Summary
Pleasuring the senses.
The stylistic diversity of Middle Dutch epical poetry
Chapter 1: Introduction
This study aims to describe the stylistic diversity within Middle Dutch epic (in the
sense of narrative) poetry. The underlying idea of this research is that our
understanding and perception of these literary works will increase when we have
knowledge of their stylistic varieties. This study does not want to date texts or
identify authors, unlike most researches into older literature, but to describe and
differentiate characteristic poetic language for its own sake.
Part of this study consists of objective, quantitative analyses, but in some chapters,
when the phenomena discussed are not countable, a more reflective method is used.
The method is comparative: by comparing texts and passages the characteristic
features of the texts are determined. This comparison is focused on five broad
phenomena which are specified in consecutive chapters: the technique of rhyming,
information density, repetitive style, conversations and expressiveness. The main
reason for this multiform approach of a broad stylistic spectrum is the fact that it
offers the possibility to study the relationship of different stylistic phenomena and
techniques.
The corpus consists of some twenty narrative texts, many of which have a
relatively canonical status -- original Middle Dutch creations as well as translations and belong to various epical sub-categories. All of them are composed in rhyming
couplets. An important role is assigned to several versions of the same story, like
Roman van Lanceloet and Lantsloot vander Haghedochte, two translations of the Old
French Lancelot en prose. It is when two poets tell the same story that their
differences in style will become manifest more pregnantly. Apart from the two stories
mentioned above, the corpus consists of: the Limburg Aiol and the Flemish Aiol,
Beatrijs, De reis van Sint Brandaan, Ferguut, Diederic van Assenede’s Floris ende
Blanchefloer, Karel ende Elegast, Vanden levene ons Heren, Moriaen, the
fragmented version of Wrake van Ragisel and the version in the Lancelot
compilation, Willem’s Reinaert, Reinaerts historie, the Flemish Rose and Heinric’s
Rose, Segher Diengotgaf’s Trojeroman, the Brabant and Flemish narratives about the
Borchgravinne van Vergi, and Walewein, both Penninc’s and Pieter Vostaert’s
version.
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Chapter 2: The technique of rhyming
Rhyming couplets are the formal standard for all Middle Dutch epic poems. There is,
however, a big difference in the techniques the authors used to get this rhyme
materialized. Four rhyming techniques can be discerned: formulaic stopgaps, nonformulaic stopgaps, doublets and manipulation of word order. Measuring shows that
the texts differ greatly as to the intensity of the use and the combinations of these
techniques. Based on this outcome, several rhyming profiles can be discerned. First,
those in which many stopgaps are used, like in Lanceloet. Second, the rhyme profile
in which the verses are mainly filled with doublets, like in Floris ende Blanchefloer.
Finally, those in which the author deals with the verse space in a very economic way
by changing the word order and avoiding stopgaps and doublets, like in Ferguut. The
other texts in the corpus can, to a certain extent, be classified in these three rhyme
profiles.
Only very sporadically do Middle Dutch epic poets use other rhyme schemes than
rhyming couplets. The most frequent deviation from the standard is alternating end
rhyme. It is striking that the use of other rhyme schemes mainly occurs in passages
that, as regards the contents, deviate from the surrounding text, for instance in
prayers, songs or autonomous stories.
From the frequent use of conventional rhyming words and stopgaps it may be
concluded that the poet has adopted a somewhat pragmatic attitude towards rhyme.
He doesn’t show an awareness that rhyme could be more than a mere question of
similarity of sound and could have a subtle semantic dimension as well. Probably,
this has to do with the fact that a writer of an extensive narrative text cannot afford to
linger over the quality of his rhyme. By using fixed rhyming couplets and stopgaps he
could maintain a high writing speed.
Chapter 3: Density of information
More than once it has been noted that many Middle Dutch epic poems are longwinded. To some extent, this is true: there are works styled in a long-winded way.
However, it turns out that the density of information (the amount of information
worded by poets in a specific space) can vary strongly in the corpus: some stories are
formulated in a strikingly concise style. Prolixity can be divided into different types:
(1) prolixity based on repetition of words, which is found in every epical text; (2)
prolixity as a result of large-scale repetitions, which is found in Moriaen; (3) prolixity
in an elaborate specification of the facts narrated, as is the case with Diederic van
Assenede. There are also varied types of conciseness: poets with a pithy way of
expressing themselves, like Willem shows in his Reinaert, and the extremely concise
style of the Limburg Aiol-poet.
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Measurements confirm that the information density of the texts can vary strongly.
Most striking are the differences between parallel translations like Lanceloet and
Lansloot and between the two versions of the Wrake van Ragisel. In some texts it is
clear that prolixity is the result purely of specific rhyming techniques such as the use
of stopgaps. One should realize, after all, that a concise way of expression can never
completely interchange with a long-winded one, as there are always subtle semantic
differences between both ways of writing. It is exactly these subtle semantic
differences that could have been the reason for a poet to write laboriously.
Chapter 4: Formal repetitions
The third phenomenon discussed in this study is the occurrence of formal repetitions.
Some poets use repetitive stylistic devices, such as parallelism and enumerations in a
very inventive way and on a large scale, for instance Willem (in his Reinaert),
Diederic van Assenede and Willem van Affligem. But, as is proven by
measurements, they are surpassed by the poet of the Flemish Rose and by the poet of
Vanden levene ons Heren.
A comparison between these two texts illustrates that they differ widely: the
repetitive parts in Vanden levene ons Heren are more extensive than those in the
Flemish Rose. In this Rose the repetitive passages give the idea of having been
deliberately composed, whereas Vanden levene ons Heren shows a more improvised,
associative style. This difference in style can probably be connected with the different
ways in which both texts were created: the well-considered use of language of the
Flemish Rose seems to have a more written dimension, while the passionate style of
Vanden levene ons Heren may have known an oral background.
A poet can use repetitive stylistic devices because he wants to give his verses a
certain rhythm and melodiousness; another motive can be to draw the attention to the
contents of a passage by a striking versification.
Chapter 5: Conversations
Narrative poets can style the speech of dramatis personae by various techniques.
Some poets clearly aim at dynamic dialogues, in which the persons are speaking only
for a short time and taking quick turns, an effect that is being intensified by the
omission of speaker indication. Other poets prefer their characters to speak for quite
some time in more static dialogues.
The characters in Middle Dutch epic poetry tend to show an elevated and polished
speech. Nevertheless, the genre also knows much hidden variety on this point: in
Floris ende Blanchefloer the way of speaking is extremely polite and veiled, whereas
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in Brandaan the characters speak noticeably frankly. In Ferguut or in Vostaert’s
Walewein the characters even use rude terms of abuse.
In some texts, like Reinaert or Lanceloet, the conversations are very lively. It is,
however, difficult to find out which features cause this liveliness. There may be a
connection with the apparently ‘realistic’ and nonchalant speech of the characters. All
this stylistic wealth demands a subtle diction, in which the reciter uses all his talents
to realize the nuances of the spoken word.
Chapter 6: Expressiveness
The final descriptive chapter of this study is focused on phenomena that are
somewhat intangible and difficult to indicate. They are denominated here as
‘expressiveness’, meaning the extent to which the poet realizes visual and lively
stylistic effects. These effects should be subject to investigation, notwithstanding
their vagueness and subjectivity, as they are highly important to the quality of a
literary text. Moreover, a comparative analysis of the corpus shows that poets differ
greatly in ‘expressiveness’.
Narrative poets achieve visual effects by using variety of means. The authors of
Brandaan, Ferguut, the Flemish Rose and Pieter Vostaert in Walewein enliven their
texts by all kinds of exotic words which will not be found in works of other Middle
Dutch poets. Another technique by which poets intensify the expressiveness of their
verses, is the use of striking expressions, such as comparisons and metaphors. In
Ferguut the rude, vulgar phrasing is eye-catching, and in Reinaert the ambiguous,
often obscene expressions are remarkable. Finally, a visual expressiveness develops
when poets mention conspicuous details. This is what we see in Ferguut, Walewein,
Reinaerts historie, Reinaert, en Vanden levene ons Heren. Especially the explicit
mention of lugubrious, shocking elements such as physical violence and beastly
behaviour is striking. Their choice to describe these subjects in such a vivid way is
characteristic of these poets.
Chapter 7: Genres and sources
Though verse techniques and stylistic differences run analogously to differences in
genre within the Old French and Middle High German epical art, the Middle Dutch
stylistic diversity, as described in this study, cannot be related to differences in
genres. Texts belonging to the same genre or describing comparable themes may
have a completely different characteristic language. Examples are the Arthurian
romances Moriaen and Ferguut or both parts of Walewein: they all differ remarkably
in style. Besides, it is significant that there are similarities between works belonging
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to different genres, which puts into perspective the influence of subject matter on
style.
Style research differs fundamentally in method and purpose from research into
translation techniques. One can describe validly the language of Middle Dutch
translations, without regarding the sources of these works. Nevertheless, the influence
of the sources is intriguing, the more so as the corpus mainly consists of translations.
Sometimes the Middle Dutch poets borrow their vocabulary or metaphors directly
from Old French source texts. But the influence of these sources on Middle Dutch
style variation has been rather relative, which is clear from the extreme differences
between Middle Dutch versions of the same source. The conclusion must be that in
the first place Middle Dutch poets were responsible for the range of styles here
described.
Chapter 8: Orality and reception
The influence of orality and Latin rhetoric style instructions (‘artes poeticae’) on the
language of medieval literature has always been underlined in medieval studies. This
influence, however, cannot sufficiently account for the style variety in Middle Dutch
epic poetry. The fact is, that contemporary works from the same region sometimes
appear to have been designed in a completely different way. It is not clear why such
works should be so differently rooted in a presumed oral tradition, nor is it clear if
they have known a different influence by the artes. It is more probable that many
forms of literature can be regarded as universal artistic techniques, not as indicators
of orality nor of influence of the Latin traditions. All the same, it is obvious that the
contribution of the reciters must have been large: many style effects discussed in this
study postulate an emphatic, dramatic performance.
Neither can the style variation be reduced to regional patterns. This is illustrated
by the immense diversity within the region of Flanders at about mid-thirteenth
century. On the basis of this study it is impossible to point at regionally specified
styles, though it is remarkable that Flemish and Brabant versions of Old French
stories differ so strikingly. It is difficult to relate the style variation to the public of
Middle Dutch epic. Though the influence of this public is unclear, it is likely that the
age-long dominance of rhyme in Middle Dutch narrative poetry can be connected
with the public’s high appreciation of this literary form, and with an aversion to
prose.
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Chapter 9: Authors
The individuality of the medieval poet is an important contributor to a clear
understanding of the stylistic diversity shown in this study. The individuality makes
clear what factors such as genre, sources, orality or public could not explain, namely
why there is such a diversity in style within Middle Dutch epic poetry. This diversity
must be based on a range of individual ways of expression. There may have been a
multitude of poets, all of whom wrote in a different way. However, there may also
have been only a few poets who had mastered a multitude of styles.
As it is unclear if poets had an unchanging and unique language, it is extremely
problematic to identify the authors and to attribute the texts to the authors on the basis
of their style. One cannot tell to what extent stylistic similarities are the result of
coincidence, of schooling or if they really point to the same author. Attribution based
on style becomes even more precarious, when we realize that some poets were able to
manipulate their language very subtly and excessively.
Identification based on style is difficult, but formulating poets’ profiles based on
their styles does offer perspectives. For instance, compared to the poet of Lanceloet,
the one who wrote Lansloot seems to have given more priority to the styling of his
novel. Poets like Willem (in the Reinaert) or the poet of the Flemish Rose do even
more: they show a playful fixation of form.
In their works or poetical discussion the authors vitually ignored matters of style.
Yet it is possible to put their manifest language in the perspective of a polemic in
which poets like Jacob van Maerlant, Willem van Affligem and the poet of Vanden
levene ons Heren were engaged at the end of the thirteenth century. They seem to
have adopted different attitudes as to both the fictional content of romances and their
very stylized language.
Judging from the styling of their texts, the poets aimed at a refined public, which
may even have consisted of other authors. It is not unlikely that many of them
worked in an urban context. The medieval cities seem to have known a certain spirit
of artistic competition, that inspired the poets to develop their stylistic talents. Thus,
the lively world of the city led to a world of style just as vivid.
Chapter 10: Concluding remarks
This study has yielded a number of views. First, there is the observation that the style
of Middle Dutch epical poetry is anything but uniform, but of a rich diversity. This
diversity must mainly be located in mid-thirteenth-century Flanders, a region that has
known a flourishing literary culture, with a variety of poetic talents. It is likely that,
by their creative language, the authors of the Flemish epics have inspired later literary
artists in Flanders.
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A second conclusion concerns the individuality and ambition of the medieval
author. In spite of the fact that public and patronage fundamentally influenced
medieval literature and in spite of the possibility that medieval authors strived less for
originality than authors of later times did, the Middle Dutch epical poet shows a
strong individuality and artistry in his language and style. This study makes clear that
interpretation of style variation based on differences in extra-textual factors, such as
orality or way of reception, usually will be inadequate. Style is an intrinsic quality of
literature. The origin of a poet’s style, and his deviation from the style of other
writers, lies in himself and needs no external explanation: a poet’s style is primarily
founded in his individual language, his taste and talent.
Finally, one should realize that in this study only a limited part of all the stylistic
wealth of Middle Dutch epics has been revealed. As the Middle Dutch language is a
dead language to us, we will never be able to experience this language in the way the
original users did. Many nuances in language will remain concealed from the presentday investigator for ever.
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