at
the Edinburgh International Festival.
2. To starve is not a good way to lose weight, but supervised
detoxes can be helpful in cleansing the body and losing a few
pounds.
3. An undertaker must be energetic and be willing to work at
odd hours as he has to be on call 24 hours a day.
4. Elie Wiesel, the most famous survivor of the children’s camp
at Buchenwald, was among the orphans who were sent to
France.
5. Nestled in a quiet valley, shadowed by grand mountains, the
deer wander through majestic pines.
6. The hound requires a good run every day and enjoys the
games with the master.
7. The farmer used to keep fowl for his own needs but later
he decided to make business from selling chicken meat to
retailers.
Exercise 36.
In the following sentences, comment on the change of meaning
of the words in bold: find the cases of elevation and degradation
of meanings.
– 26 –
Meaning of the Word. Polysemy od the Word. Types of Meanings. Change of Meaning. Context
1. Soon he became a villain who liked to steal and kill and
above all cause chaos.
2. The boy’s silly behaviour is worse when he’s tired, so we try
to make sure he gets to bed early.
3.Lord Byron’s notability rests not only on his writings but also
on his life, which featured aristocratic excesses, huge debts,
numerous love affairs, and self-imposed exile.
4. In terms of how Don Quixote views the world, he exemplifies
everything a stereotypical knight should be.
5. “And yet,” he added, with a sly smile, “I feel that I ought to
give you as much knowledge of my character as I possess
(A.B.).
6. Duke of Kent managed to sneak a note to a daughter without
the wife seeing.
– 27 –
– 28 –
PART 3
SYSTEMATIC CHARACTER OF THE
VOCABULARY: SYNONYMS, ANTONYMS,
HOMONYMS
– 29 –
Part 3
Exercise 37.
The sentences given below contain synonyms. Find them and
explain the differences in meaning.
1. a) You are not still brooding over what he said, are you? b)
You are too young to be contemplating retirement. c) She
was left to reflect on the implications of her decision. d) It
was once thought that the sun travelled around the earth.
2. a) The old man lay propped up on cushions. b) An elderly
couple celebrated the 25th anniversary of the wedding. c)
The river bank was full of grownup people. Only some of
them were in the shade of the ancient oak.
3. a) The main purpose of industry is to create wealth. b) A factory that produces microchips was closed after three fires in
succession over a month. c) Her story was completely fabricated from start to finish.
4. a) All the windows broke with the force of the blast. b) After
a few days of fever her lips became dry and cracked. c) Her
experience of divorce shattered her illusions about love.
5. a) Hysterical crying wouldn’t help to pass the examination. b)
“Oh, Mummy, I hurt my toe!” sobbed small Nick. c) She wept
bitter tears of disappointment.
6. a) In the corner of the room a stout man was repairing a
broken chair. b) Plump women fashion doesn’t get proper
attention from the media. c) You’ll get fat if you eat so much
McDonald’s food.
7. a) Smoking in pregnancy increases the risk of producing a
low-birthweight baby. b) A toddler can injure oneself if left
without caretaking. c) She was seriously ill as an infant.
8. a) A celebrated lawyer gave some advice how to sell the
house in the village. b) The bar has become notorious as a
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Systenatic Character of the Vocabulary: Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonums
meeting place for drug dealer. c) She was more famous as a
writer than as a singer.
9. a) It is necessary to examine how the proposals can be carried out. b) Linguists study various linguistic phenomena and
describe them. c) These ideas will be explored in more detail
in the following chapter.
10.a) The smell of cheese was floating in the air. However, it
wasn’t tasty. b) The rich aroma of fresh coffee was imprisoned in a can. c) The stale odour of cigarette smell was getting on her nerves.
11. a) The river glittered in the sunlight and the leaves of the
trees were playing with sunbeams. b) When he spoke his
teeth gleamed under his moustache. c) The moment the sky
became cloudless, the lake started shimmering.
12.a) She shuddered at the thought that she could have been
killed. b) Shake the bottle before you open it. c) His lip started to tremble and then he started to cry.
13.a) Two friends sat in the corner and chatted about the weather. b) They were talking in low voices, and I couldn’t catch
what they were saying. c) A spokesman said that the company had improved its safety standards.
14.a) He glared round the room as if expecting a challenge. b)
His hands were covering his face, but I could see him peeping
through his fingers. c) After hearing the news, she stared at
me in disbelief.
15.a) When I am lonely, I smoke more then usual. b) You
shouldn’t leave the child alone in the house. c) Pandas are
solitary creatures.
16.a) The old mine now stands completely deserted. b) The car
was found abandoned in Brighton. c) At night empty streets
seem to be dangerous and frightening.
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Part 3
17.a) He always sat amazed at the divine melody of her soprano.
b) The society was shocked at the news of the newest results
of heart transplantation. c) No man had ever affected her
before as this one had, who perplexed her from moment to
moment with his awful grammar.
18.a) It is impossible to disguise the fact that business is bad. b)
The windows of the Tower are few and narrow, and those on
the lower story are hidden from us by the walls of the court.
c) Her face was screened by the tree.
Exercise 38.
Give synonyms for the following words. Explain differences between synonyms in their shades of meaning.
Abrupt, amalgamate, amend, attire, benign, consequential,
crafty, daft, devour, hue, hurtle, illustrious, indigent, insolent,
juvenile, lass, lithe, menace, pliant, portly, repugnant, reiteration, slumber, smug, snug, tangy, timorous.
Exercise 39.
Find a denotative meaning on which each of the synonymic
groups are based. What shades of meaning make synonymic
words idiosyncratic?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Attractive, beautiful, elegant, glamorous, pretty.
Blaze, blink, flash, flicker, glow, shine, sparkle, twinkle.
Ache, hurt, painful, sore, sting, throb.
Commandeer, confiscate, deprive, grab, impound, seize,
strip.
5. Construct, fabricate, forge, invent, manufacture.
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Systenatic Character of the Vocabulary: Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonums
Exercise 40.
From the sentences given below write out the synonyms in groups
and classify them into a) synonyms differentiated by duration; b)
synonyms differentiated by degree or intensity; c) synonyms differentiated by cause. Explain the reasons for your decision.
1. He blushed at the thought of a meeting with that extraordinary girl he had seen in Cannes.
2. He told me that the whole situation was strange. An African
explorer found himself exchanging glances with a man-eating tiger.
3. Gosh, how I used to admire you at the dear old school. You
were my hero.
4. What I really want is a square meal.
5. The rumour has it that she worships the ground he walks
on.
6. He made a short speech in French, and the mothers all applauded, and the babies all yelled.
7. I must confess I am pleasantly surprised that I am no longer
afraid.
8. He opened his mouth to shout but no sound came out.
9. “You have settled it!” cried the astonished parent.
10.The audience roared wildly when the local team scored.
11.He was speaking for half an hour or so.
12.His face reddened, he could hardly keep his temper.
13.Children usually adore ice cream but she detested it strongly.
Materials for this exercise are borrowed from Antrushina G.B, et al. English Lexicology. Moscow.
– 33 –
Part 3
14.Everyone he met instantly liked him and wanted to be
friends.
15.I was perfectly amazed that one man, all by himself, should
have been able to beat down and capture such battalions of
practised fighters.
16.She yearned to escape from her office job.
Exercise 41.
What distinguishes each of the following pairs of synonyms: a)
level of formality; b) shades of meaning; c) the origin; d) different
language varieties?
Argument – disputation, ask for – request, astonished – gobsmacked, beauty – pulchritude, bonnet – hood, caravan – trailer, chat – gossip, destroy – zap, die – decease, famous – notorious, farm – ranch, hate – loathe, heart – ticker, need – require,
new – novel, obtain – procure, pardon – amnesty, pavement –
sidewalk, praise – eulogy, tap – faucet, western – occidental.
Exercise 42.
Give the dominant synonym for the following synonymic groups.
1. Hue, pigment, tinge, tint, tone.
2. Accommodate, adapt, adjust, affect, alter, modify, remodel,
restyle, transform.
3. Crush, demolish, devastate, dismantle, fragment, liquidate,
shatter, smash, uproot.
4. Combat, conflict, hostilities, riot, row, struggle, wrangle.
5. Achievable, attainable, credible, imaginable, likely, plausible,
potential, probable.
– 34 –
Systenatic Character of the Vocabulary: Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonums
6. Abnormal, bizarre, eerie, irregular, odd, peculiar, queer, surreal, weird.
7. Awash, damp, dewy, drenched, moist, soaked, waterlogged.
8. Diffuse, imprecise, indefinite, uncertain, unclear, undefined,
unspecific.
9. Bulky, enormous, gigantic, massive, voluminous.
10.Demanding, burdensome, onerous, problematic, strenuous.
Exercise 43.
Make synonymic groups from the words below. Give a dominant
synonym for each of the group.
Adoration, angry, affection, attachment, boldness, bravery,
composition, constitution, construction, courage, cross, daring,
detestation, dislike, displeased, drag, draw, effort, elegant, employ, endeavour, exploit, fashionable, fearlessness, fondness,
furious, heroism, hatred, infuriated, liking, love, make, organization, passion, smart, structure, stylish, trial, try, unusable, unworkable, use, useless, utilise, worked up, worthless.
Exercise 44.
In the following sentences, find the words which can be members
of a synonymic group. Build a synonymic group with that word.
1. From Greece to Japan, rich countries have racked up massive
state debts.
2. We are the small, underdog company. But we think our product, our price point and the consumer interface we have
from our stores give us a compelling proposition and an opportunity to do something others can’t.
– 35 –
Part 3
3. I’ve talked a great deal over the last couple of years about
the fact that we’re now profitable in China, but we’re still
significantly understored.
4. Most of my engineering friends went into horribly stifling
jobs where they get to design things like an on-switch that
clicks.
5. She was obsessed with art, film and books, and her taste in
decadent demigods was impeccable, from Charles Baudelaire
to William Burroughs.
6. He was pale and slim with masses of dark curls, lying barechested with strands of beads around his neck.
7. Martin saw Mary very often and soon became quite cordial, always greeting her with a smile and nod when she entered.
8. In the company of the duke Oscar knew his daughter had
nothing to dread.
9. The edifice looked as impressive in actuality as it did in photographs.
Exercise 45.
Words in the following pairs in some contexts become synonyms.
However, their meanings can also be semantically not related.
Provide different context for these words to show their synonymy
and polysemy.
Anxiety – care, broad – wide, curious – inquisitive, flame – passion, hungry – greedy, professor – teacher, tiny – petite.
– 36 –
Systenatic Character of the Vocabulary: Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonums
Exercise 46.
Prove that the pairs of synonyms given in bold type make one
semantic unit. Which of them are phraseological units and which
are contextual units?
1. About the time of twilight Mr. Dombey, grievously afflicted
with aches and pains, was helped into his carriage (Ch.D).
2. This is the place – these narrow ways diverge to the right and
left, and reek everywhere with dirt and filth (Ch.D).
3. It is not only your skill and dexterity that fascinates me. It
is your cheery confidence in yourself that does me good
(J.K.J.).
4. Without listening to excuse and apology … though unconscious of anything save the support which it gave, she was
urging, and almost dragging him forward (W. Sc.).
5. After perusing these papers, the Master of Ravenswood remained for a minute or two with his hand pressed against his
brow, in deep and profound meditation (W. Sc.).
6. Her cleanliness and purity had reacted upon him, and he
felt in his being a crying need to be clean (J. L.).
7.Over and above this, on a snow-white napkin spread upon
the sideboard, was a huge ham and a huge sirloin (A. T.).
8. Now you see she is high and mighty, an empress couldn’t be
grander (W. Th.).
Materials for this exercise are borrowed from Grinberg L.E., et all. Exercises in Modern English Lexicology. Moscow.
– 37 –
Part 3
Exercise 47.
Replace some of the words with their synonyms if possible. How
does the text change?
1) Victor was already carrying my suitcase when I saw the mailman coming, a pleasant young black man. Letters in hand, I
jumped into the car, and left Chicago. I couldn’t wait to get to
my friend’s house. Victor and Jean are my close friends. They
live in Indiana by the lake in a very peaceful spot called Oak
Spring. I planned to spend a week of my vacation there.
I talked to Victor on the way, and completely forgot about
my mail! But I didn’t open it when we arrived either. There
was Jean to talk to, cool drinks in tall glasses, and Jean’s noisy
children to confront.
Finally, after dinner, when Jean was making my bed, I spilled
the contents of my purse onto the table. I do that at home
too, because I never know what could have ended up in my
bag during the course of the day (B.P.).
2) After driving Dewey and her camping gear onto the spit, after
saying she’d be right back, Lilah went to see the taxidermist.
A stout man with an amazing expanse of property and a view
of the mountains beyond the bay, which Lilah could not see
for the fog, greeted her at the foot of his gravel driveway.
He was proud of the money he’d earned, what with all the
fish to be stuffed and mailed back to the East Coast, where
they’d be mounted on various ‘adventurer’s’ mantle pieces.
He even shared his secrets about the construction of fibreglass fish moulds with Lilah. She, at one time, had dreamed
of being a sculptor, before settling for a more practical Liberal Arts education (L.S.).
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Systenatic Character of the Vocabulary: Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonums
Exercise 48.
Do the italicized words possess stylistic connotations? If so, what
are stylistic connotations of these synonyms?
1. a) The girl broke into a trot and disappeared round the corner. b) Shortly after my arrival at the school I was befriended
by an older lass. c) She used to read books about knights and
fair maidens.
2. a) He was a broken man after the failure of his business. b)
He isn’t such a bad chap really. So we cannot always blame
only him. c) Give the lad a break – it’s only his second day on
the job. d) Sampras looks set to play his fellow countryman
Agassi in the final.
3. a) We were in a hurry so we had to make do just with a quick
snack. b) First prize will be a meal for two at the restaurant
of your choice. c) We just have time for a bite to eat before
the movie. d) In York we had a short stop for refreshment.
4. a) “Clear out!”, she managed to say after hearing the news
about her husband’s adultery. b) Government troops were
forced to withdraw from a borderline. c) She waited until the
last of the guests departed. d) Go away and think about it,
then let me know.
Exercise 49.
Give absolute antonyms to the following words.
Agree, alert, arrange, barbarous, bright, build, cheerful, correct,
courage, deep, despair, distinct, exclude, frequent, fresh, handsome, here, hostile, intelligent, more, nearer, original, preceding, reject, rough, scarce, solitary, temporary, top, victory.
– 39 –
Part 3
Exercise 50.
Give derivational antonyms to the following words.
Approve, backwards, bend, careful, connect, continue, convenient, fold, important, legal, legible like, lock, mature, painful,
patient, polysyllabic, probable, pure, replaceable, resistible, upstairs, uptown, useful, wrap
Exercise 51.
Arrange antonyms into three groups: a) absolute antonyms, b)
derivational antonyms, c) mixed antonyms.
Active, add, alive, appearance, asleep, attentive, close, competent, convenient, crooked, distrust, easy, employed, exhale,
faithful, light, lower, necessary, outside, post-meridian, rational,
strong, timidity, underestimate.
Exercise 52.
Use antonyms for the words in bold. Indicate whether they are
absolute or derivational antonyms.
1. He has recently made this rejection explicit.
2. Companies claim to be able to produce limitless amounts of
power.
3. Managers can transform a too much lethargic work culture
in creative ways.
4. Our occasional quarrels are reminders of a basic primordial
human need for a role in a small family unit on which we still
depend.
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Systenatic Character of the Vocabulary: Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonums
5. When life gets too hectic, it impacts our mental and physical
well-being, it’s time to take action.
6. Through diligent research of old issues of the newspapers
the research assistants gathered page after page.
7. I’m thoroughly convinced that her popularity is due to her
bizarre outfit.
8. Everyone was amazed at the writing style in what could have
been a horribly bland book.
9. The task is to examine whether these events were the results of a premeditated actions of one person or a group of
persons.
10.Experts will present American attitudes towards the solid
waste industry and efforts to change obsolete views and
stereotypes.
Exercise 53.
Find full homonyms in the following sentences. Explain their
meanings.
1. a) After valuation, experts band properties in groups of
£20,000 or more. b) Tonight the entertainment includes a
disco and live band.
2. a) The group’s research has done much to advance our
knowledge of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus. b) Could
you distribute copies well in advance before the meeting?
3. a) The morning light came streaming in through the windows. b) People who have suffered light exposure to radiation still have to have regular medical check-up.
4. a) The dogs usually bark at strangers. b) The bark of the birch
is used to make utensil.
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Part 3
5. a) She was afraid she wouldn’t be able to bear the pain. b)
The bear has thick fur and eats flesh, fruit, and insects.
6. a) Ann would like to dash into the room, to grab her bag, and
to run out again. b) The dash is used in writing to separate
two closely related parts of a sentence.
7. a) She looked around at the sea of faces in the cafeteria. b)
The President faces the difficult task of putting the economy
back on its feet.
8. a) The plot is a festival of conspiracies involving the Nazis,
Soviets, the CIA and LSD, plus some oddly convenient hurricane. b) He was called from the right bank in the blessed plot
of the tree.
Exercise 54.
Find homophones in the sentences. Use them in different context
by building new sentences.
1. a) Some people never forget insults and wait for the hour
of revenge. b) Bill wants to spend a large sum of money on
modernizing the farm.
2. a) You can buy jeans in every colour under the sun. b) In
those days, the property went to the oldest son.
3. a) To be able to live fully in the here and now, one must first
learn how to honour the past. b) There’s a nasty infection
going round, so I hear.
4. a) The branch was too weak to support his weight. b) The
Reids are coming for dinner a week from Sunday.
5. a) The old sailor preferred bitter to light beer. b) I’m glad
you’ve arrived – we could all do with a little light relief.
6. a) To keep sales of expensive eyewear brisk in this economy,
the company will have to continue to reinvent its products
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Systenatic Character of the Vocabulary: Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonums
and itself. b) The government, the minister emphasized, is
concentrating on taking further steps to make sure the economy sails in safe waters.
Exercise 55.
Find homographs in the sentences. Use them in different context
by building new sentences.
1. a) Many of the party’s traditional voters can suddenly desert
it at the election. b) The plane crash-landed in the desert. No
survivors were found.
2. a) He had just had a row with his wife? What was the row
about? b) The children were asked to stand in a row and to
dance samba.
3. a) “Please, don’t talk like that”, Ellen implored him, her eyes
filling with tears. b) She carefully tears the paper.
4. a) This is done with a formal bow to the king or queen. b) A
bow is used for shooting arrows, made of long thin piece of
wood held in a curve by a tight string.
5. a) The content of the media course includes scripting, editing and camera work. b) Not content with her new car,
Selina now wants a bike.
Exercise 56.
In the sentences given below, find homonymic pairs. Identify the
homophones and homographs.
1. a) To avoid the impression of the tail wagging the dog, the
Chancellor cannot be seen bending to the wishes of the minority party. b) The usual patterns of criminal prosecutions
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Part 3
is to get the already convicted to tell a tale on their bosses in
return for cuts in their own sentences.
2. a) The boys were sitting happily on the ground. The burner was blazing, the kettle was on and, going by the gales of
laughter, they were having a ball. b) If you listen to members
of the same sex talking to each other, you are likely to hear a
man describe his wife as a ball and chain.
3. a) Donald was a man who knew with utter clarity which side
his bread was buttered on. b) These dogs were originally
bred in Scotland to round up sheep.
4. a) He made her a toy horse, using just some straw and bamboo twigs. b) This time they did not take a maid as far as the
lady decided to cook on her own.
5. a) On the evidence so far, it’s unlikely that the storylines will
have us reeling in the aisles. b) That would look weird not
finding the British Isles on the map if you were a 2nd year student.
6. a) This gives architects and designers the power to build an
environment, explore it and maybe do some designing on
the fly. b) “Is it midnight already?” “Well, you know what
they say – time can fly quickly when you are having fun.”
7. a) It was really the British who, by digging their heels in, prevented any last-minute deal. b) Time heels all the wounds no
matter how deep they are.
8. a) The play is well acted but the plot is weak. b) It will cost
you an estimated £10 per week to feed one dog.
9. a) There are many things a child who is under the weather
can do to stimulate his mind and imagination. b) The question arose as to whether his behaviour was unlawful.
10.a) My mother and my grandmother were both married at 24
and at that age I suddenly thought I can miss the boat – but
I have a wider world than they ever had. b) Miss Taylor has
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Systenatic Character of the Vocabulary: Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonums
never been outside her cosy and calm town and felt proud
about that.
11.a) This traditional rite is performed only by the women of
this village. b) We put a bandage on his knee, gave him a biscuit and a cup of tea and he was right as rain.
Exercise 57.
In the following sentences, find the words which can have homophones in the English vocabulary system. Provide these homophones.
1. He woke up as usual and listened to see if it wasn’t raining that morning. He heard not sound. Again, he closed his
eyes.
2. Stephen’s bed was empty. Next to it, on the stool, a halfdrunk glass of water and a packet of blue tablets glimmered.
3. The wet on the towel was from dew. It was strange, that the
towel was not touched by the campers.
4. And the soul – how does it free itself from the body? And
where? What part of the body does it lurk in?
5. The principal rattled on about the rules and procedures and
Evony listened loosely and looked around the room with
bored eyes.
6. Currants are unsurpassed for jelly, but are also good in pies
and sauces, especially when mixed with fruits that have body
but lack sprightliness.
7. There are over 300 different kinds of freshwater mussels in
the United States and Canada. Their shells come in many different colours and textures.
– 45 –
Part 3
8. The cat’s paws also have scent glands that leave their own
special scent on their territory. And this is why they mark the
most visible portions of a house.
Exercise 58.
In the following sentences, find the words which can have homographs in the English vocabulary. Provide these homographs.
1. Without the right date stamped on it, your ticket will be
invalid.
2. Clergymen bow their heads in prayer.
3. The statue was covered with minute particles of gold-dust.
4. Tom sat on a chair close to the window.
5. There will be live TV coverage of tonight’s big match.
6. Polish is a West Slavic language and the official language of
Poland.
Exercise 59.
In the following sentences, find the words which can stand in
homonymic relations with the other words in the English vocabulary. Give the homonyms to these words, define their type and
explain the meanings.
1. The slender, flexible right hand was badly cut and grazed.
2. It appeared as if there was a sort of match or trial of skill
you must understand between the kettle and the cricket (Ch.
D.).
3. He who fasts till he is sick must fast till he is well.
4. At the bank of the river one can see hundreds of frogs.
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Systenatic Character of the Vocabulary: Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonums
5. In the back yard children were playing, elderly women were
gossiping and near one of the benches cats were fooling
around.
6. Still waters have deep bottoms.
7. In the sink a pile of plates waited for someone to wash them
up.
8. The rest of the bridegroom’s friends left the wedding party
without saying the word.
9. Her children now and then noisily stamp down the stairs.
10.His olive crop was plentiful, the branches were laden; it was
now necessary to harvest the olives and pickle them up.
11.A drove of lizards and salamanders, blinded by the sudden
light, had slithered into the shadow.
Exercise 60.
The following words can have homonyms. Prove it by building
collocations with these homonyms.
Bark, bat, bill, blow, can, date, fast, mean, mood, pupil, rock,
sack, scale, school, spell, tap.
Exercise 61.
Give the homophones to the following words and make collocations with each of the homonyms in the homonymic pairs.
Bawl, bean, blue, bred, coarse, dye, fair, flour, grate, hare, heir,
herd, higher, hour, knew, made, night, not, paced, pane, plain,
plumb, principle, prophet, read, reign, rite, road, seen, sight,
soar, sow, tail, threw, thyme, tide, wait, weak, where, whole,
wholly, won, would.
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Part 3
Exercise 62.
Give your reasoning why these sentences can cause misunderstanding and confusion in pronunciation or meaning.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The bandage was wound around the wound.
The farm was used to produce produce.
The dump was so full that it had to refuse more refuse.
We must polish the Polish furniture.
He could lead if he would get the lead out.
The soldier decided to desert his dessert in the desert.
Since there is no time like the present, he thought it was
time to present the present.
8. A bass was painted on the head of the bass drum.
Exercise 63.
In the sentences given below, find homonyms. Identify the type
of the homonyms according to the classification based on corresponding paradigms of different parts of speech.
1. a) When she left the room, an odour of rose lingered around
the nursery. b) The prices in High Street rose sharply as the
result of economic crisis.
2. a) She could not bear the pain and reached for the pain relief. b) Her bare arms look pail as if she never exposed them
to the sun.
3. a) The bough of the tree was full in blooms and bees were
buzzing around. b) Before them stood an Indian with a bow
and arrows.
4. a) He is delighted to read his name written in the morning
papers. b) I read “The Fourth Hand” by John Irving during
summer holidays.
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Systenatic Character of the Vocabulary: Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonums
5. a) They prefer to lead their life of rich and successful members of community. b) Lead melts easily and is poisonous.
6. a) He was in the habit of figuring out, while lying like this,
how and what he could do throughout the day. b) Lying was
not his habit but a hobby.
7. a) Harry pulled on his pants and went to bathe at the well.
b) The final test was written quite well, although the teacher
clearly expressed her dissatisfaction.
8. a) Andrew was silent. With his back turned, he watched that
bicycle leaned against the wall near the barn door. b) He
wanted to back the car from the garage the moment lightning struck a nearby tree.
9. a) Long, long ago, someone had cemented a thick iron chain
into the eastern wall of Jacob’s stone cottage below the window. b) He enjoyed his new washing machine because now it
did the laundry instead of him and dried the clothes quickly.
However, he hated to iron blankets and pillows.
10.a) Her mother went to the shops, and on her return, Kathleen was nowhere to be found. b) You could found a small
business if you had enough knowledge, experience and required capital.
11.a) I just don’t know what to do – every solution I can think of
would just open up a whole new can of worms. b) You can
lead the horse to the water, but you cannot force him drink
it.
12.a) I believe that this is a case where a little white lie is really
more appropriate than the truth. b) When you lie down you
are in position in which your body is flat on some surface.
13.a) When I entered the room, the dog was lying dead on
the floor. b) “We were on vacation in Barbados a few years
ago and we met Freddie Mercury in a bar”, says Phil, lying
through his teeth.
– 49 –
Part 3
14.a) You shouldn’t be sitting here by yourself, all alone. b) All
was dark and silent down by the harbour wall.
Exercise 64.
Spell the word given in the phonetic script and provide its homonymic pair. 1. That meeting achieved absolutely nothing - it was a complete /weɪst/ of time.
2. You’re not /əlaʊd/ to talk during the exam.
3. If your /saɪt/ is poor, you should not drive a car.
4. The meeting will have to /weɪt/ until tomorrow, because I’m
too busy now.
5. You got three answers /raɪt/ and two wrong.
6. There’s /səm/ cake in the kitchen if you’d like it.
7. He gathered some /wʊd/ to build a fire.
8. Let us /preɪ/ for the victims of this terrible disaster.
Exercise 65.
Choose the correct homophone from given in brackets.
1. My (sole, soul) is dark – Oh! Quickly string
The harp, (eye, I) yet can brook (too, to, two) (here, hear);
And let thy gentle fingers fling
Its melting murmurs (o’er, oar, or) mine ear.
If in this (heart, hart) a hope (bee, be) (deer, dear),
That sound shall charm it forth again;
The exercise is prepared and submitted with a kind permission of an MA student
(2010) of English Philology Vaiva Bernatonytė.
– 50 –
Systenatic Character of the Vocabulary: Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonums
If in these eyes (their, there) lurk a (tier, tear),
‘Twill (flow, floe), and cease to burn my brain (G.G.B.).
2. I bring fresh showers (four, fore, for) the thirsting (flowers,
flours),
From the (seas, seize) and the streams;
I (bare, bear) light shade for leaves when (laid, lade)
In their noonday dreams (P.B.S.).
3. Oh, why don’t you (pray, prey)
To the Good Lord for (bread, bred)?
How can I (pray, prey)
To a God that is dead!
4. In a (weak, week) another order followed (no, know) (won,
one) was (aloud, allowed) to walk down the (main, mane)
(isle, aisle) coming to or from work (F.S.).
Exercise 66.
Explain the following puns.
1. What did the Cyclops say when she was getting married?
Eye do, eye do.
2. What did the boat captain say to his friend?
I sea you!
3. What did the gymnast say after the competition?
I one!
The exercise is prepared and submitted with a kind permission of an MA student
(2010) of English Philology Rita Laurinaitytė.
– 51 –
Part 3
4. What comment did the lady make to the guy working out
about his waist?
What a waste!
5. Why was the man putting a sail over his garage?
Because he wanted to have a garage sale.
6. What did the sailor say when he wanted to sell his boat?
This boat is for sail.
7. What did the pair of monkeys say to Noah on the ark?
Can we come two?
8. What did the peacemaker say to the baker?
Can I have a peace of pie?
9. What did the little man say to his tall wife?
High there!
10.The nurse looked at me and said: “Wait!”
I said, “Sixty-five pounds”.
Exercise 67.
Read the following jokes. What linguistic phenomena are they
based on? Use the dictionary when in doubt.
1. Proctor (exceedingly angry): So you confess that this unfortunate freshman was carried to this frog pond and drenched.
Now what part did you take in this disgraceful affair?
Sophomore: The right leg, sir.
2. Booking clerk (at a small village station): You’ll have to change
twice before you get to York.
Villager (unused to travelling): Goodness me! And I’ve only
brought the clothes I’m wearing.
Materials for this exercise are borrowed from Antrushina G.B., et al. English Lexicology. Moscow.
– 52 –
Systenatic Character of the Vocabulary: Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonums
3.
4.
Child: Papa, what kind of robber is a page?
Father: A what?
Child: It says here that two pages held up the bride’s train.
Peggy: I want to help you, Dad. I shall get the dress-maker to
teach me to cut out gowns.
Dad: I don’t want you to go that far, Peg, but you might cut
out cigarettes, and taxi bills.
5. Man (on the telephone: I want a box for two.
Voice (at the other end): Sorry, but we don’t have boxes for
two.
Man: But aren’t you the box office of the theatre?
Voice: No, we are the undertakers.
6. Husband and wife were enjoying a quiet evening, he deep in
a book, she in a crossword puzzle. Suddenly she questioned
him:
“Darling, what is a female sheep?”
“Ewe”, he replied. His further explanation hardly soothed
her.
7. Boy: I got sick last night eating eggs.
Girl: Too bad.
Boy: No, only one.
8. Officer (to driver in parked car): Don’t you see that sign “Fine
for parking”.
Driver: Yes, officer. I see and agree.
9. An observing man claims to have discovered the colour of
the wind. He says he went out and found it blew.
10.The difference between a cat and a comma is that a cat has
its claws at the end of its paws, and a comma has its pause
at the end of a clause.
11.Policeman (holding up his hand): Stop!
Visitor: What’s the matter?
P.: Why are you driving on the right side of the road?
– 53 –
Part 3
V.: Do you want me to ride on the wrong side?
P.: You are driving on the wrong side.
V.: But you said that I was driving on the right side.
P.: That’s right. You are on the right, and that’s wrong.
V.: A strange country! If right is wrong. I’m right when I’m on
the wrong side. So why did you stop me?
P.: My dear sir, you must keep to the left. The right side is
left.
V.: It’s like a looking glass! I’ll try to remember. Well, I want
to go to Bellwood. Will you kindly tell me the way?
P.: Certainly. At the end of this road, turn left.
V.: Now let me think. Turn left! In England left is right, and
right is wrong. Am I right?
P.: You’ll be right if you turn left. But if you turn right, you’ll
be wrong.
V.: Thank you. It’s as clear as daylight.
Exercise 68.
For each of the following groups of words formulate the principles that group the words into a set.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Dawdle, meander, saunter, stroll, swan, tootle, wander.
Speak, speaking, speaks, spoke, spoken.
Answer, dial, directory, engaged, number, ring, telephone.
Affluent, loaded, rich, wealthy, well-heeled, well-off.
Are, be, been, being, is, were.
Bonnet, engine, indicator, seat, tyre, wheel, windscreen,
wipers.
7. Itinerant, mobile, portable, transportable, travelling, unfixed.
– 54 –
PART 4
AMERICANISMS
– 55 –
Part 4
Exercise 69.
Give American English equivalents of the following British English
words.
Aubergine, draughts, eraser, fortnight, full stop, interval, ladybird, parcel, porridge, post, roundabout, queue, tin, waistcoat.
Exercise 70.
Give British English equivalents of the following American English
words.
First floor, French fries, garbage, gear shift, pitcher, sidewalk,
sneakers, trashcan.
Exercise 71.
Divide the words into two groups: a) American English, b) British
English.
Airplane, cookie, faucet, gas, highway, knickers, lift, lorry, mailman, motorway, pants, petrol, streetcar, store, subway, tram,
truck, tube, vacation, wireless.
Exercise 72.
Spell the following words according to British English norms of
spelling.
Acknowledgment, behavior, catalog, center, color, favor, gram,
harbor, humor, jewelry, judgment, labor, marvelous, odor, offense, pajamas, program, theater, traveling, woolen.
– 56 –
Americanisms
Exercise 73.
In the following sentences, find American English words and divide them into 3 groups: a) proper Americanisms; b) historical
Americanisms; c) words borrowed by American English.
Apartment, automobile, banjo, canyon, corn, coyote, fall, faucet,
guess, hammock, moccasin, mosquito, racoon, railroad, ranch,
toboggan, truck, wigwam.
Exercise 74.
Read the following extract. Find American English words and explain their meanings.
In the USA just as in Great Britain, you see the same shops with
the same boards and windows in every town and village.
Shopping, however, is an art of its own and you have to learn
slowly where to buy various things. If you are ill, you go to the
chemist’s. A chemist’s shop is called a drugstore in the USA. In
the larger drugstores you buy drugs, but here you also can get
also other types of goods, for example cosmetics. Business in department stores consists in selling stationery, candies, toys, braces, belts, fountain pens, furniture, jewellery, etc. You must be extremely careful concerning the names of certain articles. If you
ask for suspenders in a man’s shop, you receive a pair of braces,
if you ask for a pair of pants, you receive a pair of trousers and
should you ask for a pair of braces, you receive a queer look.
Materials for this exercise are borrowed from Antrushina G.B., et al. English Lexicology. Moscow.
– 57 –
Part 4
I should like to mention that although a lift is called an elevator
in the USA, when hitch-hiking you do not ask for an elevator, you
ask for a lift. There’s some confusion about the word flat. A flat
in America is called an apartment; what they call a flat is a puncture in your tire. Consequently the notice: “Flats Fixed” does not
indicate an estate agent where they are going to fix you up with a
flat, but a garage where they are equipped to mend a puncture.
Exercise 75.
Fill in the crossword. Across. Words given below are British English. Fill in the crossword with their American English equivalents.
1. Holiday
2. Railway
3. Timetable
4. Football
5. Trainers
6. Engine
7. Torch
8. Icing
9. Accumulator
10.Catapult
Down. Words given below are American English. Fill in the crossword with British English equivalents.
1. Windshield
2. Pants
The exercise is prepared and submitted with a kind permission of an MA student
(2010) of English Philology Rita Laurinaitytė.
– 58 –
1. Windshield
2.Americanisms
Pants
3. Raincoat
4.3.Sweater
Raincoat
5. Blender
4. Sweater
6. Mailman
Blender
7.5.Garbage
6.
Mailman
8. Hood
Garbage
9.7.Diaper
10.
8.Stove.
Hood
9. Diaper
10.Stove.
2
1
1
9
2
3
4
4
8
6
8
5
7
6
3
7
9
8
10
10
– 59 –
– 60 –
PART 5
PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
– 61 –
Part 5
Exercise 76.
Complete the sentences by writing the correct colour denoting
word. Comment on the meaning of phraseological units.
1. I got a letter this morning saying that an uncle in Australia
had left me some money in his will. I didn’t know that I still
had an uncle in Australia, so it was completely out of the
____________.
2. It isn’t all that easy to get a visa and work permit for the
States. There’s still a lot of ____________ tape.
3. Don’t believe all the bad things you’ve heard about Tom
Spencer. He isn’t as _____________________ as he is
painted.
4. The plans are ready, so as soon as you give me the _______
______ light I’ll start with the construction work.
5. “Do you still visit your friends in Edinburgh?” “No, not since
we moved to Cambridge. Only once in a ____________
moon, unfortunately.”
6. I’ve paid off my overdraft at last! I must admit that I feel better now that I’m in the ________ again.
Exercise 77.
Explain the meaning of phraseological units and classify them
into substantival, adjectival, verbal, and adverbial.
The exercise is prepared and submitted with a kind permission of an MA student
(2010) of English Philology Vaiva Bernatonytė.
– 62 –
Phraseological Units
1. Asked how many arrest orders she had received so far from
her colleague in Spain, she walked away and left the question hanging in the air.
2. Sooner or later they will have to realize that this is a blind alley and that they need to rethink their own strategies.
3. We got out of the trucks to greet them with open arms. We
had gifts ready, we were high on the idea of the meeting.
4. He had discovered that it was safer to have the press on his
side than to have correspondents sneaking around behind
his back asking embarrassing questions.
5. So why look in the crystal ball for next year, when we can
look at the record of what has happened?
6. You can be walking across Westminster Bridge full of noble
thought at one moment and slipping on a banana peel the
next.
7. I didn’t see her face, but I knew it was a woman. She tore
across the highway like a bat out of hell. I nearly ploughed
right into her.
8. He wanted to recharge his batteries and come back feeling
fresh and positive.
9. “So would you be happy to work wherever you got the job?”
“Initially, I mean, you’ve got to take anything that comes
around because beggars can’t be choosers.”
10.I think I envied her relationship with our mother. She and my
mother were birds of a feather. You felt something special
between them that left you out.
11.I’ve had two bites of the cherry. Which was rather nice because all the mistakes, I made with the first one, I hope I
haven’t repeated.
12.Teenagers from authoritarian or uncaring families are twice
as likely as other youngsters to be heavy drinkers. “They will
hit the bottle to rebel”, said the researcher Geoff Lowe.
– 63 –
Part 5
13.She, in turn, picked my brains about London – as she’d never
been outside of the USA and was thinking about a trip to
England.
14.We are being told on every side that marketing is the greatest thing since sliced bread.
Exercise 78.
What metaphorical images are these phraseological units based
on? Explain the meaning of phraseological units.
1. I’ve got a bee in my bonnet about the confusion between
education and training.
2. He had been on his way to the vegetable man’s van, both to
purchase some cucumbers for his mother and – kill two birds
with one stone – to seek out Mr Halloran.
3. My blood boiled, but I tried to answer as simply and directly
as possible.
4. Could it be that these people were really unhealthy but just
didn’t know about it? Or did the disease really strike out of
the blue?
5. If baldness is creeping up on you, take heart – 40 per cent of
men under 35 are in the same boat.
6. Diplomats are expecting so much instability in a power
struggle after his death that they argue it’s unwise to rock
the boat now.
7. People often assume if you sweep something under the carpet the problem will go away, but that is not the case.
– 64 –
Phraseological Units
Exercise 79.
Complete the following phrases so that they make English proverbs and phraseological units. Explain their meaning.
1. Break no bones.
2. Spilt milk.
3. A bee in one’s bonnet.
4. A new broom.
5. A silver lining.
6. The early bird.
7. To eat one’s cake and have it.
8. A stitch in time.
9. A bird in the hand.
10.The last straw.
11.Birds of feather.
Exercise 80.
Match the following definitions with corresponding phraseological units. There are more phraseological units than definitions.10
1. Direct ones attack, criticism or efforts to the wrong quarter.
2. Bear the main stress or burden (of a task, contest, etc.).
3. Talk around the point instead of coming direct to the subject.
4. Importunately thrust one’s presence upon somebody.
5. Fail to gain any information, or achieve any result.
6. Be docile; give no trouble, do whatever somebody wishes.
7. Pay all the expenses incurred. Do something completely.
10
Materials for this exercise are borrowed from Wood F.T. English Verbal Idioms.
– 65 –
Part 5
8. Remain mentally calm, and keep control of oneself in a difficult situation.
9. Know from experience the best way or method of doing
something.
10.Draw an inference from given facts.
11.Be in agreement, hold similar views.
12.Ignore something, pretend not to see.
13.Disclaim further responsibility or concern.
The list: jump the queue, bark up the wrong tree, foot the bill,
let off steam, see eye to eye, air one’s views, lend a hand, haul
down one’s flag, beat about the bush, take to one’s heels, eat
out of somebody’s hand, mark time, hit the nail on the head,
keep one’s head, change hands, turn a blind eye to something,
put two and two together, bear the brunt, know the ropes, have
a good mind to do something, break one’s word, draw a blank,
go the whole hog, dog somebody’s footsteps, wash one’s hands
of something.
Exercise 81.
From the collocations given below choose phraseological units
corresponding to the synonymic ones in the sentences.
To cry stinking fish; that’s a horse of another colour; to strike
while the iron is hot; it is a matter of course; with flying colours;
it never rains, but it pours; tooth and nail; first of all.
1. For one thing, intelligence is about versatility, about being
able to perform innumerable different and unfamiliar tasks
that take smarts.
– 66 –
Phraseological Units
2. Military victories may be one thing, victories within the family circle can occasionally be quite another pair of shoes.
3. My mom had an arsenal of old sayings, but the one that I
probably keep closest at hand is “You’ve got to make hay
while the sun shines”.
4. So as misfortunes never come singly, it is always wise to get
your car insured because you are promised the after sale
service.
5. We have to obey our parents will no matter how dissatisfied
we are. It goes without saying.
Exercise 82.
Give two meanings to the given phrases: a) taken as a free word
collocation; b) taken as a phraseological unit.
Be on firm ground, best man, blow one’s own trumpet, break
the ice, burn one’s fingers, first night, keep one’s head above
water, show somebody the door, throw down the glove, forbidden fruit, to put all one’s eggs in one basket, to cry over spilt
milk, the last straw.
Exercise 83.
Pick out phraseological units from the following sentences. Classify them into: a) phraseological unities; b) phraseological fusions; c) phraseological combinations.
1. This painting is wonderful – Ellie has always been good at
art.
2. A bosom friend’s kindness restored her faith in human nature.
– 67 –
Part 5
3. Andy wanted to tell her the gospel truth but he checked himself – it wasn’t the right moment.
4. If I pay for my studies, I will not have any money for food. I
am between the devil and the deep sea.
5. Daisy didn’t know whether to get married or not. But she
finally took a plunge.
6. He is not a man of my dreams. It’s a pity. I’ve been barking up
all the wrong trees.
7. This is not the first time she has lost hope. She is always making a mountain out of a molehill.
8. He asked out of the blue if I could lend him quite a fortune.
9. I think they never invite guests. Their house is always spick
and span.
– 68 –
SOURCES
1. Active Study Dictionary of English. (1983). London.
2. Anglų kalbos frazeologijos žodynas. (2009) Vilnius.
3. Antrushina, G. B., Afanasyeva O. V., Morozova N. N. (1985) English
Lexicology. Moscow.
4. Bersėnienė, B., Bogatko S., Gylienė M., Leščinskienė D. (1999)
Write Right. Kaišiadorys.
5. Grinberg, L. E., Kuznets, M. D., Kumacheva, A. V., Meltser, G. M.
(1960) Exercises in Modern English Lexicology. Moscow.
6. Harley, H. (2006). English Words. Blackwell Publishing.
7. Jackson, E., Ze Amvela, E. (2001) Words, Meaning and Vocabulary.
London.
8. Lyons, J. (2009). Language and Linguistics. An Introduction. Cambridge.
9. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Third edition.
(2003) Harlow.
10. Mednikova, E. M. (1978) Seminars in English Lexicology. Moscow.
11. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Eights edition. (2010) Oxford.
12. Seely, J. (2010). Oxford Guide to Effective Speaking and Writing.
Oxford.
– 69 –
LIST OF THE AUTHORS QUOTED
A. B. – Ambrose Bierce
A. E. – Albert Einstein
A. M. – Arslan Mayda
A. T. – Anthony Trollop
B. – The Bible
B. P. – Birutė Pukelevičiūtė
Ch. D. – Charles Dickens
F. S. – F. Steel
G. G. B – Gordon G. Byron
H. – Hippocrates
H. A. – Henry Adams
J. C. – Jonathan Coe
J. K. J. – Jerom K. Jerom
J. R. – John Ruskin
J. L. – Jack London
J. S. – Jonathan Swift
L. S. - Laima Sruoginis
M. F. - Milton Friedman
P. B. S. – Persey B. Shelley
P. G. W. – P. G. Wodehouse
S. – Socrates
W. B. – William Blake
W.Ch. – Winston Churchill
W. O. – William Osler
W. S. – William Shakespeare
W. Sc. – Walter Scott
W. Th. – William Thackeray
– 70 –
– 71 –
Linas Selmistraitis
Se63
Seminars in English Lexicology. Semantics. Teaching aid for student of
English Philology. Vilnius: Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto leidykla,
2011. 72 p.
ISBN 978-9955-20-629-3
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– 72 –