Geomorphology 118 (2010) 433–443
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Geomorphology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / g e o m o r p h
Evolution of desert pavements and the vesicular layer in soils of the
Transantarctic Mountains
James G. Bockheim ⁎
Department of Soil Science, University of Wisconsin, 1525 Observatory Drive, Madison, WI 53706-1299, USA
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 1 June 2009
Received in revised form 11 February 2010
Accepted 15 February 2010
Available online 1 March 2010
Keywords:
Desert soils
Soil chronosequences
Pavement development index
Ventifaction
Desert varnish
a b s t r a c t
Compared to mid-latitude deserts, the properties, formation and evolution of desert pavements and the
underlying vesicular layer in Antarctica are poorly understood. This study examines the desert pavements
and the vesicular layer from seven soil chronosequences in the Transantarctic Mountains that have
developed on two contrasting parent materials: sandstone–dolerite and granite–gneiss. The pavement
density commonly ranges from 63 to 92% with a median value of 80% and does not vary significantly with
time of exposure or parent material composition. The dominant size range of clasts decreases with time of
exposure, ranging from 16–64 mm on Holocene and late Quaternary surfaces to 8–16 mm on surfaces of
middle Quaternary and older age. The proportion of clasts with ventifaction increases progressively through
time from 20% on drifts of Holocene and late Quaternary age to 35% on Miocene-aged drifts. Desert varnish
forms rapidly, especially on dolerite clasts, with nearly 100% cover on surfaces of early Quaternary and older
age. Macropitting occurs only on clasts that have been exposed since the Miocene. A pavement development
index, based on predominant clast-size class, pavement density, and the proportion of clasts with ventifaction,
varnish, and pits, readily differentiated pavements according to relative age. From these findings we judge that
desert pavements initially form from a surficial concentration of boulders during till deposition followed by a
short period of deflation and a longer period of progressive chemical and physical weathering of surface clasts.
The vesicular layer that underlies the desert pavement averages 4 cm in thickness and is enriched in silt, which
is contributed primarily by weathering rather than eolian deposition. A comparison is made between desert
pavement properties in mid-latitude deserts and Antarctic deserts.
© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Desert pavements play a dynamic role in geomorphic, hydrological,
and ecological processes of mid-latitude deserts. They have been
widely used for relative dating and correlation of Quaternary-aged
deposits (Dan et al., 1982; McFadden et al., 1987, 1989, 1998; Al-Farraj
and Harvey, 2000; Pelletier et al., 2007; Al-Farraj, 2008). The
predominant features of a desert pavement include a continuous
mantle of flat-lying, densely packed or partially overlapping clasts that
typically overlie a soft, silt or very fine sand layer filled with gas
vesicles. Some of the most comprehensive studies of the origin and
evolution of pavements in mid-latitude deserts are those of McFadden
et al. (1987, 1989), Wells et al. (1995), and McFadden et al. (1998,
2005).
In contrast to mid-latitude deserts, there is minimal published information on the properties and genesis of pavements in high-latitude
deserts of Antarctica (Lindsay, 1973; Bockheim, 1982; Campbell and
Claridge, 1987; Matsuoka, 1995; Li et al., 2003). Nevertheless, desert
⁎ Tel.: + 1 608 263 5903; fax: + 1 608 265 2595.
E-mail address: [email protected].
0169-555X/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.02.012
pavements are ubiquitous in ice-free areas of Antarctica, which total
49,000 km2.
Five hypotheses have been advanced regarding the formation of
desert pavements in mid-latitude deserts: (i) deflation, (ii) overland
flow, (iii) upward migration of clasts, (iv) in situ formation from
dust deposition, and (v) physical and/or chemical weathering. In a
comprehensive review, Cooke (1970) noted that early investigators
favored the deflation theory and proposed that a lag surface gradually
develops as finer materials are selectively removed by wind. The
overland flow theory or sheet-flood theory explains desert pavement
formation from episodic and catastrophic rainfall events in specific
regions where the fine materials are removed by raindrop splash and
sheet erosion (Williams and Zimbelman, 1994). Where there is
sufficient moisture, clasts may be uplifted by wetting and drying
or freezing and thawing and gradually accumulate at the surface
(Springer, 1958; Cooke and Warren, 1973; Ugolini et al., 2008).
McFadden et al. (1987) and Anderson et al. (2002) proposed that
pavement clasts are continuously maintained at the land surface in
response to deposition and pedogenic modification of windblown
dust, which they referred to as “being born and maintained at the
surface” (McFadden et al., 1987, p. 504). Finally, Al-Farraj and Harvey
(2000) and Al-Farraj (2008) have favored physical and chemical
434
J.G. Bockheim / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 433–443
weathering as leading to the development of desert pavements in the
Middle East and Australia.
A vesicular layer is often observed immediately beneath the desert
pavement in mid-latitude desert soils (Springer, 1958; McFadden et al.,
1998; Anderson et al., 2002; Ugolini et al., 2008). This layer is attributed
to gradual accumulation of fine materials from wind deposition to the
desert pavement. Vesicular layers have been reported in Antarctica
(Campbell and Claridge, 1969), but they have not been assessed with
regard to their origin and they have not been linked to the desert
pavement.
The objective of this study was to provide information on the
properties of desert pavements and the underlying vesicular layer in
the Transantarctic Mountains, with an emphasis on the McMurdo Dry
Valleys, and to illustrate how these features evolve over time.
2. Regional setting
The University of Wisconsin Antarctic Soils Database (http://nsidc.
org/data/ggd221.html) was used in this study. The database contains
information about surface boulder weathering features and soils from
some of more than 800 sites in the Transantarctic Mountains from
northern Victoria Land through southern Victoria Land, with an
emphasis on the McMurdo Dry Valleys (Fig. 1). For this study, seven
chronosequences were selected from the Transantarctic Mountains,
including sequences in Wright Valley from alpine glaciers and from
grounding of ice in the Ross embayment, and sequences from outlet
glaciers from the East Antarctic ice sheet, including the Taylor,
Hatherton, and Beardmore Glaciers. The chronosequences were selected
on the basis of having a long time interval, the availability of numerical
ages, and uniformity in parent material composition of member soils
(Table 1). Individual sampling sites were selected on key moraines
representing a particular glacial advance. Table 2 provides a provisional
correlation of glacial deposits in the Transantarctic Mountains.
The composition of the drifts can be grouped into two broad
categories. Mixed, light-colored igneous (granites) and metamorphic
(gneisses) materials dominate the three sequences in Wright and
Taylor Valleys. The sequences in Arena and Beacon Valleys and the
Hatherton and Beardmore Glacier regions are comprised of Beacon
Sandstone and Ferrar Dolerite (Table 1). Locally, some of the drifts
may contain primarily dark-colored volcanic materials or diabase dike
rocks. All age categories have samples from both rock types except for
Miocene-aged soils derived from granite–gneiss.
The chronosequences represent the three major soil climate
zones identified in the Transantarctic Mountains, including subxerous, i.e., comparatively moist coastal regions, xerous, i.e., valley floor
and sidewalls, and ultraxerous, i.e., high-elevation valleys (Campbell
and Claridge, 1969). The approximate mean annual water-equivalent
precipitation in these zones is 100–150 mm yr− 1, 50–100 mm yr− 1,
and b50 mm yr− 1, respectively. Most of the soil chronosequences
span one soil climatic zone. However, the sequences in lower Wright
Valley and along the Hatherton and Beardmore Glaciers span two
soil climate zones, because their distance from the coast ranges
from 35 to 220 km. The chronosequences range in elevation from 200
to 2200 m a.s.l. and span the time period from Holocene or late
Quaternary to the Pliocene and/or the Miocene.
3. Methods
During the investigation, at least three photographs were taken
by the author or his research associate at each site, including the
Fig. 1. Location of place names and study sites in the McMurdo Dry Valleys.
J.G. Bockheim / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 433–443
435
Table 1
Site factors of soil chronosequences in the Transantarctic Mountains.
Total no. Glaciation
pedons
Driftsa
Wright Valley
58
Alpine
A1, A2, A3, A4
3.7 ka–N3.7 Ma
Arena Valley
54
Taylor
117 ka–N15 Ma
Dolerite–sandstone Ultraxerous
900–1500
Beacon Valley
20
Taylor
T2, T3, T4a,
T4b, Ar, Al, Q
T2, T3, T4, Al
117 ka–15 Ma
Dolerite–sandstone Ultraxerous
800–1350
Taylor Valley
64
Taylor
Granitic-gneiss
200–1350
Wright Valley
42
Hatherton Glacier
53
Area
Beardmore Glacier 38
Age span
T2, T3, T4a,
117 ka–2.7/3.5 Ma
T4b
Wilson
B, H1, L, H2, T, 3.7 ka–N2 Ma
Piedmont
O, W, V, Lp
Hatherton Ha, Br1, Br2,
8 ka–N600 ka
D, I, pre-I
Beardmore Pl, Be, M,
14 ka–2 Ma
pre-M, D, S
Drift composition
Granitic-gneiss
Soil climatic Elevation
zoneb
range (m)
References
Soils
Parent material
Xerous
Bockheim and
McLeod (2006)
Bockheim
(2007)
Bockheim
(2007)
Bockheim et al.
(2008)
Bockheim and
McLeod (2006)
Bockheim et al.
(1989)
Denton et al.
(1989)
Prentice and Krusic (2005),
Hall and Denton (2005)
Marchant et al. (1993)
Xerous
Granitic-gneiss
Subxerous,
xerous
Dolerite–sandstone Xerous,
ultraxerous
Diorite–sandstone Xerous,
ultraxerous
250–950
275–350
1000–2200
Bockheim (2007)
Wilch et al. (1993)
Hall and Denton (2005)
Bockheim et al. (1989)
Denton et al. (1989),
Ackert and Kurz (2004)
a
Drift names: A = Alpine; Al = Altar; Ar = Arena; B = Brownworth; Be = Beardmore; Br = Britannia; D = Danum; H = Hummocky; Ha = Hatherton; I = Isca; L = Loke; Lp =
Loop; P = Peleus; Pl = Plunket; O = Onyx; Q = Quartermain; S = Sirius; T = Trilogy; V = Valkyrie; W = Wright.
b
Soil climate zones: subxerous = coastal; xerous = valley floor and sides; ultraxerous = upland valleys (after Campbell and Claridge, 1969).
landform, desert pavement, and soil profile. Additional photographs
were taken of special features such as the vesicular layer. The desert
pavement photographs used in this analysis were taken with an
Olympus OM-1 single-lens-reflex camera equipped with a 50-mm
lens. On the advice of Eastman Kodak Company, we used high-speed
(ASA 160) Ektachrome film, which gave the truest color rendition of
rock and landform surfaces. The photographs were taken from a
vertical distance ranging from 1.0 to 1.4 m and included a metric scale.
The photographic slides were scanned using a Hewlett-Packard
Photosmart S20 slide scanner at a resolution of 185 dots per square
centimeter. The images generally were of a high enough quality that
further processing of them for exposure, color, and sharpness was not
required. The images were opened in Photoshop CS4. A transparent
grid containing a minimum of 117 intersections was added as a layer.
At each intersection the following information was collected: the
presence or absence of a clast larger than 4 mm in diameter (i.e.,
coarser than granules in the Wentworth classification scheme), the
lithology, and weathering features such as staining (desert varnish),
ventifaction, and macropitting. Macropits are defined here as those
with a diameter greater than 2 mm; they originate from physical and
chemical weathering. Pitting does not include vesicles from scoriaceous rocks. These weathering features have been important in
determining the relative age of geomorphic surfaces in Antarctica
from surface boulders (Bockheim, 1982, 1990).
Not all sites were used in the analysis because of poor quality
images taken on overcast days or snow cover obliterating the
interstices of the desert pavement. There are several pitfalls to the
methods used. It was difficult to detect desert varnish on black rocks
such as diabase and basalt. The identification of weathering features
from photographs when the dominant clast size was b8 mm was also
problematic.
The “pavement density,” a measure of the percent coverage by
clasts of granule-size (4 mm) and larger (Quade, 2001), was
determined from the images. The dominant size range for clasts on
Table 2
Provisional correlation of glacial depositsa in the Transantarctic Mountains.
Geologic time
scale
Taylor V.
Taylor Gl.
Holocene
Late Quaternary
Wright V.
Alpine
Wright V.
Wilson Pied. Gl.
Arena V.
Taylor Gl.
Beacon V.
Taylor Gl.
A1
B
T2
A2a
T2
T2
T3
T3
H1
T3
A2b
Middle Quaternary
Early Quaternary
Loke, H2
T
T4a
T4a
T4a
T4b
T4b
T4b
Pliocene
O, W
Hatherton
Glacier
Beardmore
Glacier
Numerical
dating
Hatherton
Br1, Br2
Pl
Be
3.7 ky
10 ky
117 ky
D
M
I
Pre-M
200 ky
Pre-I
Do
A3
1.0–
1.1 My
1.1–
2.2 My
b3.4 My
b3.5 My
V
N3.7 My
A4
Lp
P
Miocene
References
S
Brook et al. (1993), Hall and Denton
Wilch et al. (1993), (2005)
Higgins et al. (2000)
Hall and Denton
(2005)
Al, Ar
Marchant et al.
(1993)
Al
Bockheim
(2007)
Bockheim et al.
(1989)
7.7 My
N11.3 My
Denton et al. (1989),
Ackert and Kurz (2004)
a
Drift names: A = Alpine; Al = Altar; Ar = Arena; B = Brownworth; Be = Beardmore; Br = Britannia; D = Danum; Do = Dominion; H = Hummocky; Ha = Hatherton; I = Isca;
L = Loke; Lp = Loop; M = Meyer; P = Peleus; Pl = Plunket; O = Onyx; Q = Quartermain; S = Sirius; T = Trilogy; V = Valkyrie; W = Wright.
436
Glaciation
Approximate age
Predom. size
range (mm)
Boulders
(%)
Cobbles
(%)
Pebbles
(%)
Pavement
density (%)
Ventifacts
(% of clasts)
D/La
Varnish
(% of clasts)
Macropitting
(% of clasts)
DPDIb
Thickness
Bv (cm)
D/Bv
pebble ratio
% Si
D/Bvc
Depth of
ghosts (cm)
Arena Valley
Taylor 2
Taylor 3
Taylor 4a
Taylor 4b
Miocene
p
Late Quaternary
Late Quaternary
Early Quaternary
Early Quaternary
Miocene
16–32a
32–64a
32–64a
32–64a
32–64a
0.210
27ab
38a
41a
14b
9b
0.001
27a
32a
28a
34a
24a
0.658
30ab
18b
21b
43a
51a
0.006
67b
85a
83a
84a
73ab
0.003
9c
5c
19b
20b
37a
0.000
18a
35a
18a
23a
4.6a
0.406
60b
91a
95a
99a
90a
0.000
0a
0.4a
0.7a
1.0a
1.7a
0.182
17c
21b
23ab
25a
25a
0.000
4.8a
3.5a
6.8a
3.9a
6.3a
0.09
2.8a
1.6a
5.1a
2.9a
6.5a
0.142a
1/6
3/5
2/9
1/6
2/8
–
13a
18a
29a
29a
21a
0.29
Beacon Valley
Taylor 2
Taylor 3
Taylor 4
Altar
p
Late Quaternary
Late Quaternary
Early Quaternary
Miocene
32–64a
32–64a
16–32a
16–32a
0.260
21b
26ab
26ab
28a
0.011
34a
17ab
12b
8b
0.004
31ab
37a
29ab
23b
0.062
87a
86a
83a
83a
0.710
21a
30a
28a
36a
0.110
61a
5.8b
9.4b
24a
0.021
70b
85ab
95a
95a
0.011
0a
2a
2a
2a
0.300
21b
26a
26a
27a
0.006
1.0a
7.2a
9.5a
8.5a
0.16
1.1a
2.3a
6.2a
6.6a
0.14
–
–
–
–
–
1.2a
18a
34a
32a
0.19
Taylor Valley
Taylor 2
Taylor 3
Taylor 4a
Taylor 4b
p
Late Quaternary
Late Quaternary
Early Quaternary
Early Quaternary
16–32a
16–32a
16–32a
16–32a
0.119
14a
11a
9a
2a
0.134
20a
23a
15a
17a
0.184
46ab
45b
60ab
68a
0.004
78a
79a
81a
85a
0.120
17b
15ab
25ab
30a
0.019
2.0a
1.6a
1.8a
1.2a
0.370
35a
28a
48a
50a
0.110
0a
0a
1a
0a
0.110
17b
17b
22a
21a
0.004
5.3a
4.5a
6.5a
5.0a
0.34
1.8a
2.1a
2.5a
2.1a
0.72
3/7 (1)
3/16 (2)
–
1/10 (6)
–
8.4a
9.2a
16a
11a
0.33
Wright Valley
Alpine 1
Alpine 2
Alpine 3
Alpine 4
p
Holocene
Late Quaternary
Pliocene
Pliocene
16–32a
16–32a
16–32a
16–32a
0.450
20
16a
3b
4b
0.000
10
19a
14ab
10b
0.008
20
51b
74a
74a
0.000
76a
83a
83a
83a
0.520
11b
20b
36a
38a
0.002
2.7ab
0.8b
6.2a
4.1ab
0.044
19b
32b
69a
72a
0.000
0a
0a
0a
0a
0.530
16b
18b
23a
24a
0.000
2.2ab
2.2b
7.3a
6.8a
0.000
0.75ab
1.5b
4.3a
3.0ab
0.05
–
2/9 (1)
8/10 (1)
–
–
0b
3.7b
17a
17a
0.000
(5)
(4)
(3)
(2)
(2)
J.G. Bockheim / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 433–443
Table 3
Age-related trends in properties of desert pavements in the Transantarctic Mountains. Values followed by the same small-case letter within a column are not significantly different at p = b0.05 based on one-way analysis of variance and
Fisher's individual error rates. Values lacking a small-case letter contained too few replications to include in the analysis.
Table 3 (continued)
Approximate age
Predom. size
range (mm)
Boulders
(%)
Cobbles
(%)
Pebbles
(%)
Pavement
density (%)
Ventifacts
(% of clasts)
D/La
Varnish
(% of clasts)
Macropitting
(% of clasts)
DPDIb
Thickness
Bv (cm)
D/Bv
pebble ratio
% Si
D/Bvc
Depth of
ghosts (cm)
Hummocky 1
Loke
Hummocky 2
Trilogy
Onyx
Wright
Valkyrie
Loop
Peleus
p
Late Quaternary
Middle Quaternary
Middle Quaternary
Middle Quaternary
Pliocene
Pliocene
Pliocene
Pliocene
Pliocene
16–32a
16–32
16–32a
16–32
16–32a
16–32a
16–32
16–32a
16–32a
0.070
3a
–
4a
–
14a
10a
–
7a
4a
0.576
10a
–
8a
–
13a
16a
–
7a
12a
0.365
64a
–
58a
–
59a
66a
–
78a
73a
0.709
80a
86
75a
85
80a
82a
73
82a
81a
0.700
26b
41
31ab
39
35ab
23b
33
43a
37ab
0.047
2.0a
5.3
2.5a
2.0
2.2a
2.1a
1.7
2.7a
26a
0.760
37a
61
42a
51
50a
32a
36
55a
40a
0.190
0a
0
0a
0
0a
0a
0
0a
0a
0.590
19a
23
20a
22
21a
19a
19
22a
20a
0.360
1.4b
–
3.8ab
–
4.2ab
3.9ab
–
7.0a
6.5a
0.04
2.4a
–
1.7a
–
1.6a
1.3a
–
3.1a
3.2a
0.07
0/1 (4)
–
–
–
1/3 (2)
1/3 (3)
–
–
2/11 (2)
–
1.6b
–
11a
–
9.4ab
10ab
–
7.3ab
9.5ab
0.07
Beardmore Glacier
Plunket
Holocene
Beardmore
Late Quaternary
Meyer
Late Quaternary
Pre-Meyer
Middle Quaternary
Dominion
Pliocene
Sirius
Miocene
p
32–64a
16–32a
16–32a
32–64a
16–32a
16–32a
0.740
10a
22a
22a
19a
8a
8a
0.199
20ab
25a
23ab
30a
10ab
9b
0.015
50ab
35b
38ab
43ab
67ab
71a
0.042
74b
91a
94a
92a
91a
94a
0.000
14b
25b
26b
24b
30b
50a
0.000
2.5b
3.3b
8.4b
7.2b
84a
23b
0.000
24c
38bc
48b
60b
5b7
84a
0.000
0ab
0b
0ab
1ab
0ab
2a
0.047
15c
19b
21b
22b
22b
28a
0.000
1.5b
1.6ab
2.8ab
5.6ab
7.7a
5.1ab
0.02
0.8ab
1.2b
1.2b
1.8ab
3.0ab
3.5a
0.01
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0b
0.6a
6.8ab
11a
13a
12a
0
Hatherton Glacier
Hatherton
Holocene
Britannia 1
Late Quaternary
Britannia 2
Late Quaternary
Danum
Late Quaternary
Isca
Middle Quaternary
Pre–Isca
Pliocene
p
16–256
16–32a
16–32a
16–32a
16–32a
16–32
0.790
75
32a
26ab
21ab
17ab
5b
0.008
15
24ab
24ab
24ab
26a
14b
0.080
4
38b
42ab
47ab
46b
70a
0.019
84
84ab
91a
85ab
87a
76b
0.022
36
24b
25b
35ab
39a
41a
0.030
2.3
15ab
6.2b
4.0b
6.0b
44a
0.001
55
46b
48b
59ab
64ab
82a
0.003
0
0a
0a
1a
2a
4a
0.107
20
20b
18b
23ab
25ab
29a
0.007
–
2.0a
2.2a
4.0a
3.1a
3.3a
0.28
–
0.84b
0.98ab
1.5ab
1.4ab
2.0a
0.04
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2.1b
11ab
14ab
21a
24a
0.06
a
b
c
Dark (dolerite, diabase):light (granitic, sandstone) ratio.
Desert pavement development index.
Number of profiles analyzed given in parentheses.
J.G. Bockheim / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 433–443
Glaciation
437
438
J.G. Bockheim / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 433–443
each pavement was determined using the Wentworth system. Size
ranges consisted of N256 mm, 64–256 mm, 32–64 mm, 16–32 mm, 8–
16 mm, 4–8 mm, and 2–4 mm. Based on random, repeated counts, the
error in determining pavement density and proportion of clasts with
varnish or ventifaction is estimated to be 10%.
A “desert pavement development index” was developed by taking
the sum of the coded particle-size range, the pavement density (times
0.1), the percent of clasts with ventifaction (times 0.1), the percent
of clasts with desert varnish (times 0.1), and the percent of clasts
with macropits. The coded particle-size range included N256 mm = 1,
64–256 mm = 2, 32–64 mm = 3, 16–32 mm = 4, 8–16 mm = 5, and
4–8 mm = 6. A total of 329 desert pavements were analyzed.
Samples of the desert pavement and the underlying horizons were
collected and the proportion of cobbles (64–256 mm), granules +
pebbles (2–64 mm), and fine-earth material (b2 mm) were determined by sieving and weighing and in less than 20% of the pavements
by visual estimation. The fine-earth samples were taken to the
laboratory and analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity, and watersoluble cations and anions in 1:5 soil:water extracts (APHA et al.,
1975). Particle-size fractionation of the fine-earth materials was
determined on selected samples using the hydrometer technique
(Day, 1965). Chemical data are given in previous publications by the
author and are not reported here. The thicknesses of the vesicular
layer and of the layer containing “ghosts” (pseudomorphs of
weathered clasts) were measured directly in the field.
Changes in properties of the desert pavement and vesicular layer
in relation to time of exposure were analyzed using one-way analysis
of variance (Minitab, 2000). Fisher's individual error rate was used to
compare individual means. The coefficient of determination (R2) was
employed to compare desert pavement properties and to illustrate the
quality of curvilinear equations.
4. Results
4.1. Properties of desert pavements
Desert pavements in Antarctica normally are thin, commonly
range from 0.5 to 2 cm, and average 1 cm in thickness. The pavements
generally are one clast in thickness with clasts imbedded in a clastdepleted layer which may have a vesicular porosity. Pavements are
comprised dominantly of granules and pebbles, which range from 27
to 73% (one standard deviation) and average 50% of the total coarse
fraction (N2 mm) (average of all data used to construct Table 3). The
boulder fraction (N256 mm) ranges from 0 to 30% and averages 15%;
the cobble fraction (64–256 mm) ranges from 9 to 33% and averages
21% of the total coarse fraction. Mean values of the remaining fineearth fraction (b2 mm) are 96% sand, 2.1% silt, and 1.8% clay (data not
shown).
Fig. 2. Examples of soils with vesicular porosity. (A) Vesicular porosity of Bwv horizon
(pedon 84-69) exposed by removal of desert pavement. (B) Close-up of vesicular
porosity in pedon 84-87. (C) Massive, structureless conditions in pedon 77-36.
Table 4
Occurrence of a vesicular layer in relation to composition and age of parent material and
soil climate (percentage of total in parentheses).
Site factor
4.2. Properties of the vesicular layer
Forty percent of the pedons in the dataset contain a horizon
immediately below the desert pavement with vesicular porosity
(Fig. 2A and B). These horizons generally are massive and have a
slightly hard consistency (Fig. 2C). The vesicular layer ranges from 0 to
18 cm and averages 4 cm in thickness (average of all data used to
construct Table 3). Nearly 80% of the vesicular horizons did not react
to 10% hydrochloric acid, indicating that there is little carbonate
present in most of the samples. The concentration of silt averages 5%
greater in the vesicular layer than in the desert pavement (Table 3).
The occurrence of soils with vesicular porosity was examined
relative to soil climate zone, parent material composition, and age of
the parent materials. More than half (54%) of the soils in the
ultraxerous zone have vesicular porosity; in contrast, 29% and 10% of
the soils in the xerous and subxerous climatic zones, respectively,
have vesicular porosity (Table 4). Of the soils derived from sandstone–
Parent material
Granitic–gneissic
Sandstone–dolerite
Diabase
Volcanic
Total
Soil climate
Subxerous
Xerous
Ultraxerous
Total
Relative age
Holocene, late Quaternary
Middle Quaternary
Early Quaternary
Pliocene
Miocene
Unknown
Total
Pedons with
vesicular horizon
Pedons without
vesicular horizon
Total
83 (24)
154 (53)
2 (100)
2 (22)
241 (59)
260
135
0
7
168
(76)
(47)
(0)
(78)
(41)
343
289
2
9
643
4 (10)
103 (29)
134 (54)
241 (37)
35
251
116
402
(90)
(71)
(46)
(63)
39
354
250
643
73 (26)
1 (10)
51 (43)
51 (44)
43 (77)
22 (37)
241 (37)
210
9
67
65
13
38
402
(74)
(90)
(57)
(56)
(23)
(63)
(63)
283
10
118
116
56
60
643
J.G. Bockheim / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 433–443
439
are derived from sandstone and dolerite of Miocene age in ultraxerous
regions.
More than half of the soils examined lack a vesicular layer, but the
horizon immediately underlying the desert pavement has fewer
clasts, especially pebbles + granules, than the desert pavement
(Table 3).
4.3. Age-related trends in the desert pavement
Fig. 3. Distribution of boulders, cobbles and granules + pebbles in desert pavements in
relation to time of exposure and composition (SS–D = sandstone–dolerite; G–G =
granite–gneiss).
dolerite materials, 53% have vesicular porosity, whereas only 24% of
the soils derived from granitic-gneiss materials have vesicular
porosity. The proportion of soils with vesicular porosity increased
with age from 26% in Holocene and late Quaternary soils to 44% in
early Quaternary and Pliocene soils, to 77% in Miocene-aged soils.
Therefore, soils most likely to have a horizon with vesicular porosity
Although the differences were not statistically significant, the
dominant size range of clasts on desert pavements averaged 32–64 mm
on Holocene surfaces and 16–32 mm on late Quaternary and older
surfaces (Table 3). In general the proportions of boulders and cobbles
decrease with time of exposure, and the proportion of granules +pebbles
increases with time (Fig. 3). Statistically significant differences were
recorded in 4 of 7 comparisons for boulders, 3 of 7 comparisons for
cobbles, and 5 of 7 comparisons for granules +pebbles (Table 3). The
pavement density does not vary significantly with the time of exposure
and averages narrowly between 78 and 85% for surfaces ranging between
Holocene and Miocene in age (Table 3). An example of a chronosequence
of desert pavements is given for Arena Valley (Fig. 4).
Ventifacts are found on geomorphic surfaces of all ages. However,
the proportion of ventifacted clasts averages 20% on Holocene and late
Quaternary surfaces and 35% on middle Quaternary and older surfaces
(Table 3). There were statistically significant age-related differences
in the proportion of ventifacted clasts for 6 of the 7 chronosequences.
Desert varnish is ubiquitous and averages 33% on Holocene surfaces,
52–78% on late Quaternary to Pliocene-aged surfaces, and more than
Fig. 4. A chronosequence of desert pavements derived from sandstone and dolerite drifts from the Taylor Glacier in Arena Valley: (A) Taylor 2 drift (pedon 76-38); (B) Taylor 3 drift
(pedon 86-23); (C) Taylor 4a drift (pedon 82-14); (D) Taylor 4b drift (pedon 76-29); (E) Altar drift (pedon 82-17); and (F) Arena drift (pedon 86-20).
440
J.G. Bockheim / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 433–443
90% on Miocene-aged surfaces. In 5 of 7 chronosequences, there were
significant age-related differences in the proportion of clasts with
desert varnish. Although measurements were not taken in this study,
the desert varnish on dolerite clasts appears to become thicker with
time of exposure. On Miocene-aged surfaces, even sandstone contains
a patina (Fig. 4E and F). Pitting is found primarily on clasts of Mioceneaged desert pavements (Fig. 4E; Table 3).
The desert pavement development index discriminated among
desert pavements on surfaces of different ages. The pavement development index averages 17, 20, 22, 23, 22, and 26 on surfaces of Holocene,
late Quaternary, middle Quaternary, early Quaternary, Pliocene, and
Miocene age, respectively (Table 3). In 6 of 7 chronosequences, there
were significant age-related differences in the desert pavement
development index.
4.4. Influence of parent material on desert pavement development
Lithology plays an important role in desert pavement development
in the study area. The two dominant lithologies examined in this
study were dolerite–sandstone and granite–gneiss. Light-colored
rocks include sandstone, granites and gneisses. Dark-colored rocks
include dolerite, the dike rock diabase, and volcanic rocks such as
scoria and basalt. On granite–gneiss materials, the dark:light ratio
averages 2.7, 1.6, 3.3, 1.6, and 3.0 for Holocene, late Quaternary,
middle Quaternary, early Quaternary, and Pliocene surfaces, respectively (Table 3). On sandstone–dolerite materials, the dark:light ratio
averages 2.4, 17, 6.6, 17, and 44 for the same geologic time periods.
In general, the dominant clast range is smaller for granitic desert
pavements than on dolerite–sandstone desert pavements on surfaces
of comparable age (Fig. 3). The proportion of boulders is two- to
three-fold greater for pavements of sandstone–dolerite than for
pavements of granite–gneiss on surfaces of equivalent age. In contrast,
the proportion of granules + pebbles is greater in granite–gneiss
pavements than in sandstone–dolerite pavements of the same
approximate age. Ventification is favored by the presence of diabase
and basalt, but other rock types such as sandstone may also show
ventifaction. Granite–gneiss materials are more subject to grusification than to ventifaction and varnishing.
5. Discussion
5.1. Desert pavement chronofunctions
The relation between desert pavement property and time of
exposure was examined for Arena Valley, one of the better dated
chronosequences in the Transantarctic Mountains. Based on logarithmic
functions, the proportion of varnished clasts approaches 100% by 1.7 Ma
on the doleritic-rich materials (Fig. 5A). Although the proportion of
varnished clasts does not increase on Pliocene- and Miocene-aged
surfaces, the intensity of the varnish color and thickness of the varnish
appears to increase (c.f., Fig. 4). The youngest surface investigated in
Arena Valley was the Taylor II surface at 117 ka. Holocene-aged surfaces
(ca. 3.7 ka) on comparable materials in the upper Beardmore Glacier
region (Plunket drift) had 24% of the clasts varnished (Table 4). This
suggests that desert varnish forms very rapidly in Antarctica.
The proportion of clasts with ventifaction increases logarithmically
on desert pavements in Arena Valley and does not appear to have
equilibrated even on Miocene-aged surfaces (Fig. 5B). The pavement
development index, an integrated measure of pavement development, suggests that the desert pavement develops rapidly within the
first 200 ka and approaches a dynamic steady state within 1.7 Ma
(Fig. 5C). However, as mentioned previously, certain properties of the
desert pavement continue to change, such as the thickness and
intensity of the desert varnish and ventifaction. These findings
illustrate the value of desert pavements, including the desert
pavement development index, as a relative dating tool.
Fig. 5. Desert pavement properties in Arena Valley in relation to time of exposure:
(A) proportion of varnished clasts; (B) proportion of ventifacted clasts; (C) pavement
development index.
5.2. Relation of vesicular layer to desert pavement
Although it occurs in only 40% of the profiles examined, the
vesicular layer, or a similar layer, appears to be linked with the desert
pavement. Where the vesicular layer is absent, there is a 0.5-to-18cm-thick layer beneath the desert pavement that has many of the
properties of a vesicular layer, including a greater silt content and
fewer granules + pebbles than the underlying layer. In view that clast
size of the desert pavement diminishes with time of exposure, the
vesicular layer is probably the recipient of fine materials released by
physical and chemical weathering. These materials fall between the
clasts and enable the clasts to “float” upon the vesicular layer.
However, unlike mid-latitude deserts, the desert pavement is lifted
only a few centimeters, rather than as much as 20 cm in warm deserts
(McFadden et al., 1987, 1998). These interpretations suggest that as
in mid-latitude deserts, the desert pavement is in “motion.” This
interpretation is confirmed by the fact that weathering features such
J.G. Bockheim / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 433–443
as ventifaction and varnish occur on all surfaces of clasts and not just
on the exposed surfaces.
5.3. A theory for desert pavement formation in Antarctica
Five theories for desert pavement formation were identified earlier,
including (i) runoff, (ii) deflation, (iii) vertical sorting, (iv) eolian, and
(v) weathering in situ. A comparison of the evidence for these theories
with regard to desert pavement formation in Antarctica is given in
Table 5. Early investigators (Cooke, 1970; Cooke and Warren, 1973;
Dan et al., 1982) favored multiple origins of desert pavements, or
different origins depending on location. Since the mid-1980s the
eolian theory has been espoused by geomorphologists in the American
Southwest (McFadden et al., 1987).
Our data suggest that the weathering in situ theory is the primary
mechanism leading to the development of deserts pavements on the
hyper-arid, hyper-cold landscapes of Antarctica. Evidence includes:
(i) a reduction in mean fragment size with longevity of weathering;
(ii) the existence of a layer below the pavement that has fewer
granules + pebbles that does not appear to be eolian but does bear
some properties of the underlying horizons; (iii) the existence of
abundant freeze–thaw cycles that drive physical weathering;
(iv) increases in the proportion of clasts with ventifaction and desert
varnish and in the desert pavement development index (DVDI) with
time of exposure; and (v) an overall increase in soil development on
the seven chronosequences.
There were highly significant (p b 0.05) decreases in the proportion
of boulders and cobbles in the desert pavement with time and an
accordant increase in pebbles + granules (Table 6), implying a gradual
441
decline in clast size with time of exposure. These findings are
comparable to those of Cooke (1970) in the Huasco Valley, Chile; Dan
et al. (1982) in Israel; Al-Farraj and Harvey (2000) in the United Arab
Emirates and Oman; and Al-Farraj (2008) in Australia.
The granule + pebble-free layer occurring beneath the desert
pavement and above the zone of salt enrichment contains an abundance
of silt and sand-sized particles and may result from weathering of
clasts in the desert pavement rather than from dust deposition. Surface
clasts in desert pavements of Antarctica are subject to two kinds of
temperature oscillations, both occurring across the freezing point
(McKay and Friedmann, 1985). A daily freeze–thaw cycle results
from low-frequency (diurnal) and large-amplitude (up to about
20 °C) oscillations on the sunlit surface of rocks. The diurnal changes
result from changes in the sun altitude and angle with respect to the
rock surface. High-frequency (few minutes) oscillations occur under
certain weather conditions, such as sunny days with light winds, and are
superimposed on the low-frequency oscillations. They are caused by the
cooling effect of wind gusts on rock surfaces that are much warmer than
ambient air temperatures. High-frequency oscillations result in a rapid
freeze–thaw cycles on the clast surface. Both oscillations seem to have a
marked effect on rock weathering.
Further evidence of weathering pertains to the abundant significant correlations between time of exposure and the proportion of
clasts with ventifaction and varnishing and DPDI (Table 3). Moreover,
detailed soil investigations show significant correlations between
many soil properties, such as depth of staining, depth of ghosts, depth
of coherence, maximum electrical conductivity, and profile quantities
of salts (Bockheim, 1982; Bockheim et al., 1989; Bockheim, 1990;
Bockheim and McLeod, 2006; Bockheim, 2007; Bockheim et al., 2008).
Table 5
Evidence for different hypotheses of desert pavement formation.
Citation
Transantarctic mountains
Deflation
Lag pavement at surface
Strong winds
Low critical-surface-roughness constant
Cooke (1970), Dan et al. (1982)
Cooke (1970)
Cooke (1970)
X
X
Vertical sorting
Abundant freeze–thaw cycles
Optimum water content
Abundant water between the ice-water interface and the stone
Ice lenses on the cold (freezing) side of stones
Well-graded materials: sand and gravel; sand and silt
Slow velocity of freezing, e.g. b0.6 mm/h
Increased porosity from displacement of stones
Fine grain-size distribution
Corte (1966), Cooke et al. (1993), Viklander (1998)
Corte (1966), Viklander and Eigenbrod (2000)
Corte (1966, 1994)
Mackay (1984)
Corte (1994), Viklander and Eigenbrod (2000)
Corte (1966, 1994)
Corte (1966)
Corte (1966)
X
“Born at the surface”
Eolian (accretionary or inflationary) layer below pavement
Constant pavement density over time
Abundant freeze–thaw, wet–dry cycles that interlock clasts
Columnar and platy structure to trap eolian materials
High dust deposition rates
Initial bar-and-swale microrelief
Well-sorted materials
Pelletier et al. (2007)
Wells et al. (1995)
McFadden et al. (1987)
Anderson et al. (2002)
Reheis and Kihl (1995)
Pelletier et al. (2007)
Valentine and Harrington, (2006)
Weathering in situ
Reduction in mean fragment size with longevity of weathering
Gravel-free layer below pavement from weathered sand and silt particles
Abundant freeze–thaw, wet–dry cycles that interlock clasts
Increase in desert pavement density with longevity of weathering
Increase in angularity of clasts from progressive mechanical weathering
Cooke (1970), Dan et al. (1982), Al-Farraj and Harvey (2000)
Al-Farraj and Harvey (2000)
Cooke (1970), Dan et al. (1982), Al-Farraj and Harvey (2000)
Al-Farraj and Harvey (2000)
Cooke (1970), Al-Farraj and Harvey (2000)
Runoff
Raindrop impaction
Sheet wash
All
Vesicular porosity
D/Av ratio = 4.2–90
X
X
X
X
X
X
Williams and Zimbelman (1994)
Springer (1958), McFadden et al. (1987, 1998), Anderson et al. (2002) X
Springer (1958)
X
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J.G. Bockheim / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 433–443
Table 6
A comparison of desert pavement properties and site factors for mid-latitude and Antarctic deserts.
Property
Mid-latitude desert
Antarctic desert
References
Pavement density (%)
Clast shape
Clast cracking
Clast weathering
Age (yr)
Vesicular horizon thickness (cm)
MAAT (°C)
MAP (mm)
Vegetative cover (%)
Predominant clast size range (φ)
Predominant salts
60–95
Angular to subrounded
Yes
Varnished, ventifacted
10 to ~ 180 ka
Av, 0–80
11–25
b135
0–35
− 2.2 to − 7.3
CaCO3, CaSO4, NaNO3
63–92
Subangular, subrounded
No
Varnished, ventifacted
3.7 ka to 15 Ma
Bv, 0–18
− 20 to − 30
b150
0
− 3 to − 7
NaCl, NaNO3, Na2SO4, CaCO3
8,
1,
1,
5,
1,
2,
1,
1,
1,
1
1,
9
7
7
9,
3,
4,
9
9
3,
10
6, 7, 8, 11, 12
7, 9, 10
8
4, 9, 10, 13, 14
References: 1 = Al-Farraj and Harvey (2000); 2 = Anderson et al. (2002); 3 = Dan et al. (1982); 4 = Graham et al. (2008); 5 = Liu and Broecker (2008); 6 = Marchetti and Cerling
(2005); 7 = McFadden et al. (2005); 8 = Quade (2001); 9 = Springer (1958); 10 = Ugolini et al. (2008); 11 = Valentine and Harrington (2006); 12 = Wells et al. (1995); 13 =
Bockheim (1982); 14 = Bockheim (1990).
Some of the lag coarse fragments that form the desert pavement in
Antarctica may originate from ablation during the earliest stages of till
deposition (Campbell and Claridge, 1987). In addition, deflation may
play an important role in concentrating clasts during the first several
millennia following till deposition. The deflation theory is attractive
for explaining the origin of desert pavements in Antarctica as very
high winds persist in many regions, particularly adjacent to the polar
plateau. However, the strong age-related trends in soil properties do
not favor sustained periods of deflation.
Vertical sorting is an important mechanism for desert pavement
formation in the Arctic where ice-cemented permafrost is pervasive
(Mackay, 1984). However, there is insufficient soil moisture in most
locations of Antarctica for vertical sorting to occur, particularly for the
abundant coarse-grained materials, which require near saturation to
initiate frost heaving (Corte, 1966). There was no evidence of ice lenses
beneath clasts, needle ice, or depressions beneath clasts suggestive of
vertical sorting. Based on studies by Corte (1966), freezing may be too
rapid for vertical sorting to occur because of the unusually strong
thermal gradients in Antarctic soils (Campbell et al., 1998).
Runoff does not play a role in desert pavement formation in
interior Antarctica as rain has never been recorded, and sheet wash
only occurs during the austral summer in floodplains of rivers.
The eolian theory accounts only partially for desert pavement
formation in Antarctica (Table 5). The pavement density equilibrates
rather quickly, within ca. 10 ka, and changes only minimally with
increased time. These findings are comparable to those reported in
southwestern USA (Wells et al., 1995; Quade, 2001). As mentioned
previously, although a layer comprised dominantly of pebbles and
granules forms beneath the desert pavement in Antarctica, this layer
appears to contain residual materials rather than windborne materials.
In addition, the rates of dust deposition are much lower in Antarctic
than in mid-latitude deserts, due to a limited supply of sediment
(Lancaster, 2002). Moreover, Antarctic soils lack the columnar and
platy structure of temperate desert soils which enable entrapment of
dust. Although the “bar-and-swale” microrelief that favors eolian
entrapment occurs in Antarctica, it is relatively uncommon.
5.4. A comparison of pavements in mid-latitude and Antarctic deserts
Mid-latitude deserts and high-latitude Antarctic deserts are comparable in terms of their aridity and generally low vegetative cover
(Table 6). The desert pavements are comparable in terms of pavement
density, and clast shape, size range, and weathering features. Both
systems contain a vesicular layer that plays an important role in
development of the desert pavement by promoting surface clast motion
and pavement development. Both systems contain a variety of salts
from atmospheric deposition and soil weathering. However, unlike midlatitude deserts, CaCO3 is restricted to encrustations beneath clasts
in comparatively moist (subxerous) coastal areas of Antarctica, and
petrocalcic horizons have not been identified in Antarctica.
Pavements may reach a greater age in Antarctica than in midlatitude deserts, possibly because of the lack of moist pluvial periods
when vegetation was more lush and interrupted desert pavement
formation (Quade, 2001; Valentine and Harrington, 2006). Another
key difference between pavements in mid-latitude and high-latitude
deserts is that a vesicular layer does not always occur in Antarctica.
Whereas the vesicles in mid-latitude desert soils are attributed to
degassing of carbon dioxide (Springer, 1958; McFadden et al., 1998),
the vesicles in Antarctic soils more likely originate from sublimation of
ice crystals. During the austral summer occasional snowfalls melt on
the dark-colored desert pavement, and water infiltrates and percolates into the upper few centimeters of soil, where it may freeze.
During subsequent sunny days, the pores are evacuated by sublimation of the pore ice.
When the vesicular layer does occur in cold desert soils, it rarely
exceeds 18 cm in thickness. Vesicular layers in mid-latitude deserts
range from a few centimeters to 20 cm in thickness (McFadden et al.,
1998). Whereas the dust in mid-latitude deserts of southern Nevada
and California originates primarily from modern playas (Reheis and
Kihl, 1995), the limited dust in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica
originates from floodplains of abrading streams (Lancaster, 2002).
6. Conclusions
The key findings of this study are as follows:
• Pavements in cold deserts are formed from weathering in situ rather
than by wind deflation of fines, overland flow, uplifting of clasts, or
eolian addition;
• Desert pavements in continental Antarctica are commonly underlain by a silt-enriched and clast-depleted layer that often has a
vesicular porosity;
• Age-related trends in cold desert pavements include a decrease in
clast size and an increase in the proportion of clasts showing
ventifaction and varnishing and the pavement development index;
• Clast sizes generally were smaller in pavements derived from
granite–gneiss than in those from sandstone–dolerite of similar age;
• Highly significant age-related trends in properties of desert
pavements such as varnish and ventifaction suggest that the desert
pavement may be a valuable relative dating tool;
• Pavements in Antarctic deserts bear many similarities to those in
mid-latitude deserts, including pavement density and clast shape,
size range and weathering features;
• Desert pavements in continental Antarctica may reach a greater age
than in mid-latitude deserts, possibly because they haven't been
affected by moist pluvial events.
J.G. Bockheim / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 433–443
Acknowledgements
This project was supported by grants from the National Science
Foundation Office of Polar Programs, Antarctic Division. The author
appreciates working with G.H. Denton and the field assistance of S.C.
Wilson. Three anonymous reviewers offered valuable suggestions for
improving this manuscript.
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