Louisiana Law Review Volume 76 | Number 1 The Voting Rights Act at 50: The Past, Present, and Future of the Right to Vote A Symposium of the Louisiana Law Review Fall 2015 Reflections on Justice Thurgood Marshall and Shelby County v. Holder Wendy B. Scott Repository Citation Wendy B. Scott, Reflections on Justice Thurgood Marshall and Shelby County v. Holder, 76 La. L. Rev. (2015) Available at: http://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/lalrev/vol76/iss1/10 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Law Reviews and Journals at DigitalCommons @ LSU Law Center. It has been accepted for inclusion in Louisiana Law Review by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons @ LSU Law Center. For more information, please contact [email protected]. 5HIOHFWLRQVRQ-XVWLFH7KXUJRRG0DUVKDOODQGShelby County v. Holder Wendy B. 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