CharacteristicsofAfricanAmericanliteraturein
KathrynStockett’sThe
HelpandAliceWalker’s
TheColorPurple
ByNinaLouiseGreve
AThesisSubmittedfortheUniversityMaster’sDegreeinLiterary
Studies
atTheUniversityofAlicante
2016
Tableofcontents
1.Introduction……………………………………………………………………………3 2.African-Americanliteraturethroughcomputeranalysis…………….7
3.IdentityinTheHelpandTheColorPurple………………………………......17
3.1Stereotypes…………………………………………………………………..17
3.2Blackness……………………………………………………………………..28
3.3Religion………………………………………………………………………..34
3.4Language……………………………………………………………………...38
3.5Splitidentity…………………………………………………………………42
4.GenderstudiesinTheHelpandTheColorPurple……………………….45
4.1ThefemaleBildungsromanandsisterhood…………………….45
4.2Doubleoppression………………………………………………………..56
5.Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….60
2
1.Introduction
ThisstudyanalyzeswhetherKathrynStockett’snovelTheHelpcanbecalledAfricanAmericanliterature,despitetheauthorbeingawhiteAmerican.Treatingthesubjectof
oppressedblackmaidsintheUnitedStatesduringthe1960s,Stocketttouchesupon
race,classandgenderissues,muchlikethefamousAfrican-AmericanwriterAlice
WalkerdoesinTheColorPurple.Moreover,bothKathrynStockettandAliceWalker
writeaboutblackfemaleempowerment,anditisthenperhapsnowonderwhythetwo
novelshavebeencomparedeversinceTheHelp’spublicationin2009.Inthispaper,I
investigatewhethercommoncharacteristicsofAfrican-Americanliteraturecanbefound
inTheHelp,andwhethertheyaretreatedinasimilarwaytoTheColorPurple.Ialsolook
brieflyattwootherwhiteauthorswhohavewrittennovelsonAfrican-Americanslong
beforeStockett’stime,namelyHarrietBecherStoweandHarperLee,andhowthepublic
receivedthem.Beforestartingontheliteraryanalysis,Ioutlinetheresultsobtained
fromcomputationalanalysis,comparingTheHelptoalargercorpusofAfrican-American
texts.
African-Americanliteraturehashadalongtrajectorysinceitsfirstappearanceinthe
18thcentury.Startingoutwiththeslavenarratives,itsprincipalobjectivewastoshow
theimmoralityofslaveryasaninstitution.Later,African-Americanliteraturewouldgo
frombeingonlyapoliticaltooltoalsodevelopanartisticvalue,withexquisitepoetslike
LangstonHughesleadingwhatwascalledtheHarlemRenaissanceinthe20thcentury.
However,African-Americanliteratureneverlostitsrootsinpolitics,asthesubject
continuedtobetheoppressionoftheblackcommunityintheUnitedStates.Tothisday,
thereisadebatearoundtheresponsibilityoftheblackwriterincontributingtothe
struggleforBlackPower.Somewriters,likeWilliamEdwardBurghartDuBois,feltthat
African-Americanliterature’smaingoalshouldbeblackempowerment,whereasothers,
includingLangstonHughes,feltthattheindividualAfrican-Americanwritershouldbe
freetochoosethesubjectmatterofhistext.(Gibson6)
InherthesisDefiningelementsofAfrican-Americanliterature,EbonyGibsondiscusses
theacademicdisagreementaroundthedefinitionofAfrican-Americanliterature.Many
literarycriticsfeelthatitshouldbealiteraturestrictlyby,forandaboutAfrican-
3
AmericansintheUnitesStates,andtheirstruggleagainstoppression.However,this
definitionwouldexcludemanycontemporaryblackwriters,whoarenotnecessarily
writingaboutblackcharactersandtheirstrugglesanymore.Newgenreshaveappeared,
suchasmystery,urban,erotica/romanceandsciencefiction,whichallhavebeen
classifiedasAfrican-Americanliteraturemainlybecausethewritersareblack.(Gibson
77)Stockett,ontheotherhand,iswritingwhatwethematicallycouldcallamoretypical
African-Americannovelintermsoftheme,focusingonherblackcharacters’struggle
againstsegregationandracism.However,sheisnotablackwriter,andmanyinthe
blackliterarycommunityhavetroublesacceptingwhiteauthorsintothecanonof
African-Americanliterature.
Forherthesis,EbonyGibsoninterviewedeightAfrican-Americanliteratureprofessors
onwhatshouldandshouldnotbeclassifiedasAfrican-Americanliterature.Allhave
manyyearsofexperienceinteachingthesubjectatuniversitylevel,andhavealso
publishedacademicwritingonAfrican-Americanliterature.Still,theydisagreeon
somethingassimpleasthedefinitionoftheirfield.WhenGibsonspecificallyaskedthe
professorstoconsiderwhetherornottoincludewhitewriterswhowriteaboutblack
charactersinthecanon,theprofessorscouldnotcomeupwithauniformanswer.
LawrenceJackson,ablackprofessoratEmoryUniversityinGeorgia,disagreeswith
whitewritersformingpartoftheAfrican-Americancanon.Hedoeshoweverrealizethat
itismostly“apersonaldecision”,thatis,apersonalpreference,andthathisrejectionis
notbasedonresearch.Moreover,herepeatedlyusestheword“disagree”whentalking
aboutthesubject,makingitclearthatthereislittleconsensusonthetopicwithinthe
literarycircles.Also,hedoesn’tcompletelyrejectthewhitewriters.Rather,Jackson
thinksitistheblackcommunitythatisn’tyetreadytowelcomethewhitewritersinto
theirliterature.(Gibson91)
BessMontgomery,professorinAfrican-AmericanliteratureatClarkAtlantaUniversity,
usesstrongerwordswhentalkingaboutwhitewriters.Shethinkstheylackthe
experienceneededtowriteaboutblackcharacters,andthattheyallwritefroma“white
sensibility”,eventhoughtheirmaincharactersareblack.(Gibson92)ProfessorVinyard,
whoteachesatthesameuniversity,disagrees,arguingthatitmaybepossiblefora
4
significantexperiencetoprovideanon-blackwriterwithablacksensibility.“Iftheyare
notAfricanAmerican,theyshouldhaveasignificantAfricanAmericanexperience
somewhereinthelifeortheirbackgroundortheirgrowingup.Notjustobservingafar.
Theyhavetohavesomeelementoftheexperienceintheirlife.Therefore,itwouldguide
themtothatlanguage,thatstyle,thattextthatwillmakeitmoregenuinethanonewho
doesnothavethatexperience”,Vinyardexplains.(Ibid)
LookingatKathrynStockett’sbackground,itbecomesclearthatshehassome
experiencewiththeAfrican-Americancommunity.GrowingupinMississippi,her
childhood,adolescenceandpartsofheradultlifearemarkedbylifeintheSouth,where
blackandwhitepeoplelivesidebyside,althoughsegregatedduringthenovel’ssetting.
WealsodiscoveradirectparallelbetweenthestoryofMissSkeeter’sdisappearedmaid
ConstantineandthemaidthatpreviouslyworkedinStockett’sfamily,Demetrie.The
Helpwaswrittenoutoflove,respectandgratitudeforDemetrie,arewetobelievewhat
Stockettwritesintheafterword.Shehasincludedapassionateafterwordcalled“Too
little,toolate”attheendofTheHelp.Inthissection,shemakesitclearthatherfieldof
interestisthesameasthatofAliceWalker,worryingaboutDemetriewhomusthavefelt
whatitwasliketobe“poor,coloredandfemale”.(Stockett200)
However,Stockett’sblackexperienceseemstobelimitedtoDemetrieandtolivingin
theSouth.Shedoesnotmentionanyotherblackinfluences,besidesseeingcolored
peoplelivingsegregatedinherhometownasachild,andfeelingpityforthem.Sheadds
thatsheis“soembarrassedtoadmitthat[feelingpity]now”.(Stockett200)Stockett
alsocitesHowellRaines,whowrotethat“thereisnotrickiersubjectforawriterfrom
theSouththanthatofaffectionbetweenablackpersonandawhiteoneintheunequal
worldofsegregation.Forthedishonestyuponwhichasocietyisfoundedmakesevery
emotionsuspect,makesitimpossibletoknowwhetherwhatflowedbetweentwo
peoplewashonestfeelingorpityorpragmatism.”(Ibid201)Boththisquote,andthe
factthatshementionsherembarrassmentforhavingfeltpityfortheblackworkers,
makeitclearthatStocketthadnointentionforTheHelptobeasentimentalnovelin
whichshepitiesherblackcharacters.However,myhypothesisisthatalthoughitisnot
herintention,Stockettmakesvictimsofherblackcharacters.Ibelievehernovelistoo
markedbythe“whitesensibility”thatprofessorBessMontgomeryhighlights,andthat
5
TheHelpthereforeisdestinedtoshowblacknessonlyfromtheoutside,neverfromthe
inside.
ThisthesisfocusesonthetreatmentofblackidentityandblackgenderstudiesinThe
Help,asthesearethetwomainareasDanaWilliamsmentionsascrucialtoAfricanAmericanwomen’swriting.ThisisundoubtedlytrueforTheColorPurple,wherewecan
findalltheelementsthatWilliamslistsascrucial.Iherebyreproduceherideason
African-Americanwomen’swriting:
1. Itisaliteraturethatexplorestheself
2. Itmakesinquiriesintoblackwomanhood
3. Itproclaimsthemessageoflovingoneselfandone’sculture
4. Itcriticizesblackswhoclingontowesternculture
5. Itisarebellionagainstpatriarchyandracism
6. Itisaboutmentalandspiritualhealing
7. Itmakesconnectionsbetweenthepastandthepresent
(Williams75)
Asstatedearlier,myhypothesisisthatStockettistoomuchofanoutsiderinorderto
exploreblackidentityandblackwomanhood.
Inherafterword,Stockettalsovoicesherfearofstereotypingherblackcharacters.“I
wasscared,alotofthetime,thatIwascrossingaterribleline,writinginthevoiceofa
blackperson.IwasafraidIwouldfailtodescribearelationshipthatwassointensely
influentialinmylife,soloving,sogrosslystereotypedinAmericanhistoryand
literature.”(Stockett201)Again,myhypothesisisthatherwhitesensibilitywillunable
hertomovebeyondthestereotypicalinTheHelp.Afterall,inherownwords,“Idon’t
thinkit[whatitreallyfeltliketobeablackwomaninMississippi]issomethingany
whitewomanontheotherendofablackwoman’spaycheckcouldevertruly
understand.”(Ibid)
6
2.African-Americanliteraturethroughcomputeranalysis
TheaimofthissectionistoestablishthemostcommonfeaturesofAfrican-American
literature,bothinolderandinmorecontemporaryworks.Giventhattheresearch
questionofthispaperiswhetherTheHelpcanbeconsideredanAfrican-Americannovel,
itisnecessarytodefinewhatcharacterizesthistypeofliterature,andwhattheworks
usuallyhaveincommon.IherebyseektoproposeadefinitionofAfrican-American
literaturebasedonthedataextractedfromtwodifferentcorporaofAfrican-American
texts,usingcomputertechnology.TheprogramsusedareMalletandAntconc.
Forthisinvestigation,Ihavetwocorporaoftexts,namelyonecorpuswithsomeofthe
classicsinAfrican-Americanliterature,andanother,largercorpusofcontemporary
African-Americanfiction.Inthefirstgroupwiththeclassics,Ihaveincludedvarious
authorsfromdifferenttimeperiods,allofthemwritingindifferentgenres.Thefocusis
onthemostnoteworthytextsinAfrican-Americanliteratureasfarithasbeenpossible
tofindthetextsonline.Asapointofdeparture,IconsultedJamesMarshallCrotty’slist
ofthetenAfrican-Americanauthorsthateveryoneshouldreadwrittenforthemagazine
Forbes,asiteknownforitsrankingsandstatisticalinformation.
ThecorpusoftheclassicsincludesalltheauthorsthatarementionedinForbes’ranking:
LangstonHughes,RichardWright,ToniMorrison,ZoraNealeHurston,Frederick
Douglass,AliceWalker,W.E.BDuBois,RalphEllison,AugustWilsonandJamesBaldwin.
Apartfromtheseauthors,IhaveaddedOctaviaButler,AudreLorde,Lorraine
Hansberry,JessieRedmondFausetandHarrietJacobs.Thelastoneswereaddedto
balanceoutthenumberofmaleandfemaleauthors.OctaviaButlerwasspecifically
addedbecausesheisablackfemalewriterofsciencefiction,andtherebyrepresentsa
lesscommongenrewithinAfrican-Americanliterature.Itisinterestingtoseewhether
ornotherworkspresentsimilartopicstothetopicstreatedbymoreconventional
African-Americanliterature.
Iknewthatinlookingfornovelsonline,withoutwantingtopayforeverysingleoneof
them,Iwouldberestrictedbycopyrightlaws.EvenifIwaspayingforthenovels,I
wouldhavetobreakcopyrightlawsandusecomplexprogramstochangeaKindle,epub,
7
or,atbest,aPDFfiletosimpletextformat,ortxt.Txtistheonlyformatthatthe
programsMalletandAntconcareabletowork.Iwasthereforegladtofindtwenty
African-AmericanclassicnovelsonlineforfreeandinPDFformat.Thelistincludes
Invisibleman,NotesofaNativeSon,NativeSon,Plumbun,ARaisinintheSun,TheSoulsof
BlackFolk,TheirEyeswereWatchingGod,Beloved,Iknowwhythecagedbirdsings,
NarrativeofthelifeofFrederickDouglass,anAmericanslave,ZamiSisterOutsider
Undersong,ThecollectedpoetryofLangstonHughes,SongofSolomon,Sula,BluestEye,
Fences,TheParableoftheSower,Bloodchild,WildSeed,andarecompilationofsomeof
MayaAngelou’spoemsthatwereavailableonline.
ThesecondcorpusconsistsofcontemporaryAfrican-Americanliterature,andtherefore
representsthenewesttrendsintheblackliterarycommunity.Contemporaryhere
meansworkspublishedatpresent,withthemajorityofthenovelspublishedaslateas
2016,andtheoldestonesdatingbackto2010.SinceIdependedontheworksIcould
findonline,adatabasecalledSmashwordsproveduseful.Fromthiswebsite,Iwasable
tocollectasmanyas91novelsfromthecategoryAfrican-Americanliterature.Examples
oftitlesareATrueMulattoFace,AmazedbyherGrace,AllisFairinLoveandFootballand
E’steem:TheBeastfromtheBowels.ThesamenovelscanalsobefoundonAmazon,
althoughmostofthemareonlysoldasKindleeditions.Itshouldbenotedthatthese
novelsareratherlightweight,andtheauthorsaremostlyunknown,atleastoutsidethe
African-Americantargetgroup,whichIassumetobeyoungadultsandpossiblyblack
women.Thesenovelsareeasy-to-readtextsthatservethepurposeofentertainment.
Yet,allnovels,aswellasfilms,haveamessage,andIfinditinterestingtolookatwhat
contemporaryblackwriters,howevercommercial,wanttocommunicatewiththeir
stories.Forinstanceisitinterestingtolookathowtheydescribetheirblackcharacters,
howtheydepictblackidentityandwhattopicstheychoose.Itwillbeimportanttonote
whethertheirtakeonblackidentitydiffersfromthatofKathrynStockett,foreven
thoughStocketthaswrittenahistoricalnovel,shehasdonesoinrecenttimes.Should
hertreatmentofblackidentitydiffertoomuchfromhowblackpeopledescribe
themselvesinmainstreamliteratureatpresent,thereisagreatchancethattheblack
communitywillrejecthernovel.
8
Asforthegenreswithinthecontemporarycorpus,mostofthenovelsare
romance/eroticaorurbannovels.TheurbannovelsandtheAfrican-Americanromances
aresimilargenres.Bothfocusonromance,relationshipsandsex,buttheurbannovels
alsocenteroncitylife,brutalitiesorvulgarities,andthewritersfrequentlyuseslangand
badlanguage.UrbanisagenrehighlydominatedbyAfrican-Americanwriters.Other
thanromance/eroticaandurban,thecontemporarycorpusincludessomecrimenovels
andafewhistoricalnovels,aswell.
Thisisofcoursenotthefirsttimesomeonehasusedcomputertechnology,norMallet,
forliteraryinvestigation.Malletisatoolforsomethingcalledtopicmodeling.Whata
topicmodeldoesisthatitidentifies“broadthemesinliterature”.(Jockers767)Oneof
thereasonsforitsrisingpopularityisthatitsavesyoualotoftime,aswellasenabling
youtoanalyzeamuchbiggercorpusoftexts.Now,neithertimenorhumanresources
limitthereachofyourinvestigation.Anotheradvantageisthatthemethodavoids
biases.(Jocker751)Theresultsobtainedfromtheanalyseshavegonethroughan
objectiveprocesswhererelatedwordsaregrouped,andfromthesegroupsofrelated
words,wecanextractthethemes,ortopics,intheworks.Eachgroupsumsuponetopic,
butitisuptotheliteraryscholartodecidewhichtopicthatis.Thus,weseethatthefear
manyacademicsharbor,namelythattheliteraryanalysiswillsufferundertheuseof
technology,isungrounded.Thereisstillbothroomandneedforanalysisofthedata
obtained,andonlysomeonewhoknowsthecorpuswillbeabletounderstandthe
complexdataoutput.ItisnoteasytoestablishthetopicsbasedonthewordsthatMallet
groupstogetherfromnovels,muchlessifyouarenotaliteraturestudent.
Inreality,theprogramcalledMalletisabletotreatthousandsoftexts,sothe
possibilitiesareendless.WhatMalletdoesistoprovideyouwithwhatJockerscallsa
“satelliteview”ofthetexts.(Jockers768)Obviously,ifoneweretocarryoutan
investigationofthatscale,thewholemasterthesiswouldhavetobededicatedonlyto
literaryanalysisbycomputertechnology.Itwouldalsobeanadvantagetobequite
skilledincomputerprogrammingtoperformsuchanextensiveanalysis.Thecomputer
analysispresentedinthissectioncanonlyshowthetipoftheiceberg,asonewouldhave
toanalyzeamuchlargercorpusinordertoconcludethatthedatarepresentsthefull
9
rangeofAfrican-Americanliterature.However,Ibelievethattheinclusionoftwo
corporaoftexts,onewiththeclassicsandonewiththepresent-daynovels,givesustwo
interestingperspectivesonAfrican-Americanliterature.Moreover,Iintendthatthenext
twochaptersfurtherexplorethedataobtainedinthissection,butthenthroughclose
readingandmoretraditionalliteraryanalysis.
WithMallet,therearemanywaysinwhichtoimprovethequalityoftheoutput.Mallet
worksoncommands,andinordertooperatethesoftware,itisthereforenecessarythat
youknowsomethingaboutprogramming.ThecoursenamedComputerresourcesfor
literaryresearchformspartofthisMasterDegreeandhasgivenmetheopportunityto
carryoutthisanalysis.Theclassesgiveyouaninsightintoprogramming,butdonot
pretendtomakeyouintoanICTstudent.ThecommandsIhaveusedinMalletarethe
onestaughtinclass.Ihaveaddedalistofstopwordstothecommandos,whichexcludes
wordswithnolexicalmeaning(example“he”,“she”,“did”etc.)However,Icanseefrom
theresultsthatthisstoplistissomewhatincomplete.Still,Ifindtheresultsobtained
bothinterestingandrelevant.
Malletmakesnumberedgroups,andyouchosehowmanygroupsyouwanttheoutput
toconsistof.Ihavechosenthatitprovidemewithtwenty,andMalletstartscounting
fromzerotonineteen.Eventhoughsomewouldsaythattwentyaretoofewgroups,I
foundthatifyouaskedformore,thetopicsseemedverysimilarandonlyservedto
confuseme,andprobablywouldconfusethereader.Eachgroupconsistsofwordsthat
appeartogetherinthesamecontext,andarethereforeassumedtoberelatedtothe
sametopic.Malletthereforehelpsusfindthemostcommontopicsinacorpusoftexts.
Aftertypingthecommandosandrunningtheprogram,Iobtainedthefollowingresults
forthefirstcorpuswiththetwentyclassicsofAfrican-Americanliterature:
0
2,5
masterslavechildrenslavesmrgrandmotherslaverymantimetoldflint
freegodheartknewhousemademistresschild
1
2,5
donshugsofiamrchildrenastharpoceliegodboutpagegitlovenettie
goodbigmisshomedear
2
2,5
eyeseyesulablueblacklookedwomennelbedknewmisslegscolored
doorheadyearstownfingerseva
10
3
2,5
lovenightblackbackwomanhandsdaywhitedeadfaceplacelifehard
homelightyoungheartmakesun
4
2,5
mamawalterruthbeneathaaindontravismanasagailorrainegeorge
hansberryactmoneysunraisininsonlindnerjohnson
5
2,5
whitetimecalledvoicemenstoodfeelingsatrememberdoorwords
startedcomingworkfindhandlayhearpart
6
2,5
ahdetuhuhjaniedatteacakeainyuhmahhurstonwidyogodeyesdon
lakzora
7
2,5
backdonpeoplethoughttimemandidnthingsputgoodwantedlongleft
lookedtoldthingmakehousehead
8
2,5
negroblackmensouthlandworldnegroeshalfmansociallifework
thousandwhitewargreatjohnhundredschools
9
2,5
angelarogerllcolouredjinnyveanthonymissvirginiadonlifestreetgirl
longpeopleangelethoughtmarthapowell
10
2,5
manbrotherlldoneyeslookedsirjacksuddenlyvemrstreetblackhead
feltcliftoncrowdthoughtnorton
11
2,5
blackwomenmothermurielstreetaudreworkpeopleingspellingzami
gingerpowergennielordechildrenyorkangerknew
12
2,5
lifedayyearshomegoodthoughtyoungfathermaketownworklivefelt
broughttimesfacepassedhardmoney
13
2,5
aintroyrosedongonnamanllcorydebonosonggoodblueswhiteboy
housetimeharlemma
14
2,5
sethedenverbabypaulbelovedsuggsdidnsweetmotherhallemagarner
feetmadegirlchildrenwomanknewhouse
15
2,5
darkworldfreedomdreamlongfreevemengreatmusichighgodtoday
riverdeepracegoldfeetsweet
16
2,5
doroanyanwuisaacpeoplechildrenbodymanamberlitwwwhttp
generatedhtmlabclitprocesstextconverterabcwomanchild
17
2,5
motherwomanroomfeltschoolhouseeyeschildrenmadegirlfatherchild
bedsisterreadmrsopenmetfriends
18
2,5
milkmanguitarpilatemacondonfathermandidnhagarchollypecola
deadainruthmamaknewrebabluestbaby
19
2,5
peopledidndadveharryllgodbaileydonzahracoryfiremommabankole
11
moneywasncouldngunfather
Ishallnowcommentonthemostrelevanttopics.Thefirsttopic,orgroupzero,centers
onslavery.Itconnectswordslike“master”,“slave”and“children”,thelattersuggesting
boththattheblackchildrenareslaves,butalsopossiblythatmanyslave-owners
impregnatedtheirblackfemaleslaves.Theword“mistress”mostlikelyreferstoa
femaleslaveownerinthiscontext,butitisalsopossiblethatitsupportstheargumentof
extramaritalaffairswithblackslavesandtheirwhitemasters.Wealsoseethat“God”
appearswiththeotherwordsrelatedtoslavery,andthatisnotsostrange,sincefaith
wasanecessaryingredientinaslave’slife.ReligionisacentraltopicinmanyAfricanAmericannovelsandalsooftenawaytofreedomandredemption.Inanycase,thetopic
ofgroupzeroisslavery.
Groupeighthasthesametopic,withwordslike“negro”,“south”,“land”and“work”.This
givessomewhatmorecontexttoslavery,asweseeitislinkedtotheSouth,andthatthe
slavesworkedtheland.
Groupelevenhaswordslike“blackwomen”,“mother”,“work”and“children”.We
thereforeunderstandthatitcentersontheroleoftheblackfemalecharacters.Itis
thereforeinterestingthatthesewordsappearinthesamecontextas“power”and
“anger”.Thefirstlinkbetweenwomen,childrenandmotherismoreobvious,but
“power”and“anger”suggestthattheblackfemalecharactersarenotmerelyvictims,but
alsostrong,powerfulindividualsthatusetheirbuilt-upangertofinallybreakfreefrom
oppression.Groupfourteen,with“baby”,“mother”,“children”and“house”onceagain
underlinestheroleofAfrican-Americanwomeninthenovels,yetthistimewithoutthe
revolutionaryelement.Thesameistrueforgroupseventeen.
Thetwelfthgrouphastheblackfamilyasitstopic.Itisaboutthe“life”,“years”and“day”
at“home”whereitis“hard”becauseofalackof“money”andwhere“work”isanissue.
Forgroupthirteen,onecouldestablisheitherAfrican-Americancultureorfreedomasa
topic.Weseethat“music”,“blues”and“song”arementioned,togetherwith“Harlem”,
whichiswhereAfrican-Americanculturallifefirstblossomed,whentheslavesfledthe
12
SouthtolivefreelyintheBigApple.Theseelementsdonotonlyrefertoculture,butalso
toamovementtowardsfreedomandtheendofracialprejudiceandsegregation.Inany
case,weseethatfreedomisundoubtedlythetopicingroupfifteen.Herewefindthe
word“freedom”clearlystated,aswellassupportingwordslike“dream”,“music”“God”
and“race”.Onceagain,weseealinkbetweenmusicandfreedom,aswellasGodand
freedom.Thesethereforeseemtobetwopathstowardsfreedomfortheblack
characters.
Allinall,Malletestablishesslavery,maternity,blackfeminismandfreedomasthemain
topicsintheclassicsofAfrican-Americanliterature,withimportantelementsinthese
categoriesbeingreligion,music,angerandpower.
Icarriedoutthesameanalysisalsoforthecontemporarycorpus,consistingofninetyonenovelsinall.Theresultsarethefollowing:
0
2,5
shaelarrymothernylatobydondanaangeliquevertigopagequeenya
chasemaprojectdidnmamaassll
1
2,5
tracygracegirlmadgemizwomangirlsauntdianelookeddarrelpatcoach
wandasmiledbecksullivanteamschool
2
2,5
jaysonjenessastonedanirebeccabeccacolbyreneedonconnie
dominiquechurchmanleslievictorcharlesmotherjenniferclient
3
2,5
didnbackaskedlookedpagefaceknewdoorfeltmadewalkedturned
wantedwasnroomcouldnsatwomanpulled
4
2,5
ramonachicagojaycabbiedantepagesunshinebabylovedarnellmother
robertkarimanpeacedaughtershitdeborahkids
5
2,5
allentimtamikoalanagodtoddjimdavisdondidnmothersimonework
couldnprestoncallietimepeopleasked
6
2,5
alicecarsonsudababamiajustinwalyamlutalomamabuskeenbegan
lookedgirltriciahutmatikabluecolonel
7
2,5
pageromanleliasymphonyjessicaoliviaamberpatrickdonquincymister
lawrencebackwillowharddidnfittingfoxheaven
8
2,5
backkalilsherelledondoesnlllenniepagemakmomstopveasksdoorkj
handsdidntellslove
13
9
2,5
eyesmanhandmensmallmomentlongheadhandsviktordarkfeetwife
sidechildrenwatergroundleftlight
10
2,5
shitnikkichancefuckingfuckdonaldieshadonmoneycharlovecandice
muhfuckagirlgertassgonnaainvic
11
2,5
pagevepeoplelifeblackdayyearsthingstimeyearworkwhitejobroomll
paststorybookmade
12
2,5
marcuschrisbrentearllilsteveainbigshitcarwitspoonieblockshawn
moneysmittyjeromestreetasked
13
2,5
churchmotherainworldyegorpeoplehousegoddonlordmamafather
wasnbigpastorbacknikkikidsmark
14
2,5
damnmiaassshitterrencequintonhellpageroderickaindanamannigga
terridickgirlfuckyearstamera
15
2,5
camimotherdidnkacileenamarissababyeyesbegandonniedaniel
schoolknewrivergirlpagekellypregnantmom
16
2,5
johnlatoyaronalddexpagenaomiisisllmissmarcialuciabackbillgonna
steemalmashawnjohnnysmile
17
2,5
kellytheochrisseinachurchmotherpastorbabyashlynnericalookedlove
malloryeyesbooknoddedmartinefamilychildren
18
2,5
felixbodyeyesebonylipsmarkheartbackambermanhandmichaelhead
voicehadnsmilewomankasienight
19
2,5
timedongoodmakebackthoughtllgivelongeyesthingfeelnightphone
mindtalkcallhandwouldn
Firstly,IwouldliketocommentonarecurrenttopicinAfrican-Americanliteraturethat
weseebothintheclassicsaswellasthecontemporarynovels,namelyreligion.Inthis
corpus,religionmanifestsitselfasatopicinasmanyasthreegroups;grouptwo,group
thirteenandgroupseventeen.Grouptwoisperhapsnotasillustratingasthetwoothers,
butstillworthmentioning.Here,aproblemarisesthatoftenhappensintheMallet
analysis–itgroupscharacternamesintotopics.Therearewaysofexcludingthis
throughdownloadingexternalprogramsandapplyingthesetoMallet,andthatshould
perhapsbetriedifoneweretofurtherdevelopthisinvestigation,alongwithimproving
thestoplist.However,itisinterestingthatMalletconnectssomanycharacterstochurch,
becauseitshowstheimportanceofgoingtochurchintheAfrican-Americancommunity.
14
Furthermore,groupthirteenhasboth“church”,“lord”and“pastor”init,andismore
obviouslyaboutreligion.Itknitstheblackfamilytochurchbyincludingwordslike
“mother”,“mama”,“father”and“kids”.Ingroupseventeen,weseemuchofthesame
wordsgroupedtogether,andcanassumethatthetopicalsohereisreligion.
Aswiththeclassics,maternitycontinuestobeatopicincontemporaryAfricanAmericanliterature.Itisnotsoeasytodecidewhatthesenovels’takeonblack
maternityis,aswefindboththeword“sunshine”and“shit”inthesamecategoryin
groupfour.Ingroupfifteen,itseemsthatteenagepregnancycouldbeatopic,aswefind
thewords“mother”,“baby”,“school”and“pregnant”inthesamegroup.Moreover,
knowingthatthesenovelsareoftenteenageromances,thatseemslikeaplausible
explanation.
ThecharacteristicsofAfrican-Americanromancesandurbanfictionbecomeclearinthe
remaininggroupsIwanttocommenton.Groupnineandtenseemtohaveloveandsex
astopics,againrelatingbacktotheromances/erotica.However,ingroupelevenweare
ratherdealingwithurbanfiction,whichcommonlyhasstreetlifeasatopic.Weseethat
fromthewords“money”,“street”,and“car”.
Grouponecouldalsobebrieflycommentedon,asitseemstointroduceanewtopicin
African-Americanliterature–sports.Thewords“coach”,“team”and“school”suggest
thatmanyoftheyoungAfrican-Americancharactersplaysportsinschool.Thisis
somethingwecanrecognizefrompopularculture,whereblackcharactersinfilms,TVseriesandmusicvideosaremostlyallveryfitandactiveplayersofeitherbasketball,
Americanfootballorpracticecheerleading.Beingphysicallyfitsuggeststhatbeing
strong,powerfulandattractivenowformspartofblackidentity.
ApartfromthetopicmodelingtoolMallet,IalsohavetheprogramAntconcatmy
disposal.WhatAntconcdoesistoprovideyouwithwordfrequencies,andalsowiththe
contextinwhichagivenwordappears.Itisaprogramthatiseasytouse,andthatgives
youplentyofinformationaboutyourcorpus,creatingalistofthemostfrequentlyused
wordsinthecorpus.Itisthroughthefunction“concordance”thatyoucanconsultin
15
whichworkthewordsappear,andinwhatcontext.Inordertomakethewordlist
relevant,thatis,toincludeonlywordsoflexicalcontent,wehavetoaddalistof
stopwordsalsohere.
Withthecorpusofthetwentyclassics,Antconcpresentedmewithalistof39909words
orderedbytheirfrequency.Themostfrequentwordswererepeatedinthecorpusas
manyas3097times.Outofthemostrepeatedwordswefind“black”and“white”.There
isnosurprisetothis,asweknowthatAfrican-Americanliteraturecentersonthetopic
ofraceandskincolor.Wordsthatfollowaremother,children,house,andsimilarwords
likechild,babyandmomma.Thisclearlyshowsthatmaternityisacentraltopicin
African-Americanliterature.
Therealsoappearedmanywordsrelatedtobodyimage,suchasthewordbodyitself,
breasts,color,colored,brown,skin,race,pretty,beautifulandugly.Moreover,other
identitymarkersthatappearedwerewordscorrespondingtoorigin,suchasAfricaand
Africans.
Concerninganger,theworditselfisrepeated307timesinthecorpus.Heatisrepeated
146times.Therestarewordsmorerelatedtoviolencethanangeritself,suchasfighting,
deathandkill.Asacounterpoint,weseethatreligionandfaithbecomeveryimportant
insuchtroubledtimesasthecharactersareliving,withGodmentionedasmuchas1120
times,besideswordsliketheBible,churchandhope.
Theroleofwomeniscentraltomanyoftheworks,especiallythosewrittenbytheblack
femaleauthors.Itisnotsurprisingthereforethatthewordkitchenappears305timesin
thecorpus,alongwiththewordcooking,giventhattheblackwomeninthenovels
basicallyspendtheirlivesinthekitchen.Educationismentioned111times,anditis
understandable,giventhatmanyoftheblackcharacters,especiallytheblackgirls,are
deniedaneducationandhavetoworkathome.Aswillbediscussedlaterinthepaper,
lesbianismisarevolutionaryelementinTheColorPurple.Thewordlesbianis
specificallymentionedinthecorpus67times,butalmostalltherepetitionsarefromthe
novelZami:AnewspellingofmynamebytheauthorAudreLorde.Thisisanexampleof
theimportanceoftheconcordancetool;lookingupinwhichworksthewordhasbeen
16
used.LesbianismseemsnottobesuchacentralelementtoAfrican-Americannovels
giventhattherepetitionscomefromonesinglenovel.However,weknowthatTheColor
Purpletreatslesbianism,eventhoughWalkerdoesn’tspecificallyusetheword
lesbianism/lesbianinhernovel.Thisisaweaknessofthiskindofstatistics;a
phenomenonmightbepresentalthoughnotspecificallynamed.
3.Identity
3.1Stereotypes
“Wesufferedcontemptandpitybecauseofthecolorofourskin”(Bell75)
GiventhatStockettisawhitewriternarratingthelivesofblackcharacters,thefirst
thingwemustaskourselvesiswhethersheunderstandsblackidentity.Howcanshe
writefromaperspectivesodifferentfromherown?Notsurprisingly,KathrynStockett
hasbeencriticizedforstereotypingherblackcharactersinTheHelp.Shouldthisbetrue,
hernoveladdsitselftoatraditionofsentimentalnovelswrittenbywhiteauthorson
African-Americans.InevaluatingwhetherTheHelpisstereotypicalratherthan
authentic,Iwillcomparethenoveltotwootherclassicswrittenbywhiteauthorson
African-Americans.Astheblackcommunityhasrejectedallthreenovels,wemustlook
atwhethertheyreallydistortblackidentity,orwhetherthewritersarerejectedsimply
forbeingwhiteintruders.
UncleTom’sCabinbyHarrietBecherStowe(1852)andTokillamockingbird(1960)by
HarperLeearetwoclassicswrittenbywhitefemaleauthors.LikeTheHelp,thetwo
aforementionednovelsarebothdearlylovedandwidelycriticized.Theyareobligatory
readingatmostAmericanHighSchools,aswellassubjectsofstudyatmanyfacultiesof
literature.Still,botharecriticizedforbeingsentimentalnovelsinwhichtheauthors
showlittleunderstandingoftheirblackcharacters.LiterarycriticRichardYarborough
writesthat“AlthoughStowe[authorofUncleTom’sCabin]unquestionablysympathized
withtheslaves,hercommitmenttochallengingtheclaimofblackinferioritywas
frequentlyunderminedbyherownendorsementofracialstereotypes”(Yarborough47).
17
InsomeofthenovelsthatwhiteauthorswriteaboutAfrican-Americans,thereisa
traditiontoportraytheNegroassimpleandchildlike,butinherentlygood.
InUncleTom’sCabin,Tomisthemoralcenterofthenovel.Heisaself-sacrificing
individualthatchoosestodieinsteadofhurtingafellowslave,andthisimpeccable
moralmakeshimsomewhatinhuman.Hemakesnoattempttobreakfreefromslavery,
andclingsontoreligionuntilthebitterend.CelieinTheColorPurplealsosuffersand
endureslikeTom,butsheisnotmorallyincorruptlikehim.WhereasCelieisloosing
faithandtowardstheendredefinesherperceptionofGod,TomneverquestionsGodor
hisfaith.However,BecherStowe’scharacterizationofUncleTommustnecessarily
exaggeratehiskindnessandpiety,thesamewaythatHarperLeeexaggeratesthe
kindnessofherblackcharacter,alsonamedTom.Onlythatwaydidtheymanageto
createsympathyfortheblackmanamongsttheircontemporaries,whenamore
commonstereotypefortheblackmanatthetimewasthathewasviolentandbeastly.
InToKillaMockingbird,theblackmanTomRobinsonisfalselyconvictedforhaving
rapedawhitegirl.WhatseemsabitstrangetothereaderisthatTomdoesn’tshowany
angeratbeingwronglyaccused.Throughoutthecourtcaseheseemsalmosttookind,
evenfeelingsorryforthegirlwhoframedhim.Thedialoguesservetodemonstrate
Tom’skindness,withhimsteadilyrepeatingthat“Ididn’twantabeugly[…]’”.(HaperLee
64)
AlthoughrecurringtostereotypesofthedocileandinherentlygoodNegro,bothStowe
andHarperLeeatleastchangednegativestereotypesformorepositiveones.StuartHall
discussesthephenomenonoftheinherentlygoodblackcharacter.Herelateshowblack
peoplewereusuallyrepresented,butalsorepresentedthemselves,indifferentformsof
artuptothe90s.Insearchforblackpower,blackartistsandwritersdepictedtheblack
characterasinherentlygood.Thisleadtoa“fetishizednatureofimagesofblacks”.(Hall
224)Thus,althoughthewhitewritersarebeingcriticizedforthewaytheydepicttheir
blackcharacters,weseethatalsoblackwritershavehadatendencytomaketheblack
subjectinherentlygood.Assuch,thecriticismofthewhiteauthorsseemssomewhat
unfair,especiallywhenwekeepinmindthatUncleTom’sCabindatesasfarbackasto
1852.
18
However,todaywemustrealizethatUncleTom’sCabinisdated.Threeoutoffive
African-AmericanshaveevencometoconsideritanAnti-Negrotext.(Yarborough67)
Thefactthatsomanyintheblackcommunityrejectthenovelandthinkitisanti-Negro
showsthattheblackcommunitydoesnotwantsympathy,butequality.Whatwemust
askourselvestheniswhetherwhiteauthorsshouldkeeponwritingsentimentalnovels
aboutAfrican-Americans,whenthesympathyisbothilldirectedandillreceived.Society
hasprogressed,andKathrynStockett,awriterofourtimes,shouldbeabletoaddmore
depthtoherblackcharacters.AgeneraltrendaccordingtoStuartHallisthattheblack
subjectisundergoingaseriesofchanges,andthatfilmsandnovelsarestartingtodepict
blackcharactersinalessstereotypicalway.However,westillfindmanystereotypesin
TheHelp.
LikeUncleTom,themaidAibileenfromTheHelpisdocileandrelativelysimpleminded.
Sheclingsontofaithandisnotrevolutionaryinspirit.Shecountsonprayertosolveall
herproblems,andwouldnothavebeenabletobreakfreefromoppressionhaditnot
beenforthewhitecharacterSkeeter,whostartswritingabookaboutalloftheblack
maids’lives.InthethreenovelsmentionedwrittenbywhiteauthorsonAfricanAmericans,theintellectualisalwayswhite,anditisheorshewhopavesthewayforthe
blackcharacterstofreedom.WhereasUncleTom,afull-bloodedNegro,iskindand
naïve,GeorgeistheintelligentcharacterinUncleTom’sCabin.Thisbecomesaproblem
inlightofGeorge’srace.Theauthorwritesthat“Georgewas,fromhisfather’sside,of
whitedecent.(…)Fromhismotherhehadreceivedonlyaslightmulattotinge(…)”.
(Stowe112)TheemphasisonGeorgebeingmostlywhite,togetherwithhissuperior
intellect,isanoffensewhenyoulookatthecharacterizationoftheblackcharacters.
YarboroughremarkshowGeorgeistheonlyonewhoisnotsuperstitiousorcelebrating
asavageAfricanreligion.HealsohasmoredepthtohischaracterthanTom,ashebursts
outinangerandshowsinnerconflict.Itthereforebecomesclearthattheauthorhasa
higheropinionofthemulattothanshehasoftheNegro.(Yarborough52)
JustlikeGeorgeunderminesthecharacterofTomwithhissuperiorintellect,sodoes
SkeetercomparedtothemaidsinTheHelp.Therealemphasisisnotonthemaids,but
onthewhitegirlthathelpsthehelp.Sheistheonewhotakestheinitiativetotelltheir
19
stories,andalthoughshehasmorefreedomtoactthanthem,Stockettshowsusthat
Skeeter,too,isriskingalotindoingso.Sheisriskinghergoodnameandreputation,but
usesherintellecttofightforwhatisright,asopposedtotheblackcharacters.Thereare
manysituationsinthenovelwhereweseethatSkeeterjeopardizesherstatusforthe
project.OnesuchexampleistalkingtoAibileenaboutthebookprojectinherfriend
Elizabeth’shome:
“Please,MissSkeeter.MissLeefolthaveafitifshefindyougivingmecash,”Aibileen
whispers.“Shedoesn’thavetoknow.”Aibileenlooksupatme.Thewhitesofhereyes
areyellowed,tired.Iknowwhatshe’sthinking.“Ialreadytoldyou,I’msorry,Ican’t
helpyouwiththatbook,MissSkeeter.”[…]ButIdon’tknowanyotherswellenough.”
Iamtemptedtobringupthewordfriends,butI’mnotthatnaïve.Iknowwe’renot
friends.Hilly’sheadpopsthroughthedoor.“Comeon,Skeeter,I’mfixingtodeal,”
andshedisappears.“I’mbeggingyou,”Aibileensays,“putthatmoneyawayso
MissLeefoltdon’tseeit.”(Stockett53)
Here,SkeeterisriskingbothElizabeth’sandHilly’sfriendship,twoofthemostpowerful
womeninJackson.Shouldyoufalloutwithoneofthem,particularlywithMissHilly,
therewillbeapersonalvendettaagainstyouwiththewholetownparticipating.Inthe
caseofMissCelia,Jackson’sladiesshunheronordersfromMissHilly.Evenknowing
this,Skeeter’ssenseofmoralcorrectnessmakesherstandupagainstMissHilly,and
whenthelattergiveshertheHomeHelpSanitationInitiative,Skeeteraltersitforthe
newspaper,makingpeopleleavetheiroldtoiletsatMissHilly’sporch.Sheisnowan
officialenemyofherformerfriend,averypowerfulandfrighteningenemytohave.To
sumup,Skeeteristheonewhorisksherreputationfortheblackmaids,andsheisthe
brainbehindthebookproject,nottheblackcharactersthemselves.
InToKillaMockingbird,thewhitelawyerAtticusisthebrainbehindTom’srescue,the
blackmanwhoisfalselyaccusedofrape.LikeSkeeter,Atticusisalsoriskinghisgood
reputationbydefendingTom.Hisnameindicatesthatheisathinkerandanintellectual,
with“attic”referringtotheuppermostroomofthehouse,orthehead/brain.His
daughterisnamedScout,whichindicatesthatsheisobservantandinquiring.Her
brother’snameisJem,alludingtothejemstoneandthatheisofhighvalue.Theonewho
20
shouldbethemaincharacterinthenovel,Tom,ishardlycharacterizedandrarely
figuresinthenovel.Inlightofthis,itbecomesmoreanovelofmoralcorrectnessthanit
isatrueinsightintothelifeofanAfrican-Americanman.
ItisalmostasthoughAtticusandSkeeterareextendedversionsoftheauthorsofthe
twonovels,AtticusanextendedversionofHarperLeeandSkeeterofKathrynStockett,
andthattheyusethesecharactersinordertoexpresstheirownmoralbeliefs.Hence,
givingthesecharactersaheroicstatusislikecomplementingthemselvesfortheirown
moralstandards.Sopleasedaretheauthorswiththemselvesthattheyforgettheymake
victimsoftheblackcharacters.TomRobinsoninTokillaMockingbirdisavictimin
everyway;unjustlyaccused,inneedofsomeonetodefendhimandwithalimparm.The
forcelessarmisasuresignthattheauthorwantshimtobeavictim,butavictimisnot
whattheAfrican-Americancommunitywants.Likewise,alltheblackmaidsinTheHelp
arevictimsinneedofawhiterescuer.TheycometoSkeeterwiththeirstoriesafterthe
maidYuleMayisfalselyarrested,butonlyafterSkeeteralreadyhadannouncedher
project,andonlywhentheyfeelagreatneedfortheirstoriestobetoldbysomeone
otherthanthemselves.
AlthoughAbileeniscraftedonthestereotypeofthekindanddocileNegro,sheisnotas
unquestioningandnaïveasUncleTom.ParticipatinginSkeeter’snovelisanactof
resistanceinitself,anddistancesherfromUncleTom,whodiesatthehandsofhiscruel
employer.Still,sheisverykindanddocileconsideringhercircumstances.Shenever
breaksoutinanger,andStockettoftendescribeshowAibileenholdsbackherangerso
thatheremployerdoesn’tnotice.Atonetime,sheis“somadI’mstomping.BabyGirl
beeninthatbedsinceeighto’clocklastnight,acoursesheneedchanging!MissLeefolt
trytositintwelvehoursworthabathroommesswithoutgettingup!IlayBabyGirlon
thechangingtable,trytokeepmymadinside”.(Stockett12)Throughoutthenovel,
Abileenrepeatsthephrase“keepmymadinside”,whichgoestoshowthatsheisangrier
thanUncleTomandTomRobinson,butthatshestillwouldnotputupanyresistance
haditnotbeenforSkeeter.
21
ThetendencytoportraytheAfrican-Americancharactersasvictimshasalongtradition
intheUnitedStates,alsowithinthefilmindustry.Thephenomenoniscalledthewhite
saviorcomplex.Commonforsuchfilms,andnovelsinthiscase,isthattheygivethe
whitecharactertheroleofaMessiah,whorescueshisblack“followers”fromtheirtragic
fate.Throughouttheprocess,thewhiterescuerexperiencesaBildungwherehis/her
eyesareopenedandhe/shelearnssomethingabouthimself/herselfandlife(Hughey
252).Filmsofthiscategoryareoftenlabelednarcissisticandgrandiose,asthewhite
saviorformsthecenterofthestoryandisgivenheroicstatus.(Vera&Gordon33)
SociologyprofessorMatthewHugheyalsopointsoutthatthewhitesaviorstoriesare
“oftenbasedonsomesupposedlytruestory”.ThisisalsothecaseforTheHelp,where
StockettclaimsthatherownmaidDemetriwastheonewhoinspiredhertowritethe
novel.Hugheyalsomakesanotherimportantpointinhighlightingthewhitecharacter’s
roleaseithera“teacher,mentor,lawyer,militaryhero,aspiringwriter,orwannabe
NativeAmericanwarrior”.InTheHelp,wefindtheaspiringwriterSkeeterasthewhite
savior,inTokillamockingbird,thelawyer,Atticus,isthesavior.Furthermore,Hughey
specificallymentionsthefilmversionofTheHelpasbelongingtothewhitesaviorfilm
category.(Hughey2015)
Theprofessorgoesontoimplythatthewhitesaviorstoriesserveasaformofescapism
forwhiteAmericansfromtheproblemsinsociety.Bypretendingtobuildbridges
betweentheblackandwhitecommunitythroughsentimentalstories,thereal-life
problemscanbesomewhatforgotten.(Hughey252)Asweallknow,theUnitedStatesis
stillstrugglingwithracialissues,whichiswhywefindnewmovementslikeBlackLives
MattertroublinglifeinAmerica.WhenreadingTheHelp,onealsogetsthefeelingof
sentimentalescapism.Thescenesbetweentheblackmaidsandthewhitechildrenare
meantasaformofreconciliationbetweenblackandwhite,butsincetheperspectiveis
sowhite,itonceagainvictimizestheblackcharacters.AnexampleiswhenMaeMobley
getsanewteacher,MissTaylor,whotransmitsmanyracistviewstothechildrenin
class.Aibleentriestotalktothelittlegirlafterwards,tellingherthattheteacherisnot
rightineverything,andtryingtowinbackthelittlegirl’strustandempathy.Shetells
herthat“MissTaylorain’trightallthetime”,andMaeMobleyanswersfaithfully“You’re
righterthanMissTaylor”,throwingherarmsaroundAibileen’sneckandhuggingher,
22
expressingaloveshedoesnotfeeltowardsherownmothernorMissTaylor.Aibileen
goesontoconfidethat“Itearupthen.Mycupisspillingover.Thoseisnewwordsto
me”(Stockett176)ThefactthatAibleenneedstheapprovalofalittlewhitechildin
ordertofeelvaluable,sendsthewrongmessage.ItmakesAibleenverysmalland
vulnerable,withherlanguageinthesentence“Thoseisnewwordstome”further
underliningherinferiorityandvictimization.
Yet,issaidofangerthatitmarksthefirststeptowardsliberation.(Grasso3)Assuch,
feministshaveassociatedangerwithcourage.Theyalsoassociateitwithsisterhood.
(Ibid.)ThisistrueforTheHelp,wherethebuiltupangerthatalltheblackmaidsfeel
leadsthemtogatherandtocooperateonSkeeter’sproject.Seeninthatlight,themaids
dofreethemselves,andarenotonlyvictims.Furthermore,LindaM.Grassohas
comparedthesimilaritiesofwaystoexpressangerinblackandwhitewomen’s
literatureinNorthAmerica.Intermsofmetaphors,themostcommonlyusedmetaphor
forangerisheat,ametaphorthatweseeusedinTheHelponvariousoccasions.
ThesettinginTheHelpopensupforseveralreferencestoheat,asitissetinJackson,
Mississippi,andtheactiontakesplaceunderthemercilesssunoftheSouth.Theword
“heat”isrepeatedover40timesinthenovel,andthisiswithoutmentioningrelated
words,suchaswarmth,sun,heatedandsoon.Onecouldfalselyassumethatitisjustfor
atmosphere,todescribeawarmsummerintheSouth,haditnotbeenforonedetail;a
heatwavehitsJacksoninDecember.Stockettthereforemakesitperfectlyclearthatthe
heathasanotherfunctionthanjustprovidingatmosphere.“Fornoreasonbuttoirritate
me,wegetaheatwaveinDecember”,saysthemaidMinny.(Stockett62)Notonlydo
theyexperienceaheatwave,buttheyalsohitarecord:“Itmustberecordheat”,says
Aibileen.(Ibid174)Wegetafeelingthatthisheathastodowithmorethantemperature
whenAibileenremaksthat“Theheatdoneseepedintoeverything.”(Ibid174)Theblack
charactersareburningwithheat,orwithbuilt-upanger.Minnytalksabouta“heatthat
hasbeenburningmeupallmylife”,thatonlycanbecooledbytellingthetruthabout
theirlivestoSkeeter.(Ibid62)Skeeterfeelstheangeroftheblackcommunitydirected
towardsherasarepresentativeofthewhitecommunity.Thisisespeciallytrueafter
YuleMayhasbeenimprisonedandsheistheonlywhitepersonwhohasgatheredwith
23
theblackcommunitytotalkaboutwhathashappened.Skeeterthenfeels“theheatof
dislikeandguilt”.(Ibid115)
WethereforeseethatAbileenandMinnyarestereotypical,butwithatwisttotheir
charactersthatdistancesthemfromUncleTomandTomRobinson,astheyputupmore
resistanceandareangrierthantheaforementionedcharacters.However,theyare
craftedonanotherstereotype,whichisthatoftheBigMama,ortheMammyfigure.Big
Mamaisnotanykindofwoman.Sheis,asthenameindicates,bigandbountiful.She
standsinstarkcontrasttotheskinnyidealsofwesternculture.AibileeninTheHelp
criticizeswesternwomenwhenshesays:
“Here’ssomethingaboutMissLeefolt:shenotjustfrowningallthetime,sheskinny.
Herlegsissospindly,shelooklikeshedonegrowedemlastweek.Twenty-three
yearsoldandshelankyasafourteen-year-oldboy.Evenherhairisthin,brown,seethrough.Shetrytoteaseitup,butitonlymakeitlookthinner.Herfacebethesame
shapeasthatreddevilontheredhotcandybox,pointychinandall.Fact,herwhole
bodybesofullasharpknobsandcorners,it’snowondershecan’tsoothethatbaby.
Babieslikefat.Liketoburytheyfaceupinyouarmpitandgotosleep.Theylikebig
fatlegstoo.ThatIknow.”(Stockett6)
The“thatIknow”refersbacktoAibileenandunderlinesthatsheis,asopposedtoMiss
Leefolt,aBigMama.MissLeefolt’sthinnessisexaggeratedandridiculed,comparingher
facetothatofacartoondevilandherbodytothatofafourteen-year-oldboy.She
soundsaltogetherunpleasantandweak,withsharpedgesandthinlegs.Aibileenmust
thereforebeallthatheremployerisn’t;curvywithalittleextrafatandwitharound
face,aswellashavingthickandcurlyhairandbeinggoodattakingcareofbabies.Miss
Leefolt’sincapacitytotakecareofherownchildcanbetraced,accordingtothemaid,
rightbacktoherphysicalappearance.
Likewise,HarrietBecherStoweendorsesthesamestereotypewithhercharacterEliza.
TheAfrican-AmericanwomanwasseenasaMammyfigure,whoseonlygoalinlifewas
herownandthewhitefamily’schildren.LiterarycriticRichardYarboroughcomplains
thatElizaisaflatcharacterwhosesearchforfreedomisonlygroundedinthesearchfor
24
herchildren.Whereasthisistrue,throughreinforcingthestereotypesoftheMammy
figurewithElizaandthepeaceful,childlikeNegrowithTom,Stowemanagestoputthe
morenegativestereotypesinthebackgroundandcreatesympathy.Astereotypethat
existedatthetimeofUncleTom’sCabin,1852,andbeforethattime,wasthatAfricanAmericansdidnotpossessanyhumanemotion.Uponthatexcuse,theslaveowners
couldsplitupfamiliesandtakethechildrenawayfromtheirslavemotherswithout
feelinganysenseofguilt.
However,BigMamaisnotastereotypethatthewhitewritershaveinvented,butrather,
itisanarchetypefromAfricansociety.Thereareseveralexplanationstotheexistenceof
thisarchetype.ItsrootsdatebacktoreligionsfromtheAfricancontinentthatallhad
femaledeities,whoseutmostfunctionwastoprotecttheAfricanfamily.(Holston12)
ThestrongmotherhasthereforealwaysbeenhighlyvaluedinAfricansociety.Apart
fromthat,BigMamahasalsorepresentedthevindicationofAfricanmotherhood.Given
thatthatthechildrenweretakenawayfromtheslaves,motherhoodbecameablessing
whenenslavementwasfinallyputtoanendintheUnitedStates.Sincethen,
motherhoodhasbecomesacredalsoinAfrican-Americanculture,inadditionto,as
mentioned,alwayshavingformedanessentialpartofAfricancultureandreligion.
(Holston13)Therefore,itisperhapsnotsostrangethatAfrican-Americanwriters
themselvesrecurtothisstereotype,withSofiainTheColorPurplebeingaclearexample
ofthis.
KathrynStockettcanhardlybeblamedforstereotypingAibileenandMinnywhenmany
blackwritersdothesame.InTheColorPurple,Sofiaisthestrongmotherwhowilldo
anythingtoprotectherchildren.Sheleavesherviolenthusbandsothatthechildrenwill
besafe.SofiaisverysimilartoMinnyfromTheHelp,astheyarebothverydark-skinned,
strongandtempered.Botharetheyemancipatedoutofaneedtoprotecttheirchildren.
Minny,likeSofia,alsoleavesherabusivehusbandsothatherchildrenwillnotsuffer.In
anycase,StockettmakingAibileenandMinnyintoBigMamas,howeverstereotypical,
placeshercharacterswithinthecontextofAfrican-Americanliterature.
25
Therefore,althoughweseethattheblackcharactersareatlargestereotypicalinThe
Help,itseemsthatAliceWalkermakesmanyofthesamemistakesincraftingherblack
characters.WhereasmanywouldseethecharacterShugasarevolutionaryelementin
TheColorPurple,shecouldalsobeseenasaverystereotypicalcharacter.Whatis
revolutionaryaboutheristhatdespiteherbeingblackandfemale,sheispowerful,and
themen,especiallyCelie’shusband,admireher.Shugisalsoabisexual,whichimplies
thatsheisincontrolofherownsexuality,incontrasttotheotherblackwomeninthe
novel.However,shealsofitsthedescriptionofajezebel,anothercommonstereotypefor
blackwomen.ThenameJezebelstemsfromQueenJezebelintheBible,whowasdarkskinnedandforeignofPhoeniciandescent.Sheusedhersexualitytomanipulatemen,
andwasseenasanevilcreature.(Mance474)Thishasthenbecomethenameofthe
stereotypemanyhadandhaveofAfrican-Americanwomen,eventoday.Thestereotype
wasestablishedbeforetheslaveswerebroughttoAmerica,andisdescribedintravel
literaturebyEuropeanswhovisitedtheAfricancontinent.InAfrica,theEuropeans
foundtheblackwomentobelasciviousbynature,andcompletelydrivenbytheir
sexuality.(White29)OncetheslaveshadcometoAmerica,peoplecontinuedtoperceive
manyblackwomenasjezebels.Italsocameinhandy,asthestereotypeservedtoexcuse
theexploitationoftheblackfemaleslavesandthefrequentrapestheysufferedatthe
handsofwhitemen.(Mance474)Shugisajezebelbecauseshehasanuncontrollable
sexualappetite,andhasevenfallenillduetohersexualpromiscuity.WhenCeliefirst
seesapictureofShug,herdescriptionisthefollowing:
“ShugAverywasawoman.ThemostbeautifulwomanIeversaw.Shemorepretty
thenmymama.Shebouttenthousandtimesmoreprettierthenme.Iseeherthere
infurs.Herfacerouge.Herhairlikesomethintail.Shegrinningwithherfootupon
somebodymotocar.Hereyesserioustho.Sadsome.Iasthertogivemethepicture.
AnallnightlongIstareatit.AnnowwhenIdream,IdreamofShugAvery.Shebe
dresstokill,whirlingandlaughing.”(Walker13)
Fromthisdescription,weseethatShugispromiscuousbywearingfursandalotof
makeup,andshealsoseemstobesomeonewhoseducesandmanipulatesmen,asshe
standswithherfoot“onsomebodymotorcar”.WhenShugfinallycomestotowntohold
aconcert,thereisaposterthatannouncesherarrival:
26
“ShugAverystandingupsideapiano,elbowcrook,handonherhip.Shewearinga
hatlikeIndianChiefs.Hermouthopenshowingallherteefanddon’tnothing
seemtobetroublinghermind.Comeone,comeall,itsay.TheQueenHoneybeeis
backintown.”(Walker23)
ThisagainunderlinesthatShugisajezebelbynature.Sheposespromiscuouslyforwhat
ismainlyamaleaudience,withherhandonherhipandasensual,openmouth.Her
nicknameindicatesthatsheisaqueenbee,theonethatgetsallthemenandallthe
offspring,andalsothatsheisanattractive“honey”.
Yet,forasmuchasWalkerusesboththeMammyandtheJezebelstereotype,onecould
claimthatshebreakswithbothstereotypestowardstheend.Thiscouldalsobesaid
aboutTheHelp.InTheColorPurple,Shugiscuredofhersexuallytransmittabledisease,
whichmightsymbolizethatsheiscuredofallstereotypes.Aftersheiscured,Shug
changesherpersonalityfromthatofaJezebeltoagoodSamaritanwhoteachesCelieto
loveherself.Eventhoughtheirrelationshipisabisexualonethatonceagaincouldlead
ustothinkofShugasapromiscuouswoman,theirrelationshipisfoundedonreallove.
Besides,throughbeingbisexual,Shugrejectsmen’sdefinitionofherandisfinallyin
controlofherownsexuality.ThesameistrueforCelie,whoisnolongeraBigMama,but
ratherincontrolofherownlifeandsexuality.
InTheHelp,AbileenalsorejectsthestereotypeoftheBigMamawhensheleavesherjob
asahousemaidandnolongerhastotakecareofwhitechildren.Thesameistruefor
Minny,whocontinuesinherroleasamother,butnowasinglemotherincontrolofher
ownlife.
Insum,thecharactersfromTheHelparenotmorestereotypicalthanthecharactersin
TheColorPurple,butthereisoneimportantdifference.WhatisstereotypicalaboutThe
Helpisthatalltheblackcharactersarevictims,andthatthereisnorealblackheroineof
thestory.WhereasthewomenstandtogetherinordertofreethemselvesinTheColor
Purple,theblackmaidsinTheHelpneedSkeeter,thewhitewriter,toinitiatetheprocess
ofemancipation.Aibileenisthemostheroicoftheblackcharacters,butisonlyturned
27
intoaheroinebecauseofSkeeter.Thus,MissSkeeteristherealheroineofthestory,
whereasthepreviousvictimCelieturnsintoaheroineattheendofTheColorPurple.
3.2Blackness
Whattheblackfemalewritersknowbetterthantheirwhitefemalecolloguesishowit
feelstobeblackintheUnitedStates.FranzFanon,in“Thefactofblackness”,explores
theconditionofbeingblack.Accordingtohim,itisindeedaconditionwhenyoulivein
theStates.Thisisbecausethebodybecomes“anobjectofconsciousness”.(Fanon326)
Fanonwritesthattheblacksubjectseeshis/herbodythroughthewhiteman’seyes.He
orshethenbeginsaprocessofrejectinghimself/herself,justlikehe/shehasbeen
rejectedbywhitesociety:“IsitdownatthefireandIbecomeawareofmyuniform(his
blackness).Ihadnotseenit.Itisindeedugly.Istopthere,forwhocantellmewhat
beautyis?”(Ibid)
TheconceptsofbeautyandblacknessarecentralinAfrican-Americanliterature.Itis
hardtoimaginehowaCaucasianwriter,althoughbeingfemale,knowswhatitisliketo
haveyourblacknessworkingagainstyouonaneverydaybasis.Fanonprovidesa
heartbreakinginsightintowhatthiscanfeellikewhenherecallsalittlewhitegirl’s
reactiontohim:
“Look,aNegro!”Itwastrue.Itamusedme.“Look,aNegro!”Thecirclewasdrawing
abittighter.Imadenosecretofmyamusement.“Mama,seetheNegro!I’m
frightened!”Frightened!Frightened!Nowtheywerebeginningtobeafraidofme.I
madeupmymindtolaughmyselftotears,butlaughterhadbecomeimpossible…
Mybodywasgivenbacktomesprawledout,distorted,cladinmourninginthat
whitewinterday.TheNegroisananimal,theNegroisbad,theNegroismean,the
Negroisugly,(…)”(Fanon323-324)
ThisquoteexpressessomeofthekeyideasinAfrican-Americanliterature,namelythe
feelingmanyoftheblackcharactershaveofbeinguglieranddumberthanawhite
person,ideasthattheblackauthorsdisputethroughtheirnovels.
28
However,inTheHelp,KathrynStocketttriestounitetwoworldswhenshemakessome
ofthenovel’swhitegirlsstrugglewithpeoplecallingthemugly.ThebabygirlMae
MobleyandthewriterSkeeterbothneedtheirblackmaidsassupportwhenwhite
societyrejectsthemfortheirlooks.Constantine,thefamily’sblackmaid,givesSkeeter
someadvicetakenfromherownexperience:
“ThefirsttimeIwasevercalledugly,Iwasthirteen.Itwasarichfriendofmy
brotherCarlton’s,overtoshootgunsinthefield.“Whyyoucrying,girl?”
Constantineaskedmeinthekitchen.Itoldherwhattheboyhadcalledme,tears
streamingdownmyface.“Well?Isyou?”Iblinked,pausedmycrying.“IsIwhat?”
“Nowyoulookahere,Eugenia(…)“Uglyliveupontheinside.Uglybeahurtful,
meanperson.Isyouoneathempeoples?”“Idon’tknow.Idon’tthinkso,”Isobbed.”
““Evermorning,untilyoudeadintheground,yougonehavetomakethisdecision.”
Constantinewassoclose,Icouldseetheblacknessofhergums.“Yougonehaveto
askyourself,AmIgonebelievewhatthemfoolssayaboutmetoday?”(Stockett32)
Aswesee,Constantine’sadviceisclearlybasedonherownexperiences.Shehashadto
ignorewhatwhitepeoplethinkaboutherinordertomaintainherself-worth.She
passesonthemessagetoSkeeter,andweseethetwounitedaswomendespitetheir
differentsocialpositions.ThesameistrueforMissCeliaandhermaidMinny.MissCelia
ispretty,butsheisnotclassy.TheLeaguemembersusethisasanexcusetofreezeher
out,eventhoughtherealreasonbehindherexclusionisjealousy.Minnyistheoneto
revealthetruthtoCelia,therebymakingthelatterfeelbetteraboutherself.
Itisthereforetheblackmaidswhohelpthewhitewomenfeelbetteraboutthemselves
inTheHelp,andnotanovelabouthowtheythemselvesfeelaboutbeingblack,although
wegetaglimpseofthatfeelingindirectly.Wecanseefromtheadvicethattheygivethat
theyknowwhatitisliketofeeluglyandrejected.Stockettherselfmakestheparallel
clearwhenshefocuseson“theblacknessofhergums”whenConstantineisgiving
Skeeteradvice.ItisclearthatConstantine’sadvicetoSkeetercomesfromherown
experienceofbeingblackandbeingcalledugly.
29
InTheColorPurpleandTheBluestEye,anotherexemplaryworkinAfrican-American
literature,theconceptofself-imageandblacknessiscentraltothestory.Theybothoffer
averyintimateaccountonhowitfeelstobeablackwomanintheUnitedStates.I
mentionTheBluestEyebecauseitissuchapivotaltextinordertounderstandthe
conceptofblackness.Theverytitleindicatesthatsomethingiswronginthecharacters’
conceptionofbeauty.ThisisespeciallytrueforPeccola,thelittleblackgirlwhowishes
tohavethebluesteyes.Thepainthatshegoesthroughisamuchmorestingingpain
thanweeverfeelthroughthereadingofTheHelp.Inthesamenovelwealsomeet
Claudia,whomutilatesherwhitedolloutofangertowardssociety,whichcallsherugly
forbeingblack.Celie’spainispresentthroughoutTheColorPurple,assheisrejectedby
everyoneforbeingblackandsupposedlyugly–withShug’saffirmationthat“Yousho’is
ugly!”(Walker34)InTheHelp,wenevergetapersonalaccountfromoneoftheblack
maidsontheirself-image.
Stockett’sstilladdressestheissue,andhermessageisthatwhiteandblackareonlyskin
colors.Yet,shefallsthroughinherattemptattimes.Examplesoflessfortunate
descriptionsareherdescriptionsofMinny,whoistheblackestofallthemaids.Skeeter
describesMinny’sskinas“blackerthanAibileen’sbytenshades”,whichisalot
consideringthatAibileenis“darkbrownandshiny[…]”.(Stockett77,39)Highlighting
Minny’sblacknessissomewhatunfortunateinlightofhercharacterization.Sheisstrong
andtempered,childlikeandanimalistic,actingonlyoninstinct.MakinghercruelexemployerMissHillyeatherexcrementintheformofachocolatecakeissurelyagood
exampleofthis.Hence,theauthorestablishesthelinkbetweensavageandblack,and
alsowhatwesooftenseewhenwhitewriterswriteaboutAfrican-Americans;theNegro
isdumberthanwhitepeople.Theblackertheskin,themorearethesecharacteristics
enhanced.
AnothertimeStockettfallsvictimtorecurringstereotypesisinherdescriptionofdoctor
Tate,seenthroughtheeyesofMinny.“Hehasrealwhiteskinandthislong,narrowface
thatshowsnofeelingsatall”.(Stockett108)Thedoctor’swhitenessandCaucasian
featuresarementionedasameasureformeanness.Thewhiterthemeaner,itseems.
Here,Stockettonceagainusesthecommonstereotypeoftheinherentlygoodblack
30
characterandthemeanwhitecharacter.
Evenso,Stockettdoesnotintendtobroadenthedifferencesbetweenblackandwhite,
althoughshefallsvictimtoherownprejudicesattimes.Overall,weseethatsheseeksto
unitetheblackandthewhitecommunityratherthantosplitthem.Aibileen’sspecial
storythatshetellstoMaeMobleysumsupwhatStockettwantsthereadertolearnfrom
hernovel:
“Onceuponatimetheywastwolittlegirls,”Isay.“Onegirlhadblackskin,onegirl
hadwhite.”MaeMobleylookupatme.Shelistening.Littlecoloredgirlsaytothe
littlewhitegirl,‘Howcomeyourskinbesopale?’Whitegirlsay,‘Idon’tknow.How
comeyourskinbesoblack?Whatyouthinkthatmean?’Butneitheroneathem
littlegirlsknew.Solittlewhitegirlsay,‘Well,let’ssee.Yougothair,Igothair.’”I
givesMaeMobleyalittletousleonherhead.Littlecoloredgirlsay‘Igotanose,you
gotanose.’”Igivesherlittlesnoutatweak.Shegottoreachupanddothesameto
me.Littlewhitegirlsay,‘Igottoes,yougottoes.’AndIdothelittlethingwithher
toes,butshecan’tgettominecauseIgotmywhiteworkshoeson.Sowe’sthesame.
Justadifferentcolor,’saythatlittlecoloredgirl.Thelittlewhitegirlsheagreedand
theywasfriends.TheEnd.”(Stockett92)
Thissimplestoryactuallysumsupthewholenovel.SkeeterbefriendsAibileenandthe
othermaids,understandingthatblackisjustaskincolor.MaeMobelyisjustalittlegirl,
andthereforedoesnotjudgeAibileenbyherskincolor,butratherbythewayshetreats
her.SinceAibileenlooksafterherandlovesherbetterthanherownmother,thegirl’s
loyaltylieswithhermaid.ThesameistrueforSkeeter,whovalueshermaid
Constantinebothasafriendandasamother.MissCeliaacceptsMinnyasherfriend
withoutevenquestioningit,anddespitehowdumbeverybodythinksCeliais,inthis
aspectsheisasmartwoman.ToMissCelia,afriendisafriend,regardlessoftheirskin
color.Thisiswhy,againwithoutquestioning,sheoffersMinnytositdownatthesame
tableasherforherfirstjobinterview.
31
Also,thepoweroffriendshipmakesthewhitewomeninthenovelopentheireyes.The
waySkeeterdescribesConstantineisverysymbolic:
“Infact,theshadesofbrownonConstantinewereendless.Herelbowswere
absolutelyblack,withadry whitedustontheminthewinter.Theskinonherarms
andneckandfacewasadarkebony.Thepalmsofherhandswereorangey-tanand
thatmademewonderifthesolesofherfeetweretoo[…]” (Stockett33)
SkeeterdoesnotseeConstantineasjustblack,likemostwhitepeoplewould,butsees
thatshehasdifferenttonestoherskin.Thisisbecausetheirfriendshipenablesherto
seeConstantine’struecolors,andsymbolicallythatmeanssheseeswhatConstantineis
reallyworth. Otherthanshowingthereaderthatlifeisnotonlyblackandwhite,
Stockettalsomanagestolaughaboutitall.Thatway,shetakesawaytheseriousness
fromtheissue.Skeetersaysofherownwhitecolorthatitisn’tsobeautifulaspeople
wouldthink,for“whilesomecallthiscreamy,itcanlookdownrightdeathlywhenI’m
serious,whichisallthetime.”(Stockett29)
InAfrican-Americannovels,blacknessisacentraltopic.Ratherthanunitingblackand
whitewomen,andstressingthatblackisonlyaskincolor,theblackwritersdigdeep
intowhatitfeelsliketobeblack.Theirblackidentityiscomplex;thereisnotjustblack,
butshadesofblackandmulattoes.WethereforecannottalkofasingleAfricanAmericanidentity,butofseveralidentities.Blacks,influencedbywhitesociety,have
establishedahierarchywhereitisbettertobeamulatto,orlight-skinned,thanitisto
beasblackasnight.Throughpointingafingerattheblackestoneamongstthem,and
especiallyattheblackwomen,alltheothersfeelbetteraboutthemselves.
InTheColorPurple,Celiestartsoutveryawareofallthecategoriesofblack,and
thinking,likemost,thatthebrighterskin,thebetter.Harpo,herhusband’sson,thinks
justlikeher,andwhenhefirstfallsinlovewithSofia,hisdescriptionofheristhe
following:“Shepretty,hetellme.Bright.”WhenCeliegoesontoaskhimwhetherhe
meansthatsheissmart,hecorrectsher:“Brightskin.”TheironyisthatSofiaisn’treally
brightskinned,onlycomparedtoHarpo’sownskintone.Ratherthanbright,Celie
32
describesSofia’sskinas“Clearmediumbrown”.(Walker26)Thiscommentshowsus
howcategorizingandhierarchicalCeliestartsoutbeing,andthatsheclassifiesand
valuespeopleaccordingtotheblacknessoftheirskin,justlikeotherpeoplejudgeher.
ThisisabouttochangewiththearrivalofShugandthereadingsofthelettersfromher
sisterNettie.BothwomenservetobroadenCelie’shorizonsandchangethewayshe
looksatherselfandthepeoplearoundher.Shugis“blackastar”,butsheisstillthemost
beautifulwomanCeliehaseverseen,andalltheblackmendesireShugdespiteofher
skincolor.(Walker39)Itishowevercommentedbythemthatsheisalittletooblack.
Though,Shugcelebratesherownblacknessthroughshowingalotofskinin
promiscuousdresses, “wearingaskintightreddresslooklikethestrapsmadeoutoftwo
piecesofthread.”(Walker47)FromShug,Celielearnsthatblackisbeautiful.
HersisterNettiealsohelpstoreeducateherconceptofblackness.InthelettersNettie
sendsherfromAfrica,shedescribestheAfricans’skintohave“[…]somethingmagical
aboutit.Becausetheblackissoblacktheeyeissimplydazzled,andthenthereisthe
shiningthatseemstocome,really,frommoonlight,itisso luminous,buttheirskin
glowseveninthesun.”(Walker77)WhatNettie’slettersdoistoofferCeliean
alternativeperceptionofblacknessaccordingtoanAfricanmindset,showingherthat
beingblackisonlyconsideredabadthinginAmerica,butnotinthecountrysheis
originallyfrom.InAfrica,peopleareproudtobeblack.Theculturaldifferencesare
shownwhenCelie’ssonAdamproposestotheAfricangirlTashi,andthelatterrefuses.
Nettieexplainsthat:
“She[Tashi]hadseenthemagazineswereceivefromhomeandthatitwasvery
cleartoherthatblackpeopledidnottrulyadmireblackskinnedblackpeoplelike
herself,andespeciallydidnotadmireblackskinnedblackwomen.Theybleachtheir
faces,shesaid.Theyfrytheirhair.Theytrytolooknaked.”(Walker128)
CelieunderstandsthatAmericanshaveestablishedblackasbad,andthatblacknessas
somethinguglyisaculturalconceptthatdoesnotdefineherunlesssheletsit.However,
Celienevertrulyseesherselfasphysicallybeautiful.Attheend,whenShugfallsinlove
withGrady,CeliewondersifShugeverlovedheratall:
33
“Whatwouldshelove?[…]MyhairisshortandkinkybecauseIdon’t
straightenitanymore.OnceShugsaysheloveitnoneedto.Myskin dark.My
nosejustanose.Mylipsjustlips.Mybodyjustanywoman’sbodygoing
throughthechangesofage.Nothing specialherefornobodytolove.No
honeycoloredcurlyhair,nocuteness.”(Walker122)
Itisclearthatshestill,despitereadingNettie’sletters,anddespiteallthatShughas
taughther,holdsontoCaucasianstandardsonbeauty,andnotAfricanidealsonbeauty.
Celie’sinabilitytoloveherphysicalappearanceprovesthereisarealneedtoaddress
theissueinAfrican-Americanliterature.Stocketteitherisnotinterestedin,ordoesnot
daretoexplorewhatblacknessreallyfeelslike,butseesitonlythroughtheeyesofher
whitecharacters.
3.3Religion
ReligionhaslongbeenthefoundationofcommunitylifeforAfrican-Americansandis
thereforeapartoftheirgroupidentity.Assuch,itisnaturalthatitisacentralelement
alsoinAfrican-Americanliterature,asillustratedthroughthecomputeranalysisinthe
firstchapter.ItisinterestingtoseeifandhowKathrynStockettportraysblack
Christianity,andcompareittoAliceWalker’stakeonreligioninTheColorPurple.
WhentheslaveswerebroughtfromAfricatotheAmericas,manywerealreadybaptized
Christians.(Thornton268)Thus,weunderstandtheimportanceoffaithtotheslaves,
especiallyintroubledtimes.Missionariesweretheoneswhostoodforthe
ChristianizationofAfrica,andtheCongoisagoodexampleofacountryinwhich
ChristianitywasalreadyestablishedbeforetheslavesweretakentotheNewWorld.
(Ibid)
However,African-AmericanChristianspiritualitydifferssomewhatfromwhiteChristian
spirituality,regardlessofthechurchcommunityyouareapartof.Afro-Christianity
startedoutasamixtureoftheslaves’ownreligiouspractices,fromdifferentreligionsin
Africa,andChristianity.Yet,certainpracticeswererepressed,especiallythosethatwere
linkedtowitchcraft.Inthiscategorywefindnocturnaldances,sacrificesand,tous,
34
strangefuneralcelebrations.(Thornton268)Yet,asThorntonpointsout,thesepractices
wererepressedalsoinAfricabyAfricanChristianity,anditwasthereforenotnewtothe
slavesthatthesepracticeswerefrowneduponinChristianity.Neitherdidthemajority
haveaproblemleavingbehindsuchtraditions,astheywerefamiliarwiththeterm
witchcraftandwantedtoabolishit.(Ibid)
Inoldernovels,suchasUncleTom’sCabin,weseetheslavesstillclingingontopagan
practices.However,bothTheColorPurpleandTheHelparehistoricalnovelssetata
latertimeinhistory,fromthenineteen-fortiestothesixties,approximately,whenthe
blackcommunityatlargehadleftsuchpracticesbehind.However,weseeother
characteristicsofAfrican-Americanspiritualityreflectedinbothnovelsathand.
IntheAfrican-Americancommunity,theblackpastorhastheroleofacounselorandis
highlyinvolvedinlivesofthechurchgoers.(Arnold14)InTheHelp,thisisillustrated
throughthedeaconThoroughgood,withahighlytellingname.Welearnthatheisagood
manwhosupportsnon-violenceapproachestocivilrights,butwhoisveryactiveinthe
movementforcivilrights.Forinstance,manyofthechurchmeetingscenteronthetopic
ofcivilrights.However,someofthechurchgoersfeelthathisapproachtocivilrightsis
toopassive,andwouldlikemoredirectaction.Thefollowingsceneplaysoutatachurch
meetingafteraninnocentblackmanhasbeenkilled,andtheyhavegatheredatchurch
toprayforhimandhisfamily:
““DeaconThoroughgood,”adeepvoiceboomthroughstillness.Iturn—everbody
turn—andthere’sJessup,PlantainFidelia’sgrandson,standinginthedoorway.He
twenty-two,twenty-three.Hegothishandsinthickfists.“WhatIwanttoknowis,”
hesayslow,angry,“whatweplantodoaboutit.”Deacongotasternlookonhis
facelikehedonetalkedwithJessupbefore.“Tonight,wearegoingtoliftour
prayerstoGod.WewillmarchpeacefullydownthestreetsofJacksonnextTuesday.
AndinAugust,IwillseeyouinWashingtontomarchwithDoctorKing”“Thatisnot
enough!”Jessupsay,banginghisfistonhishand.“Theyshothiminthebacklikea
dog!”“Jessup.”Deaconraisehishand.“Tonightisforprayer.Forthefamily.Forthe
lawyersonthecase.Iunderstandyouranger,but,son—”“Prayer?Youmeany’all
justgonnasitaroundandprayaboutit?”Helookaroundatallausinourchairs.
35
“Y’allthinkprayer’sgoingtokeepwhitepeoplefromkillingus?”Nooneanswer,
noteventheDeacon.”(Stockett96)
Thus,weseethatreligiondoesnotproviderelieffortheangriestblackcharactersinThe
Help,whotendtobetheyoungestones.Thedeacontriestocalmtheiranger,butitisn’t
alwayspossible,ashisunderstandingofreligionistopreachanti-violencetothe
community.Inthiscase,theyoungmanendsupleavingthechurchinanger,ashedoes
notfeelrepresentedoraidedbyreligion.Prayingisnotenoughforhim,whathewants
toseeisareligiouscommunitytakingactionagainsttheinjustice.
However,fortheolderblackwomeninthenovel,religiondoesprovidesomecomfort
andrelief.Aibileenremarksthatoutofthefiftypeoplegatheredatachurchmeeting,
mostofthemarewomen.(Stockett96)Apartfromthis,thechurchmeetingsserveto
gatherthemaids,andtheyallknoweachotherfromtheirchurchcircle.Thechurchis
alsotheplacethatAibileenchoosesasalocationtoapproachtheothermaidstotalk
aboutSkeeter’sbook,andtotrytoconvincethemtoparticipate.ShefirsttellsMinny,
herbestfriendofallthemaids,oftheprojectfromwheretheyaresittinginchurch“in
ourusualpew,leftside,fourthfromthefront,rightbythewindowfan.We’reprime
membersandwedeserveaprimespot”.(Stockett60)Thetwowomenhavecomeearly
inordertotalktoeachotherinprivacy.Regardingtherestofthewomen,Aibileenalso
approachestheminchurchtoaskfortheirparticipationonSkeeter’sbook.Churchisa
private,freespaceforthewomen,awayfromtheirwhiteemployersandtheir
sometimesabusivehusbands,andreligionindirectlythereforebecomesempowering,as
itstrengthenstheblackfemalecommunity.
AnotherempoweringfunctionthatreligionhasinTheHelp,isthatitpromptseducation.
WhenAibileenquitschool,herteachertoldhershehadtokeepwritinginorderto
maintainherintellectualcapacity.Thesolutionbecametowriteherprayersdown,and
becauseofthishabit,AibileenisabletowriteherownstoryinTheHelp.Skeeterhad
originallyplannedtowriteAibileen’spart,butAibileenwantsherownvoicetobeheard
inthenovel.Thishelpstoreducehervictimization,andwenotethatreligionhasgiven
heravoice.
36
Moreover,thechurchisthereasasupportwhentheblackmaidsarehavingadifficult
time.AibileenbecamearegularchurchgoerfromthemomenthersonTreeloredied,and
itbecameheronlycomfort.WhenYuleMayisimprisoned,theChurchcirclegathers
moneysothathersonsmaygotocollege.Also,itisanimportantarenatodiscusscivil
rights.Itisnotfaithorreligioninitselfthatleadtopositivechangesinthecommunity,
onlyindirectly,foritisratherthespacethatchurchprovidesthatisofimportance,asit
helpsthewomenformastrongsisterhood.Weseethatthewholechurchcommunityis
involvedinthebookproject,andthattheyopenlycelebrateitwhenSkeeter’sbookis
published.WhenAibileenentersthechurchafterthebook’spublication,sheisheartily
receivedbythecommunity:
“Whoweclappingfor?”IaskRachelJohnson.ShetheReverendwife.Shelaughand
itgetquiet.Rachelleanintome.“Honey,weclappingforyou.”Thenshereach
downandpullacopyathebookoutaherpurse.Ilookaroundandnoweverbody
gotacopyintheyhands.Alltheimportantofficersandchurchdeaconsarethere.
ReverendJohnsoncomeuptomethen.“Aibileen,thisisanimportanttimeforyou
andourchurch.”“[…]“Wewantyoutoknow,foryoursafety,thiswillbetheonly
timethechurchrecognizesyouforyourachievement.Iknowalotoffolkshelped
withthisbook,butIhearditcouldn’thavebeendonewithoutyou.”(Stockett178)
Also,AibileendoeshaveacloserelationshiptoGod,notonlytothechurchcommunity
itself.Theotherblackcharactersthinkshehas“apowerprayer”,andbythattheymean
thatsheissomeoneGodreallylistensto.WhoevergoesonAibileen’sprayerlistislikely
toeitherhavehis/herlifeimproved,ortopayforwhathe/shehasdone.JustlikeCelie
inTheColorPurple,AibileeniswritingtoGodinhernarrative.Though,thereisonebig
differencebetweenhowreligionisportrayedintwonovels.Aibileendoesnotchangein
thewaysheperceivesGod.
AccordingtoPatriciaAndujo,theGodinTheColorPurplebecomesawomanistGod.As
Christianityhasahistoryofoppressingwomen,manyblackfemaleauthorshaveused
theirnarrativestotransformtheimageofGod.(Andujo88)AndujomentionsWalker’s
forerunners,otherblackwomenwho,150yearsbeforeWalker’snovel,wrotetheir
autobiographieswheretheysoughttoredefineGod.Examplesofsuchauthorsare
37
JareneLee,JuliaFoote,MariaStewartandSojournerTruth.(Ibid89)Wealsoseein
newerfictionthatAfrican-Americanwomentendtotransformthetraditionalimageof
God.OnesuchexampleistheEarthseedseriesbyOctaviaButler,where“Godischange”
becomesthenovel’smantra.
ItisunderstandablethatCeliehastotransformherimageofGodinordertogainasense
ofself-worth.HerGodhasonlybeenrepressive,startingfromthemomentPatellsher
thatwhatshehasjustgonethrough,beingrapedbyhim,meansthatshehassinned,and
thatGodistheonlyonethatshecantellofherdisgrace.(Andujo92)Godthusbecomes
linkedtosin,oppressionandinjustice.CeliehastotransformGodinordertokeepher
faith,andaGodthatshecanbelieveinmustsupportwomen,cannotbeanoldwhite
male,andmustapproveofsexualpleasure,likeShugteachesher.(Ibid)
ForAibileen,itisnotsostrangethatwedonotseearedefinitionofherGod.Godison
Aibileen’ssidefromthebeginning,asshehasthepowerprayerthatsymbolizestheir
closebond.WhereasonecouldcriticizeStockettforherrathertraditionaldepictionof
blackChristianity,thereisnoneedtotransformGodwhenthemaidsalreadyfeelthat
Godisontheirside.Moreover,churchhashelpedthemtransformlifeinJacksonand
theirpersonallivesthroughprovidingthemwithastrongfemalecommunity.Assuch,
religiondoeshaveacertaintransformativefunction,alsoinTheHelp.
3.4Language
MargeryFee,inherarticle“WhocanwriteasOther?”,discussesthevalidityofthe
discourseoftheoppressedwomanofthesubculture.Asshepointsout,manyofthe
writersthatattempttovindicatetheiroriginalculturecannolongerclaimtobelongto
thisculture.Herexampleisthatofaboriginalfemalewriterswhonolongerspeakthe
nativelanguage,Maori,butinsteadspeakandwriteinEnglish.(Fee242)Theirattempt
istorepresenttheiroriginalculture–butisitnottoolateforthat?
ThesameistrueforAfrican-Americanwriters.They,too,speakandwriteinEnglish,the
languageoftheoppressor.However,thereisonewaytheAfrican-Americanwriterscan
distinguishthemselves,andthatisbywritinginAfrican-AmericanVernacularEnglish
38
(AAVE).AliceWalkerusesAfricanAmericanVernacularEnglishthroughoutalmostthe
wholeofTheColorPurple.Bydoingso,sheappliestheAfrican-Americans’owndialect.
Evenso,wemustaskourselveswhetherAAVEisactuallyjustEnglishwithaminortwist
toit,inwhichcaseAfrican-Americanwritershavenoreallanguageoftheirown.
African-AmericanVernacularEnglishevolvedfromafusionofEnglishandseveral
AfricanlanguagesaftertheslaveshadbeenbroughttoAmerica.Theslavetradersmade
suretobreakallfamilyties,andalsotoblendnationalities.Thatway,theyminimized
theriskofrebellions,astheslaveswerenotunitedanylonger.Hence,manyoftheslaves
wereofdifferentnationalitiesandhadnootherwayofcommunicatingwitheachother
thanspeakinginEnglish,althoughitwasabrokenandincorrectEnglish.Atthetime,the
newcreolelanguagewascalledPidginEnglish.
British-AmericanlinguistGeoffreyPullumdiscussesthetraitsofAAVEinthechapter
withthetellingtitleAfricanAmericanVernacularEnglishisnotStandardEnglishwith
mistakes.PullummakesitperfectlyclearthatthosewhomistakeAfrican-American
VernacularEnglishforslanganderroneousgrammarknownothingaboutlinguistics.
AAVEhasdevelopedintoadialectovertheyears,andassuch,alanguagethatlivesside
bysidewithStandardEnglish.FewspeakersofStandardEnglishareawarethatAAVE
hasawholesetoffixedandrathercomplexrulestoit.(Pullum45)
Therenownedlinguistbeginsbyexplaininghowthecopula,thatistheverb“tobe”,is
usedinAAVE.Inthiscontext,itisnaturaltolookatthephraseKathrynStocketthas
beencriticizedforinTheHelp,namelyAibileen’swisewordstoMaeMobley:“Youis
kind,youissmart,youisimportant”.Pullumoutlineswhenthecopulacanandcannotbe
omitted,andthisphraseisatypicalexampleofwhenitcouldhavebeenomitted.Weare
nottalkinginfirstperson,inwhichcasethecopulaisusedinAAVE.Furthermore,the
copulaisnotstressed,inwhichcaseitalsowouldhavebeenpreserved.Neitherarewe
talkingabouthabits,thecopulaisaffirmative,andweareinthepresenttense.Allthese
conditionsshouldimplythatthephrase,incorrectAAVE,mustbe“Youkind,yousmart,
youimportant”.
39
Furthermore,inAAVE,“tobe”isusedintheinfinitivewhenwearetalkingabouthabits,
suchas“Shebedancing”,asinsomethingsheusuallydoes.However,Stockettuses“be”
alsowhennottalkingabouthabits:“Shedoingherfiguring,likeshebetryingtocountit
allup”. (Stockett128)Inthiscase,itwouldsoundmorenaturaltoaspeakerofcorrect
AAVEthatthe“be”wouldbeomitted,hence“likeshetryingtocountitallup”.Another
timesheblunders,iswiththesentence:“Shesayshecallyouifshebeneedinghelpwith
theBenefit”(Stockett16)Wearenottalkingabouthabitshere,andforaspeakerof
African-AmericanVernacularEnglish,itwouldprobablysoundmorenaturaltoomitthe
“be”.
Thenegatedcopula“ain’t”isverycommoninAAVE,andyouplace“ain’t”asanauxiliary
verbfirstinthesentencewhenthesubjectisindefinite.(Pullum49)BothAliceWalker
andKathrynStockettdothisintheirnovels.Forexample,Stockettwrites“Ain’tnothing
tolookat”.However,shealsoformssentenceslike“Ain’tnogamecrossingmissHilly”.
Inthefirstexample,“nothing”isanindefinitepronoun,andStockettquitecorrectly
placesitatthebeginningofthesentence.However,inthesecondsentence,thesubjectis
implicit:game.Itwouldhavebeenbettertoleave“ain’t”outandstickto“Nogame
crossingMissHilly”.Thesameistrueforsimilarsentencesshemakes,like“Aintnoway
I’mgonnadosomethingascrazyasthat”.(Stockett62)
However,bothWalkerandStockettmakeuseofnegativeconcord,anothertypical
featureofAAVE.(Pullum48)Stockettwritesthat“Shedon’teatnoeggs”and“Shedon’t
makenofuss”.(Stockett8)Inthesameway,Walkerwritesthat“shedon’tlookno
specialwayatall”and“shedon’tknowhowtodonothing”justtogivesomeexamples.
(Walker19,62)
Tosumup,weseethatStockettisawareofthemaintraitsofAAVE,eventhoughsheis
mistakeninherchoicesattimes.Apartfromlisteningtohermaid,shehasprobablynot
attendedtypicalAfrican-Americanfemalespaceswhereshewouldlearntospeakthe
dialectcorrectly;noblackChurchmeetings,nogatheringswithblackfriendsandfamily
inthekitchen,norinthebeautyparlor.(Bell79)Walkerhasmoreexperiencefromthe
African-Americancommunityandmorecontextstodrawon.Yet,Pullummakesavery
40
interestingpointthatweshouldhaveinmind.NotallAfrican-Americansspeakcorrect
AAVE.(Pullum53)Towhatextenttheyfollowitsrulesdependsontheirsocialstatus
andupbringing,astheymightspeakStandardEnglishmoreoftenthanAAVE.Also,
PullumisawarethattheAAVEheoutlinesisaverystrictformofthedialect.Therewill
bemanyAfrican-Americanswhospeakitwithoutbeingcompletelyconsistent.Even
Walker,whogrewupinGeorgiainalarge,blackruralfamily,writes“MissCelie,shesay.
Youisawondertobehold.”Accordingtotherules,itwouldbemorenaturaltocutthe
“is”,asitisnotstressedandwearenottalkinginfirstperson.Seeninthislight,critics,
ratherthantolookformistakesinTheHelp,shouldinsteadnoticehowsheappliesall
thetypicaltraitsofAAVE.Andeventhoughithassomemistakesattimes,theseare
mistakesthatevenablackwriterlikeAliceWalkercouldhavemadeherself.
However,manyintheAfrican-AmericancommunityseeStockett’suseofAfricanAmericanVernacularEnglishasawaytoridiculetheblackcharacters.Althoughmy
personalbeliefisthatsheisonlytryingtomakehercharactersbelievable,itistruethat
whitewritersbeforeherhaveusedtheirblackcharactersforcomicrelief.InUncleTom’s
Cabin,thismanifestsitselfthroughtheslaves’badlanguageandbadmanners.Theslaves
SamandTopsyprovidemostofthenovel’scomicrelief,whereTopsyactsonimpulse
anddoesnotrespecttherulesofwhitesociety.BothsheandSamemployaPidgin
Englishfulloffaults.(Yarborough51)TheHelpisverysimilarinthisaspect,asAibileen
andMinnybothprovidethenovelwithhumor,especiallyMinny,asshealsohasavery
childlikebehavior.
StocketthastakengreatcaretowriteinAfricanAmericanVernacularEnglish,but
alternatesbetweenlettingthemaidstelltheirstoryandhavingSkeeternarrateher
journeytowardsbecomingawriter.ThepartswritteninStandardEnglishcome
wheneverSkeeterisrelatinghertakeonevents.Thisgivesthereaderasensationthat
Stockettisaddressingawhiteaudience.Shegivesusbreaksinbetweenthepartsof
heavydialect,sothatwedonotgrowtired.
41
3.5Splitidentity
AsHenryLouisGatespointsoutin“Familymatters”,slaverywasanannihilative
institution.Some455000AfricanswerebroughtasslavestotheUnitedStatesbythe
yearof1820.(Gates6)Thesemenandwomenwerethenseparatedbyacomplexand
utterlydestructivesystem.Whatslaverydidwastomakethisgroupofpeople
“fragmentedandnotwhole”insteadof“piecesoffabricstitchedtogetherinagrand
pattern,likesomeliving,breathing,mocha-coloredquilt”.(Ibid)Thequiltisanessential
symbolinAfrican-Americanfemaleliterature,preciselybecausethegrouptriestoform
acommonidentityandbonding.Thisisanidentitythattheslaveslostwhenlosingtheir
languages,theirfamily,andeventheirsurnames.(Ibid)Assuch,havinglosttrackof
theirroots,onecanquestionhowAfricanAfrican-Americansreallyare.Theverytitleof
Gates’articlecollection“InSearchofOurRoots”indicatesthattheserootshavebeen
lost.
Asaconsequence,onemightarguethatStockettcanrepresenttheblackfemale
charactersinspiteofbeingwhite.Thiscanbeclaimedbecausetheblackwriters,dueto
acculturation,areblackerinappearancethanintheirownbackground.Attheendofthe
day,theyareAmericans.Though,whattheyexperienceisasplit-identity,somethingthe
verytermAfrican-Americanindicates.OntheonehandtheyareAfrican,butonthe
otherhand,theyareAmericans.Gatesfocusesontheinterracialmixturesthattookplace
oncetheslaveshadcometotheUnitedStates.ThismeansthatAfrican-Americansalso
haveEuropeanbloodinthem.OverhalfofAfrican-Americanstodayhaveatleast12,5
percentEuropeanancestry(Gates21).Gateshimselfknowsthathehaswhiteancestors.
(Ibid5)Assuch,weseethattheidentityoftheAfrican-Americanisverycomplex.Thisis
asubjectthathaslosttrackofhis/herAfricanroots,whostillsharesabondingwith
otherAfrican-AmericansintheUnitedStates,andwhois,asamatteroffact,partly
white;bothintermsofgeneticsandculturallyspeaking.
Still,manyAfrican-AmericanwritersexploretheirAfricanancestry.Throughtheir
writing,theygoonasearchfortheirlostidentity.Thisiscompletelymissingin“The
Help”.AlthoughitcanbearguedthatAfrican-AmericansaremoreAmericanthan
African,theyfeelthatsomethingismissing,andtheytrytofillintheblanks.Thereisno
42
mentionofanyidentityconflictin“TheHelp”,andneitheristhereanymentionofAfrica.
Contrastingly,NettiegoestoAfricatoexperiencetheircultureandtraditions,takes
Celie’schildrenwithher,andwritestoCelieaboutitall.
GatestalksaboutthePan-Africanidentity.(Gates20)Bythis,hereferstotheidentity
African-Americanshavetoday.Todaythegroupisseenasunison,butifwelookat
wheretheirancestorscamefrom,wediscoverthattheoppositeisthecase.Theslaves
thatwerebroughttoAmericawerefromdifferentregionsofthecontinent.Inthecaseof
thosebroughttotheUnitedStates,theAfricansweremainlyfromtheCongo,Nigeria,
Mozambique,Ghana,BeninandUpperGuinea.(Gates19)Inanycase,weseethatitwas
aheterogeneous,dividedgroupthatcametoAmerica.Still,overthetimeofseveral
decades,thePan-Africanidentityhasdeveloped.Thisiswhywecansaythatforinstance
AliceWalkerandToniMorrisonshareacommon,Pan-Africanidentity,despiteprobably
beingofsomewhatdifferentethnicity.
Ethnicityistodayasomewhatnegativelyloadedword.Thatisbecauseitismutually
exclusive:weareofdifferentethnicities.Thus,bytalkingaboutethnicities,theconcept
oftheOtherisestablished.(Sollors219)EthnicinaChristiancontext,forexample,has
cometorefertoanon-Christianperson.Furthermore,ethnocentrismimpliesthe
discriminationofminoritycultures.(Ibid220)WhetherAliceWalkerisofadifferent
ethnicitythanKathrynStockettdependsonourinterpretationoftheword.Ononehand,
ethnicityreferstoculture.(Ibid:221)BothbeingAmerican,theyshareacommon
culture.However,African-Americansalsoformasub-culture,oraminorityculture,in
theUS.
Ethnicityalsoreferstohistory.BothauthorsareAmerican,whichagainplacesthemin
thesamehistoricalgroup.Yet,ifwetracetheancestorlinesoftheseauthors,wewill
findthattheyprobablycomefromverydifferentbackgrounds.Thehistoryoftheslave
tradeliesasashadowoverthelifeofWalkerandherfellowAfrican-Americans.
Moreover,raceisasalientfactorweassociatewithethnicity.(Sollors221)Some
theoreticians,suchasM.GSmithandPierrevandenBerghe,disagreewithracebeinga
componentofsomeone’sethnicity.Sollorsargues,however,thatexcludingraceasa
factorwouldlimitourunderstandingoftheterm.HemakesspecialmentionofAfrican-
43
Americanwriters,whoareimportantfiguresofwhatweconsidertobeethnicliterature
preciselybecausetheirracedistinguishesthemfromotherAmericanwriters.
Aswesee,thetermethnicitycanbeusedbythemajorityculturetomarginalize
minoritycultures.Atthesametime,itcanbeusedtodrawattentiontoacertaingroup,
suchasAfrican-Americanwriters.Tome,Walkerisnotanethnicwriter.Thereason
behindmyconclusionisthefollowing.BothWalkerandStocketthavebeenbornand
raisedinAmerica.TheywriteabouttheAfrican-Americanexperience,butthereismore
AmericantothatexperiencethanthereisAfrican.African-Americanshave,toagreat
extent,losttrackwiththeirAfricanroots.GateswritesthatAfrican-Americanstodaydo
notknowwhatlanguagestheirancestorsspoke,whatreligiontheyhad,whattheir
musicwaslikenortheirnames.Alltheyhavelefttotracetheseancestorsistheirown
DNA,whichcanbecomparedwithgroupsofpeopleinotherpartsoftheworldfor
similarities.(Gates,2009:10)Butthisisjustgenetics,notculture.African-Americans
havebeenacculturated,astheAfricanslavessawthemselvessubjecttoa“brutalprocess
ofAmericanization”.(Ibid:9)
WhatWalkerattemptstodoistorediscoverherAfricanrootsthroughherwritings,
whichissomethingStockettisnotinterestedin.However,shetriestounderstandthe
past,althoughnotasfarbackastotherootsinAfrica.HerinterestinAfrican-Americans
startsfromthetimetheybecamejustthat;African-Americans.AlthoughStockettisnot
African-American,theirpastintheUnitedStatesisherpastaswell.Comingfromthe
samenation,theyshareacommonhistory.
ItappearsthatbothStockettandWalkerwritefromthesameplace,asfellowAmericans
tryingtorediscoverAmericas’pastandtheblackexperience.However,regardingthe
latter,Ihavealreadymadethehypothesisthatblackwritersarebetterableto
communicatehowblacknessfeelstothereader,andthattheirsplitidentityleadsthem
onasearchfortheirroots.
44
4.GenderstudiesinTheHelpandTheColorPurple
4.1ThefemaleBildungsromanandsisterhood
LiterarycriticssayTheColorPurplerespondstoasocietalneedforablackfemalehero.
AstheAfrican-Americanwomanhastraditionallybeenoppressedandvictimized,
literaturewastheonlyspaceinwhichanalternativediscoursecoulddevelop.Several
African-Americanfemalewritershavefelttheneedtocreateablackheroine,andfrom
this,atraditionhasdevelopedinwhichblackwomenwritersfocusonthejourneyofthe
blackprotagonisttowardsauthenticfemaleselfhood.(Smith3)Theywritewhatis
calledaBildungsroman,andusetheplotstructureofmythsintheirstories.(Carey2)
Thus,whereaswhitewriterslikeHarrietBecherStoweandHarperLeevictimizetheir
blackcharacters,theblackfemalewritersseektheopposite.Althoughtheircharacters
startoutasvictims,theygoonajourneythroughwhichtheyobtainheroicstatus.The
traditionalBildungsromanisthatofthewhitemaleheroandhisjourneytowards
successandmanhood.However,withtheblackheroines,thefocusisnolongeronthe
characters’education,marriageormaterialfuture.Rather,“theyoungblackfemale
protagonistisfacedwithchoosinghowsheisgoingtosurvivethecolonizationofher
body,mind,andsoul”.(Carey2)
InTheColorPurple,Celiegoesthoroughaprocessofawakeningaswefollowher
journeyfrombeinganoppressedblackgirltobecominganindependentblackwoman.
Someliterarycriticsfeelthatherjourneyisunrealistic,giventhedrasticandtherefore
unrealisticchangeofhercircumstances.Evenso,Celiehasgoodfriendstohelpher.
Throughoutherjourney,hersisterNettie,herfriendSofiaandherloverShugAveryall
haveimportantlifelessonstoteachher.
JustlikeCeliestartsherjourneyfromthemomentshebeginswriting,sodoesAibileenin
TheHelp.Though,Abileenisconscientiousofthethingsthatarewronginsocietyfrom
thebeginningofthenovel,whereasCelie,onlyachildatthefirsttimeofwriting,takes
muchlongertounderstandhersurroundings.Thenovelbeginswiththefamouslines:
“DearGod.Iamfourteenyearsold.IamIhavealwaysbeenagoodgirl.Maybeyoucan
45
givemeasignlettingmeknowwhatishappeningtome.”(Walker8)Fromthe
insecuritythatCelieexpresses,wecanseethatsheisblamingherselfandnotsociety.
Aftertheabusesshehassuffered,insteadoflookingoutwardsforanenemy,sheis
lookinginwards.Shethinksthatsheisnolongeragoodgirl,andthattheabuseswere
somehowherownfault.
ItisdifferentwithAibileen,whoisanadultatthetimeofwriting.Therefore,TheHelp
canhardlybecalledaBildungsroman,atleastnotablackfemaleBildungroman.Even
thoughAibileenalsogoesthroughatransformationtowardstheend,TheHelpdoesnot
treatwhatitisliketogrowupasablackgirlintheUnitedStates.NeitherdoesStockett
includechildhoodmemories,familymemoirsoranecdotesfromtheAfrican-American
community.Asaconsequence,wefeel,althoughAibileenandMinnyaretellingtheir
ownstories,thattheirexperiencesareseensomewhatfromtheoutside.Itisperhaps
notsostrangethatStockettavoidswritingablackfemaleBildungsroman.Itwouldbea
riskyendeavortowriteacoming-of-agestoryfromablackgirl’sperspective.Itis,
however,problematic,asshethereforedoesnottreatsomeimportanttopicswiththe
weighttheydeservetobegiven.Someexamplesofthisincludebodyimage,self-image
andgenderissuesfromablackperspective.Evenso,asweshallseefurtheron,Stockett
doesaddressgenderissues,butratherfromawhiteperspectivethanfromablack
woman’spointofview.
TheHelpshouldbecalledawhitefemaleBildungsroman.MissSkeeterisatwenty-three
yearold,upperclass,whitegirlwhoisabouttobecomeawoman,butstilllivesathome
inherchildhoodbedroom.IntheprocessofherBildung,Skeeterhastochallengegender
roles,asshewantstobecomeawriterandnotahousewife.Weseefromearlyoninthe
novelthatthisisproblematic.AllofSkeeter’sfriendsarehousewives,althoughbadones
assuch,sincetheyneedthehelpofdomesticworkerstoraisetheirownchildren.
Skeeter’smotherisparticularlywoundedbyherdaughter’sprogressiveness.Forher,
lookingforajobisawasteoftimewhenitreallyis“allaboutputtingyourselfinamanmeetingsituation”.(Stockett29)Motheranddaughterengageinfrequentdiscussions
aboutSkeeter’sfuture,althoughthedaughterwiselytriestoavoidthetopic.Whenher
mombringsupthequestionofmarriage,Skeetercutsheroff:“Mama,”Isay,just
wantingtoendthisconversation”.(Ibid)Atonepoint,Skeetercannotholdbackher
46
thoughtsanylonger.Sheaskshermotherstraightoutwhetherit“would[…]reallybeso
terribleifInevermetahusband?”(Ibid)Buthermotherkeepsremindingherthat“here
youaretwenty-threeyearsoldandI’dalreadyhadCarltonJr.[herolderbrother]atyour
age...”(Ibid30)
Asamatteroffact,Skeeterhasbeenhauntedbyhermother’sexpectationsallherlife.
Thegoalinawoman’slifeistogetmarriedandhavechildrenwithamanofthesame,or
preferablyahigher,socialrank.Skeeter’sdescriptionofherchildhoodbedroomis
telling:
Mychildhoodbedroomisthetopfloorofmyparents’house.Ithaswhite-frosting
chairrailsandpinkcherubsinthemolding.It’spaperedinmintgreenrosebuds.Itis
actuallytheatticwithlong,slopingwalls,andIcannotstandstraightinmany
places.Theboxbaywindowmakestheroomlookround.AfterMotherberatesme
aboutfindingahusbandeveryotherday,Ihavetosleepinaweddingcake.
(Stockett30)
Everything,downtoherchildhoodbedroom,servestoreinforcegenderrolesandto
remindSkeeterofherpurposeinlife.Alreadyfromshewaslittle,Skeeternoticedhow
genderrolesworkandthatshedidnotliveuptohermother’sexpectations.Firstofall,
shewasnotprettylikehermom,andhernicknameSkeeterservestoillustratethat:
“Iwasnotacutebaby.WhenIwasborn,myolderbrother,Carlton,lookedatme
anddeclaredtothehospitalroom,“It’snotababy,it’saskeeter!”andfromthere
thenamestuck.Iwaslongandleggyandmosquito-thin,arecord-breakingtwentyfiveinchesatBaptistHospital.Thenamegrewevenmoreaccuratewithmypointy,
beak-likenosewhenIwasachild.Mother’sspentmyentirelifetryingtoconvince
peopletocallmebymygivenname,Eugenia.”(Stockett30)
ThenamestandsinstarkcontrasttowhoSkeeteris,andsoundsveryformal,stiffand
elegant.Hermotherinsistsoncallingherbyhername,althoughnoneofherfriendsdo.
Itformspartofherregimetoeducateherdaughterandmakeaproperladyoutofher:
47
“Eugenia,youknowthereisnochewingguminthishouse.”
“Eugenia,goputalcoholonthatblemish.”
“Eugenia,marchupstairsandbrushyourhairdown,whatifwehaveanunexpected
visitor?”(Stockett32)
However,thedaughterdoesnotfitintothestereotypicalgenderrolesthathermotheris
tryingtoteachher.“Sure,I[Skeeter]dreamedofhavingfootballdates,butmyreal
dreamwasthatonedayIwouldwritesomethingthatpeoplewouldactuallyread.”
(Stockett30)Sheismoreindependentandinquiringthanmost,andherbiggestdream
istodosomethingimportant,nottomeetsomeoneimportant.Sinceshehasneverdated
anyone,hermotherstartsworryingwhethersheis“havingunnaturalthoughtsabout..
.”Sheshutshereyestight.“Girlsor—orwomen?”(Stockett37)Ofcoursethisisnottrue,
butittellsussomethingaboutgenderrolesinthe60s,wherewomen,insteadof
workingorstudying,shouldhaveafamilybythetimetheyreachedtwenty-three.Allof
Skeeter’sfriendshaveadaptedtothegenderroles,andarenowmarriedandwithkids.
SinceSkeeteristheonlyonetolagbehind,hermotherandeverybodyelseassumethat
itisbecausesheisnotgood-lookingorthatshesimplyisn’tinterestedinmen.Ithas
neveroccurredtothemthatSkeeterhasotherimmediatedreamsandplansforherself.
Becauseofprejudice,Skeeterdropscomingtoherowngraduation,giventhat“Allmy
closefriendshaddroppedouttogetmarriedandIdidn’tseethepointinmakingMama
andDaddydrivethreehoursjusttowatchmewalkacrossastage,whenwhatMother
reallywantedwastowatchmewalkdowntheaisle”.(Stockett34)
TheirblackmaidConstantinebecomesSkeeter’saccomplice.Theyarebothpickedonby
Skeeter’smother,andareabletolaughaboutitwhentheyaretogether:“Yesma’am,”
ConstantineandIwouldsayatthesametimeandthenpasseachotheralittlesmile.”
(Stockett33)Perhapstheexperiencewithbeingdifferentandhavingtostandupfor
herselfhasmadeSkeetermorereadytosympathizewiththeblackmaids,whoalsohave
tofightprejudice.JustliketheblackmaidsfeelalienatedfromwhiteAmericansociety,
Skeeterisalienatedfromherfriends,family,andlastlyalsoherboyfriendStuart.What
regardsherfriends,Skeeterisalienatedfromthemalreadyinthebeginning,astheylive
theliveshermothersobadlywantshertolive,andwhichshedoesn’treallywishfor
herself.ThisalienationofcoursegrowsworsewithSkeeter’sawakenedmoral,findingit
48
harderandhardertoacceptthesegregationintheSouth,andherfriendHillybeingthe
town’sbiggestracist.ThatHillyandSkeeterhavefallenoutisclearfromthemoment
SkeeterrefusestopublishHilly’sHomeHelpSanitationInitiativeinthenewspaper,an
initiativethatproposesthatblackdomesticworkersgetaseparatetoiletinthegarden.
WhenHillycatchesSkeeterwithwhatshecalls“Negroactivistmaterial”,the
estrangementiscomplete.HillyquiterudelybreaksthefriendshipwithSkeetersaying
“it’snowonderStuartWithworthdroppedyou”.(Stockett127)
Asamatteroffact,thebreak-upwithStuartisalsoduetoSkeeter’stakeonsegregation.
Hefeels,sinceshehaskeptthebookprojectasecret,thathedoesn’treallyknowher,
anddoesn’twishtogettoknowtherealhereither.Thus,weseethatSkeeteris
alienatedfromthewholecommunityinJackson,andtheonlypossiblefriendsleftare
theblackmaids.Becauseofthis,shedecidestoleaveJacksonforNewYork.Jackson
symbolizesoppression,alsoforarichwhitegirllikeherself,whereasNewYorkmeans
freedomandriddingherselfofstrictgenderrolestheimmoralityoftheSouthatthat
time.Thus,throughherBildung,Skeeterunderstandsthatshehastostandupforother
people,inthiscaseforblackwomenandherself,andthatshehastofightprejudice.She
doesthiseventhoughitcostsheralot;bothherfriends,boyfriendandherparents’
approval.Though,sheknowsthatshemadetherightdecision,for
“Sometimes,whenI’mbored,Ican’thelpbutthinkwhatmylifewouldbelikeifI
hadn’twrittenthebook.Monday,Iwould’veplayedbridge.Andtomorrownight,I’d
begoingtotheLeaguemeetingandturninginthenewsletter.ThenonFridaynight,
Stuartwouldtakemetodinnerandwe’dstayoutlateandI’dbetiredwhenIgotup
formytennisgameonSaturday.Tiredandcontentand...frustrated.”(Stockett
188)
ItwasimpossibleforSkeetertofindaseriousjobinJackson.Thefirstdaysheapplies
forajob,sheismetbyprejudice.Heremployer’sfirstreactionwhenshecomesforajob
interviewis“Iassumeyouknowhowtoclean...”Skeeteradmitsthat“Ifeelsostupid
thatIthoughtIcouldjustwalkinandgetajobasajournalist.”(Stockett36)Sheis,
however,givenajobofwritingacolumn,butthecolumnisMissMyrna–asectionon
49
householdadviceforwomen.WhenSkeeterasksaboutthepay,heremployeranswers
rudelythat“Jesus,woman,gocleanyourhusband’stoiletforfree”.(Ibid)
ABildungsromanisbasedontheplotstructureofamyth,andhasthreeparts:thecallto
adventure,thejourneyandthereturn.Thereturnisacrucialmomentintheplotinboth
TheHelpandTheColorPurple.Duringthereturn,thefemaleheromustconfrontdeath
andcomeoutstrongerintheend.(Smith13)Celieconfrontsdeathwhenshelearnsthat
hersisterNettiehasdiedontheboatfromAfrica.Shealsoconfrontsasymbolicaldeath
throughthedeathofherandShug’srelationship,whenthelatterfallsinlovewitha
youngermalemusician.EventhoughTheHelpisnottreatingtheBildungoftheblack
maidsAibileenandMinny,anditisratherSkeeterthatevolvesduringthenovel,the
blackmaidsexperienceatransformation,too.Minnyfacesdeaththroughherviolent
husbandwhowouldhavekilledherhadshenotdecidedtoleavehim,andAibileen,
whendismissedbyheremployer,seesthedeathofheroldselfandofherrelationship
withthelittlegirlMaeMobely.Inlosingherjob,Aibileenhastoredefineherselfand
leavethestereotypeoftheBigMama,who’sonlytaskistotakecareofchildren,behind.
Attheendofthejourney,Celieovercomesapsychologicaldeathbyredefiningherselfin
termsofhernewreligion.Abileenalsoredefinesherselfasmorethanamaid.Bothhave
cometoseethemselvesinadifferentlightduetotheinfluencefromthewomenintheir
lives.
ItisofcoursetheBildungofablackgirlthatAliceWalkerisinterestedin,andnotinany
upperclasswhitegirlfromMississippi.Forthispurposeshehascreatedthecharacterof
Celie,whohasalottolearnthroughoutthenovel.Celie’slearningprocessstartsalready
withhersisterNettie,whoservesasateacherandasemotionalsupport.(Smith8)She
actsasabufferforthenegativecommentsCeliegetsfromblackmen,andwhereasthey
trytodestroyher,Nettiebuildshersisterup.WhereasPasays“youtodumbtokeep
goingtoschool”,Nettie“say[Celie]ain’tdumb”.(Walker15)Shealsoteacheshersister
allthatshehaslearntinschoolwhenCelieisforcedtoquit.
NettiealsobroadensCelie’shorizonsbytellingheraboutAfricainherletters,aftershe
hasleft.Shetellsherofhernewfoundknowledge,namelythatthere“weregreatcitiesin
Africa,greaterthanMilledgevilleorevenAtlanta,thousandsofyearsago”,“thatthe
50
EgyptianswhobuiltthepyramidsandenslavedtheIsraeliteswerecolored”,“thatEgypt
isinAfrica”and“thattheEthiopiawereadaboutintheBiblemeantallofAfrica”.
(Walker74)Whenhersisterconfidesintheletterthat“Ihadn’trealizedIwasso
ignorant”,Celieunderstandshowlittleshe,too,knowsabouttheworld.Herworldview
islimitedtoherhouseinGeorgia.Sheremarksthat“Idon’tknowwhereEnglandat.
Don’tknowwhereAfricaateither”.(Walker68)Herabusivehusbandhasmadesureof
keepingheruneducatedandinsidethehouse,asawayofcontrollingherandlimiting
herpossibilitiestoescapefromhim.ThroughhidingNettie’sletters,hedrasticallyslows
downCelie’sBildung,anditisthereforeittakeshersolongtobreakfree.
NettiealsomakesCelieseereligioninadifferentlight,whichiscrucialinorderto
understandhertransformationtowardstheend.Nettietellsher“JesusChristhadhair
likelamb’swool.Lamb’swoolisnotstraight,Celie.Itisn’tevencurly.”(Walker75)Thus,
Celieunderstandsthatshehasbeentrickedbythewesternworldinordertoseeherself
asinferior,andthatGoddoesnothavetobetheold,whitemansheimagined.Nettie’s
descriptionsofblackwomenandhowtheylivearealsoessentialforCelie’sBildung.She
hearsaboutblackmenexploitingblackwomenalsoinAfrica,withthechief“talkingand
drinkingpalmwinewiththehealer”allday,whereasthewomen“worklikedonkeys”.
(Walker83)Sheunderstandsthattheoppressionofwomenisaglobalproblemwithin
theblackcommunity.Onceagain,itisNettiewhoformulateswhatwillbeCelie’snew
beliefsystem,asshewritestoCelieafterarguingwithamanfromtheOlinkatribe:“The
worldischanging.[…]Itisnolongeraworldjustforboysandmen”.(Walker85)
ApartfromNettiethereisSofia,centraltoCelie’sBildungasshetheonewhoawakens
hertoactiveresistance.(Smith9)Celiesays,inherfamouswordstoSofia,that“Youdo
whatIcan’t.[…]Fight”.(Walker31)Intheoryshecouldhavelearntthatlessonalready
fromNettie,whofoughtthemenandranaway.Shealwaystoldherthat“Yougotto
fight”.(Walker19)WhathinderedCeliefromtakingthislessonfromhersisteristhe
misunderstandingaroundNettie’sescape.BecauseshethinksNettiedied,sheconcludes
thatfightingisnotthewaytostayalive.
51
However,Sofiaisawomansheadmiresandthereforewantstobelike.Aftertelling
Harpo,Sofia’shusband,tobeatheroutofjealousythatshedarestostanduptohim,
SofiaisboldenoughtolookCelie“straightintheeye”.(Walker31)Celiehasalotof
respecttowardsbothherandShug.Thelatterisasexybluessingerwhomallthemen
want,andallthewomenwanttobelike.SheislodgedinAlbertandCelie’shousefrom
thetimeshefallsill,andCelieistheonetonurseherbacktohealth.Asawayof
thankingher,ShuggivesCeliethemostimportantmessageofall;toloveandrespect
herself.Withthelifelessonsthesethreewomenprovide,Celie’sconsciousnessis
awakenedandshefindsthesituationsheisinunacceptable.TheblackfemaleBildungis
complete,andshewillnolongeracceptthecolonizationofherbody.
Aswehaveseen,Celie’sBildungliesinthepowerofblacksisterhood.HerBildungwould
neverhavetakenplacehaditnotbeenforthefemalefriendshipssheestablishes.The
Helpalsofocusesonwomenbonding.Yet,themosttouchingelementofthenovelisthe
bondbetweentheblackdomesticworkersandthewhitechildren,andnotthebond
betweentheblackmaids,althoughithelpstofreethem.WhatreallyinterestsStockett,
andthereforethereader,isthebondbetweenAibileenandMaeMobleyandbetween
ConstantineandMissSkeeter.Moreover,Constantine’sstoryisalwaysatthebackof
reader’smind,assheismadementionoffromearlyon.ThebondbetweenSkeeterand
hermaidiswhathasdrivenhertowritetheblackmaids’stories.Constantinewaslikea
mothertoSkeeterandsuddenlydisappearedfromthehousehold,andwhatreally
happenedtoConstantineformsaparallelstorytothemainplot.Thetwointertwine
whenSkeeteraskshermomwhathappenedthatmadeConstantineleave,andisdeeply
woundedwhensherealizesshewasdismissedbyhermother.Thus,weseethatthe
bondbetweenConstantineandSkeeter,ablackandawhitewoman,isatthecenterof
thenovel.ThisimpressionisfurtherstrengthenedwhenwelookatStokett’sown
motivationforwritingTheHelp,asshewasinspiredbyherownmaid.Weunderstand
thatSkeeterisaversionofherself,andthatConstantineaversionofherownmaid,
Demetrie.
ForthemaidAibileen,thebondshedevelopswithMissSkeeterislifechanging,asthe
lattermakesherrealizethatshecouldbecomemorethanamaid.SkeetergetsAibileen
towritedownherexperiencesasablackmaid,andwritingisanactofresistanceanda
52
processofeducation.Withhernewfoundvoice,attheendofthenovelAibileen
considersthat“MaybeIoughttokeepwriting,notjustforthepaper,butsomethingelse,
aboutallthepeopleIknowandthethingsIseenanddone”.(Stockett199)Skeeteristhe
onetoincentivizeAbileen’sindependence.
ThebondbetweenSkeeterandMinnyisnotasobvious,asthetwousuallyendup
fighting.ToMinny,Skeeterstartsoutbeingjustsomeonewhousestheminorderto
publishanovel–muchthesamecritiqueasKatherynStocketthasreceivedfromthe
blackcommunityonbehalfofhernovel.Yet,Minny’sneedforchangeisgreaterthanher
distrustforSkeeter,andsheendsupbenefittingfromSkeeter’shelp.Oneevenwonders
whetherthetitleofthenovelhasadoublemeaning.Notsimplyreferringtothemaids,
TheHelpcouldalsorefertoSkeeterwhohelpsthehelp,orthewomeningeneralhelping
eachother.
ThebondbetweenMinnyandMissCeliaisalsoelaboratedinthenovel.Minnybecomes
MissCelia’smaid,andalthoughthelatterdoesnothaveanychildren,thisiswhatbrings
thetwowomentogether.Celianeedssupportduringadifficulttime,andMinnyisa
friendandisthereforher,althoughtemperedasusual,throughthespontaneous
abortionsandCelia’stroublesinhousekeeping.FromMissCelia,Minnylearnsthata
whitewomancanandshouldtreatablackwomanasanequal,asMissCeliehasher
sittingatthesametablewheneatinglunchandnevertreatsherlikejustamaid.
Moreover,sinceMissCeliaisaterriblechef,Minnyunderstandsthattheknowledgeshe
hasaboutcookingisvaluable.FromMinny,MissCelialearnstobestrong,toconfront
bulliesandtonotcaresomuchaboutwhatotherpeoplethinkofher.
Thus,whatwefindinbothnovelsisauniverseofwomen.Oppressedastheyareby
whiteeliteandblackpatriarchy,theystillmanagetosticktogether,andthatisalsothe
finalmessage.CeliecouldnothavefreedherselfwereitnotforthesupportofShug,
Sofiaandhersister.Theyalldependononeanother,likeatightlyknitquilt–a
frequentlyusedsymbolinAfrican-Americanliterature.Weseeitasasymbolofthebond
betweenwomenwhenSofiaandCeliemakeaquilttogetherasawayofreconciliation.
Forasmuchasmanyfeelthenovel’sdepictionofblackmenisexaggerated,themenalso
53
formpartofthequilt’spatchwork.Weseethatattheend,whereevenMr.____andCelie
arereconciled.
Still,TheColorPurpleismarkedbyawomanistdoctrine.Hereishowthewomanist
doctrineisdescribedin“InSearchofourMothers’Gardens”:
“IntegraltoWalker’screationofmythisherwomanistideology,avisionaryand
archetypaldoctrineofAfrican-Americanfeminismthatprivilegesthefollowing:
sororalbonds;thepossibilityofsexualintimacybetweenwomenandthe
acceptanceofsexualandnon-sexualloveformen;thepreferenceforwomen’s
culture;theacknowledgementandaffirmationofwomen’sstrength;acommitment
tothesurvivalandwholenessofblackpeople,maleandfemale;andawoman’slove
oftheSpirit,love,theFolkandherself,regardlessoftheforcesthatseektodistortor
destroythatlove”(InSearchofOurMothers’Gardensxi-xii).
TheHelpalsoproposeswomanismasthesolutionagainstoppression.However,the
differenceliesintherangeofthetermwomanism.InWalker’snovel,womanismis
restrictedtobondingbetweenblackwomen.InStockett’snovel,ontheotherhand,
womanismmeansnotonlybondingbetweenblackwomen,butalsobetweenblackand
whitewomen.
AtnotimeistheiranymentionofaquiltinTheHelpasasymbolofunityintheblack
community.ThisisafeatureofAfrican-AmericanliteraturethatStockettmostprobably
isfamiliarwith,buthasleftout.Itmightnotcomenaturaltohertousethissymbol.Also,
shemightbecarefulinimitatingtoomanyfeaturesfromAfrican-Americanliteraturein
fearofaccusationsofplagiarismoroftryingtoohardtobeablackwriter.Still,there
couldbeanotherexplanation.Notonlyisthequiltlacking,butthereaderalsowonders
whetheritreallyistheblackcommunitythatStockettseekstounite.
ThewomenformthecenterofTheColorPurple,andweenterintoafemaleuniverse
onceweopenthenovel.Thewoman’ssphereisthehome,whichiswhymuchofthe
actiontakesplaceinsideandbetweenfamilymembers.ThisisalsotrueforTheHelp.
Themaids,apartfromhavingthekitchenastheirworkplace,meetwithSkeeterinthe
kitchenorthechurchtosharetheirstories.AfterYuleMayisimprisoned,alltheblack
54
maidsintheneighborhoodcometogetherinthekitchentotelltheirstory.Allthe
importantandsecretconversationsaboutthebookprojectalsotakeplaceeitherin
churchorinthekitchen.ThekitchenisthesettingduringSkeeterandAibileen’sfirst
realconversation.Aibileenrelates“Igointhekitchen,MissSkeeterinthere.Sheleaning
againstthecounter,gotaseriouslookonherface,evenmoreseriousthanusual.”
(Stockett9)
Apartfromfocusingonthebondonlybetweenblackwomen,andnotwomeningeneral,
AliceWalkerhasalsoincludedlesbianismasanelementinTheColorPurple.Infact,the
novelhasbeenridiculedbyliterarycriticsforits,tosome,obsessivefocuson
lesbianism.However,UplabdiSangwanbegsforarevisionofthewaylesbianismhas
beeninterpretedinthenovel.Accordingtothecritic,theinterpretationhasfocused
solelyonthesexualphenomena,therebyexcludingtheemotionalbondbetweentwo
femalepartners.Itseemsthatsomeoftheliterarycriticshaveforgottenthatlesbians
actuallyfallinlove,anddon’tonlystaytogetherforsexualpleasure.Althoughitistrue
thatitisShugwhoteachesCelieaboutsexualityandthattheyexploreittogether,their
relationshipisfoundedonmorethanjustsex.
Besides,asSangwanpointsout,Walker’sfocusonlesbianismhasapurpose,andisnot
thereonlytoshockthereaders.Lesbianismbecomesawayofempoweringwomen.The
meninTheColorPurpleexploitthewomensexuallyandhavemadesexameansof
control.Onlythroughtakingbackherownsexuality,andenjoyingitwithwomenthat
willnotusesextooppressher,canCelieembarkuponthepathtowardstrueselfhood.
Lesbianismbreaksthepatternsofcontroltheblackmenhaveestablished.
Concerningtheemotionalaspectoflesbianism,thelovethattwowomensharebecomes
symbolicofbondsbetweenwomen,aconceptWalkerintroducesinhernovel.(Sangwan
202)Sisterhoodleadstoareformulationofthepowerstructuresbetweenmenand
women,wherethewomenstandtogetherandbecomestrongerasagroup.Sangwan
reflectsthatfemalebondinghelpsthewomenbreakfreefromthestereotypesthatthe
blackmenandthewhitesocietyusetolabelthem.Twosuchstereotypesarethemule
andthejezebel.AccordingtoscholarRupeSimms’definition,mulesare“insensible
brutesandsub-humanbeastswhowereonlytobevaluedfortheirlabor”.(Simms879)
55
AsSangwannotes,Celieisatrappedinthestereotypeofamuleinthefirstpartofthe
novel,workinglikeamulefirstinherstepfather’shome,andthenherhusband’shome.
Theonlywaytoescapethisstereotypeandmakethemenrespectheristounitewith
otherwomen–whichshedoes.
Anotherstereotypeshefreesherselfof,isthatofthejezebel.Ajezebelisaprovocative
womanwithanuncontrollablesexualappetite.ThemeninthenovelaccuseCelieof
beingsuchawoman,wheninrealitytheyaretheonestosexuallyexploither.Tofree
herselffrombeingtreatedasamuleandajezebel,Celieneedstostandupforherself
andtakecontrolofherownsexuality.Shegoesonajourneyinwhichherawarenessof
thesituationawakensthroughlearningfromotherwomen.
Tosumup,therearebothsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenTheHelpandTheColor
Purpleregardingthefemaleuniversetheauthorshavecreated.Bothnovelsintroduceus
toawomanistdoctrinewherewomenloveeachother,standtogetherandhelpeach
other.However,whereasStockettseekstouniteblackandwhitewomen,AliceWalker
focusessolelyonblacksisterhood.Anotherdifferenceisthedegreeoflovethewomen
share,asthelovethewomenfeelissostrongthatittranslatestolesbianisminTheColor
Purple.AnotherdifferenceliesintheprotagonistandwhatkindofBildungsromanwe
aredealingwith.Inmyopinion,TheHelpcanalsobecalledaBildungsroman,butweare
talkingabouttheBildungofthewhitefemaleprotagonist,andnotofanyoftheblack
characters.
4.2Doubleoppression
TheColorPurpleclearlyshowsthedoubleoppressionblackwomenaresubjectto.Celie
isnotonlyoppressedbecausesheisblack,butalsobecausesheisawoman.The
mistreatmentstartsalreadywhensheisachild,asherstepfathersystematicallyrapes
her.Herhusbandtellsherhowdumb,uselessanduglysheis.“Youblack,youpore,you
ugly,youawoman.Goddam,hesay,younothingatall.”(Walker102)Thismessageis
repeatedtoherbysociety,whoalsolabelsherasdumb,uselessanduglyforbeinga
blackwoman.
56
KathrynStockettisalsoawareofthedoubleoppressionofblackwomen,whichis
reflectedbyhernovel.ThereaderseesitinthecaseofMinny,whoisbeatenbyher
husbandonvariousoccasions.Minnyknowsitiswrongtoacceptthemistreatment,but
issoafraidthatLeroywillleaveherandthekidsthatsheputsupwithit.Shedoes
howeverthinkabouthowherlifecouldbewithoutherwhiteemployersandher
husbandoppressingher,andwonders“WhoknowswhatIcouldbecome,ifLeroywould
stopgoddamnhittingme”.(Stockett185)Withthis,Stocketttransmitstheideathat
whitepeoplearen’ttheonlyoneswhohaveheldAfrican-Americanwomenback,but
alsotheirblackmen.
Infact,MinnyismoreafraidofherhusbandLeroythansheisofherwhiteemployers.
WhenSkeeterproposestoincludealsoLeroy´sthoughtsonsegregationintohernovel,
Minnypanicsandtriestoescapehercompromise.SheknowsthattellingLeroywillget
herintrouble,forherhusbandwillsurelydisapproveofthebookproject.Besides
Minny,theotherblackwomeninTheHelparealsosubjecttoadoubleoppression.Even
withoutthedomesticviolence,theirroleisinferiortothatoftheirhusbands.Themen
expectthemtotakecareoftheirfamily,inthesamewaythatwhitepeopleexpectthem
totakecareoftheirfamilies.
Despitebeingoppressedbyallpartsofsociety,severalblackfeministsdescribethe
blackwomanasirrepressible.“Sheisinsulted,sheholdsupherhead,sheisscorned,but
sheproudlydemandsrespect”(Collins92)InTheColorPurple,Shugisthe
personificationoftheblackirrepressiblewoman.Shedoesnotletwhitepeoplenor
blackmenoppressher.Sofiaisanotherseeminglyirrepressiblewoman,describedby
Celieas“Solid.Likeifshesitdownonsomething,itbemash.”(Walker28)Shefights
backwhenherhusbandbeatsherandhasthestrengthtoleavehimwhensheseesthat
itisnecessaryforherandthechildren.However,shebreaksunderthelong-termabuse
fromthewhitemayorandhiswife.
MinnyisTheHelp’sirrepressiblewoman.Shealsoleavesherhusbandforbeatingher,
andshedarestojointhebook-projecteventhoughsheknowsbothherhusbandand
societywillkillhershouldtheyfindout.Shealsoshowsthattheblackwoman“is
57
scorned,butsheproudlydemandsrespect”.Thisweclearlyseefromtheepisodewhere
Minnybakesachocolatepieforherex-employerafterbeingfired;acakemadeoutof
herownexcrement.Itisanactofrevengefornotbeingrespected.
Whatthenabouttheblackwomenwithasubmissivecharacter,womenlikeCelieand
Aibileen?Blackfeministsareawarethat“fartoomanyblackwomenremainmotionless
ontheoutside…butinside?”(Collins99)Seeninthislight,thereishopealsoforthe
Celie’sandtheAibileen’softheworld.Onthesurfaceitseemsthattheyhaveaccepted
theirfate,butthefeministsurgeustodigdeeper.Beneaththesurfaceiswherewefind
theresistance.Theytalkof“behavioralconformityalongwithhiddenresistance”
(Collins97)TheHelpisademonstrationofthis.Themaidsgoonwiththeirdailychores
inthewhitehouseholdswhileatthesametimecontributingtoSkeeter’snovel.They
keepquietinpublic,butfightagainsttheoppressioninsecret.TheblackmaidsinThe
Helpthuspersonifyblackfeministthoughtofsilentresistance.
TheHelpandTheColorPurpleshowustheinnerthoughtsofthecharactersthroughthe
diariesofthewomen.Theactofwritingisinitselfsubversiveandanactofrebellion,
whichissomethingalmostalloftheliteraryscholarsagreeon.(Smith8)Celiemight
seemlikeanobodywhomakesnoresistance.However,asshematuresthroughher
observations,shebecomesawareofallthethingsthatarewronginsociety.Thewomen
havenotmentallysuccumbedtosociety’sdefinitionofthem.Thisiswhatblackfeminists
call“thepowerofself-definition”.(Collins97)
Aibileen’scomfortingwordstoMaeMobleyisbothamessageofloveandanactof
resistance.Shesaystothelittlegirlthat“Youiskind.Youissmart.Youisimportant”,
somethinghermothernevertellsher.(Stockett198)Itisamessageoflove,butatthe
sametimesheisresistingwhitesociety’sstandardonbeauty.MaeMobley’smother
doesnotpaymuchattentiontoherdaughterbecauseshedidnotturnouttheywayshe
hadhoped.Sheisnevergoingtobeabeautyqueenlikehermom.Hermotherrejectsher
daughterforbeingfat,messyandimperfect.ThiswhiteperfectionismiswhatAibileen
rejectswhensheemphasizesothervalues,likebeingsmartandkind.Shealsorejects
theroleofwomen,whostrivetobecomebeautyqueensinsteadofasmartpeople.As
sherepeatsthismessagetothegirl,itbecomesasoothingmantraforherselfaswelland
58
awaytoresistoppression,andtorejectotherpeople’sdefinitionofher.Aibileenisalso
smart,kindandimportant,nomatterwhatsocietysays.
Towhatextentisthisdoubleoppressiontrue?TheColorPurplehasbeencriticizedfor
portrayinga“monstrousblackmasculinity”thatisblownoutofproportions.(LaGrone
14)However,althoughamuchmildercase,weseethatStockettpicksupthetopicwith
Minnyandherabusivehusband.Infact,theviolentblackmanisacommonstereotypein
Americancultureandentertainment.(LaGrone17)IsStockettsimplyusingastereotype
forhernovel,whereastheviolentmeninTheColorPurplearebasedonWalker’sown,
possiblyexaggeratedexperiences?
Theblackfeministstrugglehasbeenevenmorechallengingthanthewhitefeminist
struggle.Thisisbecausetheblackfeministshavehadtostrugglebothfortherightsof
blacksandfortherightsofblackwomenatthesametime,whilealsoparadoxically
attackingblackmen.Thosewhocriticizedblackmenhaveoftenbeensilencedwithinthe
blackcommunity.Itwasseenasunworthytoattack“theblackfamily”(Collins13).
However,itwasafighttheblackfeministshadtotakeinordertotrulyfreethemselves.
ItisthereforeappropriatethatStockettaddressestheissue,althoughthemessageis
perhapslessauthenticcomingfromawhitewoman.Still,StockettisfromtheSouthof
theUnitedStateswhereblackandwhitepeoplelivesidebyside.Shemightbebasing
herdescriptionofMinny’shusbandonrealexperiences,eitherseenorlivedatsome
pointduringherlife.Anotherpointtohaveinmindbeforeaccusingherofreproducing
stereotypes,isherloveofreading.KathrynStocketthasbeenanavidreadersince
childhood,andsurelyhasreadthemostimportantAfrican-Americanworksbefore
beginningtowriteherownnovel.Alotoftheelementsshereproducescouldtherefore
havebeentakenoutofthebodyoftextsthatAfrican-Americanliteratureprovides,
worksthatinsomecasesprovideherwithsecond-handexperience.
Insum,bothTheColorPurpleandTheHelpdealwiththedoubleoppressionofblack
women.Thecharactersinbothnovelsfitthedescriptionthatblackfeministsgiveof
innerandsecretresistance,andbothauthorshaveincludedexamplesoftheblack
irrepressiblewoman.Whenitcomestothedepictionofblackmen,themeninTheColor
Purplearemuchmorevilified.Firstofall,allofthemareviolentwithoutexception,and
59
secondly,CelieisalotmoreoppressedandabusedthanMinny.Leroy’streatmentof
Minnybringsnonewinsightintoblackdomesticviolence,butratherseemstoreplicate
thestereotypesandprejudicestowardsblackmen.Yet,doubleoppressionisan
importanttopicintheblackfeministstruggle,anditisthereforeappropriatefor
Stocketttoaddresstheproblem.
Wefindamessageofvindicationandacallforactionattheendofeachnovel.The
maids’freedomisaresultoftheirbook-projectandhence,oftheirownactions.Secretly
theymusthavewishedthechangetocome,sincetheywerewillingtoriskitallforthe
novelabouttheirlivestobepublished.Minnyescapesfromherviolenthusband,ashe
threatenstokillherafterbeingfiredbecauseofMinnie’scontributioninthebook.
Aibileenisfiredforfalseaccusationsoftheft,becauseMissHillyknowsaboutthebook.
Bothwomenarefree,andtheythemselvesusetheword“free”todescribetheirnew
circumstances.
TounderlinethatTheHelpisnotonlyanovelabouttheoppressionofAfricanAmericans,butalsoabouttheoppressionofwomen,thewhitecharacterSkeeterisalso
freedthoughtheprocessofwritinghernovel.Sheisliberatedfromthenarrowmindset
oftheSouthasshemovestocosmopolitanNewYork.Shenolongerhastopretendtobe
oneofJackson’sladies,andcandedicateherselftomoreimportantprojectsthanbeinga
hostess.
5.Conclusion
TheHelphasmanyelementsfromAfrican-Americanliterature,butdoesnottreatblack
identitywiththeweightitdeservestobegiven.Wheneverquestionsofself-worthor
bodyimagearebroughtup,weonlyseethisfromMissSkeeter’sperspective,thewhite
protagonist.Skeeterisgiventheroleofaheroine,anditisherBildungthatthenovel
follows.Theblackcharactersareonlythereforusandforhertofeelsorryfor,as
Stockettpretendstoteachwhitepeopleabouttheevilsofsegregationandthe
importanceofmoralstandards.Theblackcharactersbecomevictimsinsteadofstrong
femaleheroinesinwhatshouldhavebeentheirownstory.Assuch,wenoticethatthe
writeriswhite,andthatshethereforehasnotbeenabletocreateablackheroine.
60
NeitherdotheblackcharactersinTheHelphaveasplitidentity,afeelingthatother
African-Americanfemalewritersmostoftenincludeintheirnovels.Thereisnosearch
forone’srootsinAfrica,andingeneralnointerestintheAfricanpartofbeingan
African-American,likewefindinforinstanceTheColorPurple.Stockettis,however,
familiarwithmanyelementsthatcharacterizetheAfrican-Americancommunity,for
exampletheirdialectandtheimportantroleofreligion.Therefore,shewritesinAfricanAmericanVernacularEnglishinthesectionsdedicatedtotheblackmaids,andshe
highlightstheimportanceofreligioninthecharacters’lives.Thechurchhelpsthemaids
uniteandthisiswhatultimatelyleadsthemtofreedom.However,theywouldnever
haveembarkedupontheroadtowardsfreedomhaditnotbeenforthewhiterescuer,
Skeeter,whoinitiatestheprocess.
InbothTheColorPurpleandTheHelp,thesisterhoodbetweenthewomeniswhat
ultimatelyfreesthem.Yet,thesisterhoodinTheHelpincludesbothwhiteandblack
women.ThisisradicallydifferentfromTheColorPurpleandthemajorityofAfricanAmericanfemaleliterature,wheresisterhoodisbetweenblackwomenonly.
Insum,TheHelpoffersaverywhiteperspectiveonwhatitwasliketobeablackmaid
duringthe60sintheUnitedStates.Thus,IagreewithBessMontgomerywhowascited
intheintroduction,onherstatementthatwhitewriterswritingaboutblackcharacters
willalwayswritefromawhitesensibility.ProfessorVinyardthoughtthatsignificant
experiencefromtheblackcommunitycouldmakeawhitewriterabletowriteaboutthe
blackexperience.Asshowninthispaper,awhitewritertendstovictimizetheblack
charactersandcreatewhiteheroesorheroines.Vineyardisrightinthatthewhite
writerscanpickupimagery,style,characterizationsandcontextsfromeitherreading
African-AmericannovelsorotherwiseimmergingthemselvesinAfrican-American
culture.StockettdoesthiswhensheimitatesAfrican-AmericanvernacularEnglish,
whenshebaseshercharactersonmanyofthesamestereotypesthatWalkerusesinThe
ColorPurple,andwhenshepickschurchandthekitchenascommonsettingsinthe
novel.Yet,howevermuchsheimitatesthestyle,KathrynStockettwillalwayswritefrom
awhitesensibility.Thus,itisimpossibletoclassifyTheHelpasAfrican-American
61
literature,anditwouldbewisesttojustconsideritahistoricalnovel–asentimentalone
assuch.
Withthatbeingsaid,althoughStockettcanbecriticizedforindulginginsentimental
escapism,thebondbetweentheblackmaidsandthewhitechildrenistrulytouchingin
thestory.Yet,atouchingnovelwithwhitecharactersfeelingsorryforoppressedblack
maids,writtenbyawhiteauthor,isnotwhattheAfrican-Americancommunitywants,
especiallynotinthetwenty-firstcentury.African-Americanliteratureisnowata
differentstage,withforinstanceurban,romanceandsciencefictionnovelswithstrong
andindependentblackcharacters,andthesameistrueforpopularculture.Themessage
wereceivefromthemusicindustryisclear:African-Americansarethenewrulersofthe
world,andtheywillfrownuponanynovelpityingeitherthemortheirpast.Asforwhat
commonblackpeoplethink,thenumbersfromthesurveyonUncleTom’sCabinspeak
forthemselves.Notonlydoblackpeoplefrownuponthenoveltoday,butasmanyas
threeoutoffiveblackAmericansevenconsideritanAnti-Negrotext.Shouldanyother
whitewriterwishtowriteabookaboutAfrican-Americancharacters,heorsheshould
beverycarefulnottowriteyetanothersentimentalnovelfilledwithblackvictims.It
wouldbemuchmoreinterestingtoseeawhiteauthorwriteanovelwithastrongblack
heroine.Thiswoulddomoretostrengthenblackandwhitesisterhoodthandepicting
blackandwhitefriendshipsonlybasedonwhitesupremacy.
62
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