St Ninian’s High School
GCE Unit 1 Part 1 D5 Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Equality Civil Rights in the USA 1945-1968
Electronic Textbook
J.Ewan, 2012
D5 Pursuing Life and Liberty: Equality in the USA, 1945-68
You will have to write one essay, from a choice of two on the exam paper.
Edexcel divide the course into four sections.
*The social and economic position of black citizens in the USA in the 1940s and early
1950s: the nature and extent of discrimination and segregation; signs of change by 1955.
*Martin Luther King and peaceful protest.
*Black power and the use of violence; the extent to which equality
had been achieved by 1968.
* The changing economic and social environment of the 1960s: the position of other
ethnic minorities.
The focus of this topic is on the struggle by black people in the USA for equal rights in the
years between the end of the Second World War and the death of Martin Luther King in
1968. Since the focus of this unit is on broad themes, questions will not be set which
concentrate exclusively on depth of knowledge, for example about one particular
individual or event, other than those which are specifically listed in the content bullet
points. Students will, however, be expected to demonstrate their understanding of the
themes defined in the content bullet points by the selection and deployment of relevant
information as exemplification.
Collectively, the four bullet points of the specification offer a framework for understanding
the themes of the exercise of power and the influence of ideological challenge to power.
The bullet points cannot be taken in complete isolation from one another and students
should develop an appreciation of links between them. For example, a question on the
role of federal power and authority straddles bullet points 1 and 2. Comparisons might be
invited on the philosophies and outlook of Martin Luther King and Black Power activists
(bullet points 2 and 3).
The first bullet point relates to the situation throughout the USA in the decade after the
Second World War. Students should understand something of the social, economic and
political position of blacks in different parts of the USA and how, if at all, this position was
changing. They should be aware of the impact of the Second World War, improving
employment prospects, internal migration and the beginnings of reform. They should be
aware of the work of the NAACP and understand the importance of the constitutional case
of Brown versus Board of Education (1954-55).
The second bullet point relates to the high profile campaign associated with Martin Luther
King in the late 1950s and the 1960s. Students should have an understanding of the
forces opposed to equal rights and of the ways in which this opposition expressed itself.
Students should have knowledge and understanding of the aims, methods and
effectiveness of the civil rights movement. They should understand the salient features of
the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1960, 1964, 1965 and 1968 in order to address the impact of
the campaigns and the role of federal authority.
The third bullet point relates to the rise of more militant black protest movements
1960s. Although students will benefit from some knowledge of the roots of the
Power’ movement, questions will not be set which focus on developments before
They should have knowledge and understanding of the divisions which developed
civil rights movement in the 1960s andthe consequences. Students should be aware
in the
‘Black
1960.
in the
of the
impact of the Vietnam War on the civil rights movement but detailed questions on the
conflict will not be set.
The fourth bullet point relates to the wider economic and social environment of the 1960s
and students should be aware of the protest culture associated with youth and the
Vietnam War, women’s liberation and the general cult of change and individual freedom.
They should be aware of issues relating to ethnic minorities such as Native Americans and
Hispanic immigration.
Edexcel GCE in History
© Pearson Education Limited 2011
A Brief History of the South
Antebellum Slavery and plantation life – by 1776 a fifth of the population were black
slaves. When the colonists rose up against Britain and established their own govt under
the constitution there was discussion about slaves – economic pressure led to the 3/5ths
compromise (5 slaves = 3 free people) for tax and representation. Mainly worked on high
labour crops – tobacco and cotton plantations in the South (as North industrialised less
labour needed, also those crops are “hard labour, cotton has spines and needles, very hot
conditions) Slaves treated depending on family but some very harshly indeed.
Civil War 1861-5 – President Abraham Lincoln said slavery “the greatest wrong inflicted
on any people” 1860 South forms the Confederacy – a separate nation to protect slavery,
and therefore their economy was threatened. South versus North for abolition of slavery
(note Lincoln decided against slavery for economy and military reasons, he did believe
whites were superior.)
Reconstruction – ex-Confederate states introduced “black codes” to ensure blacks didn’t
achieve any equality e.g. banned from buying land, couldn’t vote or go to school. These
codes were formalised into the Jim Crow laws – individual state laws that discriminated
against blacks and legalised segregation e.g. Blacks and whites couldn’t go to the same
school / theatre / café. Textbooks for black schools could not be stored in the same place
as books for white schools. The Supreme Court did nothing about the Jim Crow laws,
instead in the case Plessy Vs Ferguson in 1896 it ruled that Separate but Equal was fair.
The Court also ignored the fact blacks couldn’t vote in the South.
Ku Klux Klan. This white organisation was founded in the Confederacy in the aftermath
of the Civil War and resisted reconstruction. They had half a million members by 1870 but
were crushed by President Grant. By 1915 a new Klan had emerged using violence,
intimidation, burnings and lynchings as it’s tools for racism. By the mid 1920’s the Klan
had a membership of 4-5 million (15% of the eligible population.) Between 1885-1917
2734 Blacks lynched in the USA no one was prosecuted for these.
The Southern States are Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana North Carolina, South
Carolina, (the Deep South), Kentucky, Arkansas, Tennessee, Florida, West Virginia, Virginia
and Delaware. (South marked in Red, Deep South in Dark Red)
The Jim Crow Era
Jim Crow was the name given to the system of legal discrimination, prejudice and
disenfranchisement suffered by African Americans in the South of the US. It had it’s legal
backing in the 1896 Supreme Court Decision Plessy Vs Ferguson which ruled that
segregated facilities were constitutional providing they were “Separate but Equal.”
In practice African Americans were now second class citizens, living in poor
areas, with poor education provision with no vote. This was enforced by
beatings and lynchings across the South.
Examples of Jim Crow Laws across the South
•
"All passenger stations in this state operated by any motor transportation company
shall not have separate waiting rooms or space and separate ticket windows for the
white and colored races." Alabama
•
"All marriages between a white person and a Negro, or between a white person
and a person of Negro descent to the fourth generation inclusive, are hereby
forever prohibited." Florida
•
"Any person who shall rent any part of any such building to a Negro person or a
Negro family when such building is already in whole or in part in occupancy by a
white person or white family, or vice versa when the building is in occupancy by a
Negro person or Negro family, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and on conviction
thereof shall be punished by a fine of not less than twenty-five ($25.00) nor more
than one hundred ($100.00) dollars or be imprisoned not less than 10, or more
than 60 days, or both such fine and imprisonment in the discretion of the court."
Louisiana
"Any person...who shall be guilty of printing, publishing or circulating printed,
typewritten or written matter urging or presenting for public acceptance or general
information, arguments or suggestions in favor of social equality or of intermarriage
between whites and Negroes, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and subject to fine
or not exceeding five hundred (500.00) dollars or imprisonment not exceeding six
(6) months or both." Mississippi
•
•
"Books shall not be interchangeable between the white and colored schools, but
shall continue to be used by the race first using them. " North Carolina
•
"It shall be unlawful for any parent, relative, or other white person in this State,
having the control or custody of any white child, by right of guardianship, natural or
acquired, or otherwise, to dispose of, give or surrender such white child
permanently into the custody, control, maintenance, or support, of a negro." South
Carolina
•
"The conductors or managers on all such railroads shall have power, and are hereby
required, to assign to each white or colored passenger his or her respective car,
coach or compartment. If the passenger fails to disclose his race, the conductor
and managers, acting in good faith, shall be the sole judges of his race." Virginia
Describe the impact of the ‘Jim Crow’ laws on black citizens of the USA in the years
following the Second World War.
(20)
Indicative content
The question requires candidates to describe the main forms of discrimination practised
against black citizens in the southern states of the USA, in the years after the war.
Precise knowledge of the laws involved is not a requirement, since they are asked to
describe their impact, but the ability to define laws and relate them precisely to particular
effects can be rewarded at L3.
Reference can be made to education, social segregation, and the effect on political rights
and economic opportunity, as well as to the wider attitudes encouraged by the laws. The
incentive to migrate to the north is also relevant.
Reference to the actions of the KKK and the impact of lynching can be relevant, but for
reward at L3 there will need to be explicit links to the segregation laws – for example, in
defining inferior status and/or preventing black citizens from achieving justice and
protection. In levels 1 and 2 progression will be based on range and depth of relevant
material, but for L3 there will be explanatory links about the impact of segregation and
lack of rights on the lives of black Americans in the south
L1 - 1-5 Marks Mostly simple statements, supported by limited factual material.
Generalised.
L2 - 6-10 Marks Series of simple statements , limited links between statements. Material
unlikely to be developed.
L3 - 11-15 Marks Attempt analysis, shows understanding of the question. Includes
descriptive material, may stray from the focus of question. Factual material will be
accurate but may lack depth / relevance.
L4 16-20
Offers analytical response which relates well to the question and shows
understanding of the key issues. Analysis supported by accurate, relevant, and
appropriately selected factual material that demonstrates some range and depth.
What were the Jim Crow laws?
*Education impact - keep blacks down
*Social impact - segregation “separate but NOT equal”
* Political impact - disempowered
* Economic - low end of society
BLACKS INFERIOR - LYNCHINGS AND KKK SYMPTOM OF THIS
RESULTS People flee to north
racism entrenched and sanctioned by govt
Civil Rights as South and Govt preventing justice and protection.
Impact of World War Two
Armed Services Black people were only seen as equal on the front line. Race
segregation took place throughout the armed forces, and the majority of units were
segregated. In Kansas prisoners of war were served at the whites only area. Medical units
had to keep Black and White blood separately. This racial divide gave rise of a Double
V campaign - fight for victory abroad, and against racism at home. The Airforce
allowed Black people to train as pilots on a segregated airbase, however in the navy they
were limited to menial tasks until a limited number of sailors opened up promotion
opportunities to Blacks. African American POW’s in Germany were placed in Concentration
Camps.
Employment - As men left to join the services Black people’s gained employment. It was
not on an equal basis but instead “last to be hired, first to be fired.” Many Blacks
migrated to the north of the USA to gain work (2 million). March on Washington
Movement - A.P. Randolph suggested a march on Washington to gain equal opportunities
for Black people in the federal government. President FDR agreed with this and the
number of Black people in government employment rose from 50,000 to 200,000.
However, many areas of industry, such as railroads, still refused to employ Blacks.
CORE With increased racial tensions which eventually lead to rioting in Detroit in 1943 (25
Blacks and 9 Whites died) James Farmer, the son of a Methodist Minister, founded the
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE.) They organised sit-in protests in segregated areas.
NAACP Membership grew rapidly - from 50,000 before the war, to 450,000 by 1945.
Native Americans Native Americans were thought of lowly. There were major problems
of alcoholism and illiteracy and the reservations were limited. While Native Americans
wished to remove the Cowboys and Indians stereotype it remained. In 1942 the Iroquois
declared war on Japan and Germany. By 1944 the NCAI - National Congress of American
Indians was formed to launch legal challenges.
Civil Rights Organisations
National Association for the Advancement of Coloured Peoples (NAACP)
Oldest and Largest organisation. Organised legal challenges to “separate but equal” and
segregation
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
Led by Martin Luther King, organised Montgomery Bus Boycott
Moderate movement, focussed on education, non-violence, voter registration and local
improvement schemes.
Student Non-Violent Co-Ordinating Committee (SNCC)
Started in wake of Greensboro Sit-in, led by Stokely Carmichael and seen as the “shock
troops of the revolution.” Played an important part in Freedom Rides and Freedom
Summers, often at personal risk to those involved.
Congress for Racial Equality (CORE)
Open to anyone who believes all are equal.
1961 Organised first freedom ride - integrated groups travelling through South to test
desegregation.
President Truman and Civil Rights
President Truman “one man is as good as another so long as he is honest and decent and
not a nigger or a chinaman.”
“”When a mayor and a city marshall can take a Negro Sergeant off a bus in South
Carolina, beat him up and put out one of his eyes, and nothing is done about it by the
State Authorities then something is radically wrong with the system.” Truman
To Secure these Rights 1947 Presidential Committee on Civil Rights called for
measures to improve equality.
1947 New York Brooklyn Dodgers introduce 1st Black player Jackie Robinson.
1948 Truman desegregates the Army.
Executive Orders to end segregation in army and guarantee fair employment in civil
service.
WHY? Election year Northern African American votes would help (and did help) Truman to
win. Can’t lead the free world by example during Cold War?
1954 Brown Vs Board of Education
The NAACP found a test case to challenge segregation in education in Topeka, Kansas. A
landmark Supreme Court decision which meant that “Separate but Equal” was no longer
the case - the court decided all education should be desegregated. However, implementing
this would prove more difficult, leading to differences between de jure (in law) segregation
and de facto (in fact) segregation. KEY ISSUE IN SOUTH
BUT White response was harsh – White Citizens Councils introduced to fight
implementation of decision, KKK reinvigorated. Eisenhower did not get involved
1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott
1954 – Rosa Parks, tired after a day at work, refused to move from her seat. She was
arrested, the Black community mobilised and the Montgomery Bus Boycott began. The
campaign was run by the MIA, Montgomery Improvement Association, and a young
pastor, Martin Luther King Jr took on his first leadership role.The organisation was strong,
and the unity of the community together with economic pressure and a tight focus
ensured success. One year later, economically crippled the bus Company desegregated all
it’s busses.
A figurehead – Rosa Parks and a new leader emerges from this – Martin Luther King.
1957 Little Rock Nine
The Little rock campaign was organised by the NAACP in order to illustrate that Supreme
Court mandated desegregation in education was being obstructed by the South. Nine
African American students would attend Little Rock High School in Arkansas. The Arkansas
state Governor Faubus responded by putting the National Guard in front of the school to
prevent the students attending. Huge sympathetic media coverage meant that Eisenhower
was forced to send in the 101st Airborne Division of the US Army to protect the Little Rock
Nine and ensure their safety at school. It was a coup for the NAACP to force the
President’s involvement (perhaps due to the propaganda use of soldiers having to protect
students from racist attack during height of the Cold War.) However, the Deep South
remained entrenched against desegregation, and Governor Faubus closed the high school
of Alabama rather than continue with desegregation.
1960
Eisenhower and Civil Rights
Eisenhower did little to directly improve Civil Rights, although he did attempt to pass Civil
Right’s Bill in 1957 and 1960 but these acts improved little.
Sit-in’s
Organised by NAACP and MLK – lasts for a year, Supreme Court rules separate but equal
as unconstitutional.
February 1 - Four African American North Carolina Agricultural and Technical College
students sit down at a segregated Woolworth lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina
and wait to be served. The sit-in protest grew and media attention focussed upon it. This
grassrooots movement was quickly copied, and leaders such as MLK endorsed it.
This sparks sit-in protests throughout numerous other southern cities.
Freedom Summer & Freedom Rides 1961-3
“We planned the Freedom Ride with the specific intention of creating a crisis. We were
counting on the bigots of the South to do our work for us. We figured that the
government would have to respond if we created a situation that was headline news all
over the world, and affected the nation’s image abroad.” CORE director James Farmer
Small groups of integrated (white and African American) activists would “test” the
desegregation of the Federal transport networks by getting the bus through the Southern
States. The aim was publicity - CORE were the “shock troops” of Civil Rights. If they were
permitted it means desegregation was successful - if they weren’t then they would gain
positive media coverage.
Buses were burnt, activists attacked - white activists were physically attacked as “race
traitors.”This provoked the involvement of the federal government - Attorney General
Robert Kennedy took out an injunction against the KKK, and sent federal marshals to
enforce the desegregation of ALL interstate travel. However, RFK did a deal with
Mississippi that the federal government would not become involved if they maintained
order.
1963 - Year of Change - Birmingham
After a failed campaign in Albany, Georgia which suffered from having too many aims the
SCLC changed tactics.
Birmingham, Alabama was segregation at it’s worst. The population was around 40%
African American, and the Police Chief Bull Connor was known to be a violent racist. The
SCLC knew they could “cause a crisis” here. There had been fifty unsolved racially
motivated bombings between 1945 and 1962.
Martin Luther King was imprisoned - his Letter from Birmingham Jail, has become the
classic justification for a non-violence and the duty for civil disobedience, and firmly
established his moral leadership of Civil Rights.
The SCLC organised a business boycott. When they had run short of adult volunteers to
march due to Bull Connor’s arrests, they drafted in school students and children. Bull
Connor ordered fire hoses and dogs used on them. While many criticised using children,
MLK had not been present for the decision, and it was ultimately a successful tactic.
The Federal Government was forced to become involved due to media pressure and
sympathy in the North. JFK intervened in MLK’s imprisonment, and Birmingham was
desegregated by June.
MLK and the SCLC had never had a higher reputation.
JFK said “The Civil Rights movement should thank god for Bull Connor. He helped it as
much as Abraham Lincon.”
In Birmingham in September a group of the KKK bombed the 16th Street Church, which
had housed some of the Civil Rights leaders, killing 4 girls who were going to Sunday
School.
The March on Washington revived an old idea and commemorated the centenary of the
Emancipation Proclaimation. “For Jobs and freedom” - MLK moved the focus from
economic issues towards freedom. It included the NAACP, SCLC and SNCC and was
integrated - around a third of the marchers were white. Around a quarter of a million took
part.
I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its
creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal."
I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the
sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.
I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat
of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of
freedom and justice.
I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not
be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.
I have a dream today.
I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor
having his lips dripping with the words of interposition and nullification; one day right
there in Alabama, little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white
boys and white girls as sisters and brothers....
And when this happens, when we allow freedom to ring, when we let it ring from every
village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that
day when all of God's children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants
and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual,
"Free at last! free at last! thank God Almighty, we are free at last!"
MLK August 28, 1963
The event was a clear success showing the movement was well organised, peaceful and
supported by whites. The march gave the Kennedy govt the impetus for reform and the
Civil Rights Act of 1964 was prepared.
1964 Civil Rights Act
Passed by Lyndon Johnson, the year after Kennedy’s assassination. It outlawed major
discrimination, segregation in schools, work and public facilities along with voter
registration requirements. it also cost the Democratic party the support of the south for a
generation, while ensuring the Democratic party would receive the support of African
Americans.
1965 Selma
While discrimination had been outlawed, it remained very difficult for African Americans to
register to vote. The Selma campaign was designed to highlight this unfairness and the
failure of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to curb the discrimination.
it began as a grassroots movement, quickly involving the SNCC and the SCLC and Martin
Luther King and the campaign would focus on Voting Rights. Selma’s Sheriff Jim Clark was
to prove similar to Bull Connor in his actions.
On March 7 1965 600 marchers were attacked by state and local police using tear gas
and clubs. It became known as Bloody Sunday. Jim Clark had deputised every available
white male over 21. 17 marchers were hospitalised and the resulting TV images gained a
huge amount of sympathy for the cause in the North.
Two days later MLK organised a march of 2500, a white reverend was murdered for
supporting voters rights and the local hospital had refused to treat him.
2 days later, following a KKK murder of a white mother of five who had travelled to march
in support, President Johnson went on television to support Civil Rights, and announce the
Voting Rights Act.
1965 Voting Rights Act
Voting Rights Act of 1965 abolished literacy tests and made the attempts to intimidate or
exclude black voters illegal - 1965 High Point of MLK’s influence and power.
Moynihan Report, 1965 50% of Black men between 16-25 had criminal recordemphasised huge social problems - South viewed it as backing up their ideas. LBJ didn’t
even read it!
Radicalisation through Vietnam - escalation of war meant LBJ’s Great Society reform
project was derailed.
MLK - moral duty to speak out against war.”Standing before the world gutted by our own
barbarity.”
Watts Riots 1965- 1968
An incident of police brutality in August 1965 led to 5 days of the worst rioting America
had ever seen. 34 people died, and over $200 million damage was done. These riots broke
out each summer until 1968.
1968 Death of MLK
From 1965 onwards Martin Luther King changed focus - he would attempt to address the
economic segregation and discrimination faced, especially in the North as part of his Poor
Person’s Campaign.
A lack of understanding about the ghettos and urban African Americans hindered his
impact, as did his loss of federal support from President Johnson after MLK came out
against the war in Vietnam.
On April 4th 1968 Martin Luther King was assassinated while on the balcony of the
Lorraine Motel, Memphis by a white supremacist James Earl Ray.
Rioting broke out across America when news of MLK’s death spread.
Why did effective campaigns for desegregation in the southern states of the
USA develop in the years 1945–65?
This should take you 35 minutes
Indicative content
The question offers two elements of focus – the reasons for an effective campaign and its
timing in the decades after the war. Candidates who have the knowledge can refer to
long-term factors such as the effects of migration to the north on black awareness and
confidence, the development of black education and the impact of the war itself. However,
inclusion of these factors cannot be required.
L1 -BASIC
L2 - SIMPLE Factors such as the support of the Federal government, the organisation
and leadership offered by the Civil Rights Organisation and Southern churches, the role of
the media, white liberal opinion and individuals such as Martin Luther King can be used to
explain either or both the timing and the effectiveness of the campaign.
L3- DEVELOPED Develops one side of the focus i.e. reasons for effective
campaign OR it’s timing there will need to be explicit links to one or other focus
L4 BALANCED - can be attained by demonstrating the interaction of individual factors,
or by dealing explicitly with both timing and effectiveness.
L5 - DEVELOPED BALANCE WITH JUDGEMENT - analysis supported by accurate
relevant material demonstrates appropriate range and depth of knowledge and
understanding.
Why, in the years 1965–68, did the Federal Government become less supportive of black
protest in the USA than it had been in the years 1956–64?
(20) (ESSAY PLAN ONLY)
Indicative content
A number of reasons may be advanced for the decline in Federal support: the reforms
already achieved, increasing black violence and Federal reaction, the decline in the
influence of peaceful campaigns, the intransigent nature of the areas where progress was
needed [particularly in relation to welfare programmes, employment, housing and
education], actions and errors by individuals, and, interacting with all of these
developments, the impact of war in Vietnam. Candidates should be able to describe a
number of these factors, but it is unlikely that they will address them all in equal depth
within the time allowed.
While some factors, for example the nature of economic and social problems, can be
described in fairly general terms, good L2 responses and those at
higher levels require that some factors are supported by precise and accurate reference to
events, dates, and/or statistics.
For L3 and above, they must be able to relate them clearly
to the attitude of the Federal government, and explain why they made the government
less willing to intervene on behalf of black protest.
Those who can categorise factors, for example defining changes in black methods and
government priorities, or attribute a particular role to a particular factor such as Vietnam,
and use these ideas to demonstrate
interaction, will be operating at L4. Similarly, comparison of the overall character of the
specified time periods can be used to highlight particular role to a particular factor such as
Vietnam, and use these ideas to demonstrate interaction, will be operating at L4. Similarly,
comparison of the overall character of the specified time periods can be used to highlight
key factors and develop interaction or relative importance.
Black Power - Black radicalism
What is Black Power?
- rejection of non-violence
- King “tool of white men”
- white people unwanted in the movement
- Black supremacy
- radical social change
1930 Start of Nation of Islam. It was made famous in TV documentary “The Hate that
Hate produced.” Led By Elijah Muhammad from 1934-1975 who was known as the
prophet. Adoptees took Muslim name in place of their “slave name”. Allah originally
created people black. The central idea was that Black people are African not American and
should reject integration. The Nation of Islam provided an alternative to White religion.
Religious life would keep black self esteem, keep separate races and improve black
economic situation.
Temples were opened throughout North. This new aspect of race religion differed from
role of the Church in African American communities in the South crucially - it attacked
christian tenet of turn the other cheek and advocated armed self defence.
Malcolm X it’s leading prophet gained a large following, particularly in the North. He
entreated African Americans to protect themselves and to gain equality and black
supremacy “by any means necessary.” He became the voice of the ghetto.
Malcolm X was the extremist voice of Black community, he encouraged violence and race
hatred through his speeches and his writings, and in doing so gave a voice to the angry
African Americans of the north - those who were trapped economically, and who suffered
in the big cities. Malcolm X had been a pimp and a hustler, and spent time in prison where
he converted to Islam, he took the surname X to replace his “slave surname” Little.
The Nation of Islam had unrealistic aims - to return the entire African American population
to Africa, or to gain a separate “black” state. They were highly critical of Martin Luther
King, for what they percieved as an “Uncle Tom” role - working for the White federal
government. In turn he described the Nation of Islam as a “hate group.”
Elijah Muhammad was a human prophet - his “clay feet” of women and money led to a
dispute with Malcolm X, leading to Malcolm leaving the organisation in 1964.
Malcolm X’s position often made MLK look more moderate to Washington, 1964 “I’m here
to remind the white man of the alternative to Dr King.”
He was highly critical of NAACP and SCLC but never worked for Civil Rights at the front
line - indeed he never spent any time in the South where no organisations as effective as
those two.
Malcolm X did draw attention to conditions in the Ghettos and provided a black icon and
role model for youth - especially in his autobiography which speaks of alienation.
He “made black nationalism appealing to the angry generation of black youth” (Andrew
Clegg) and inspired new generation of leaders - Stokely Carmichael in particular.
After JFK’s shooting Malcolm X said it was “chickens coming home to roost.” The Nation of
Islam responded by banned him from speaking, this began his split from Elijah
Muhammad.
1965 - King and MX beginning to work together but in February 1965 Malcolm X was
assassinated by rogue members of the Nation of Islam this sparked off the “Long Hot
Summers” of rioting in the Ghettos.
Conditions in the North
Watts begins 5 days after Voting Rights Act passed - undermines non-violence.
1964-1968 Riots in Black Ghettos “Long hot summers” Watts Riots 1965 major - 238 other
riots in 200 cities from 1964-68,
ONly 32% of kids finished high school, 46% unemployment was black, some ghettos had
50-70% unemployment “de great lawd” King - “black aristocracy” critical of him
Ghettos had rejected Civil Rights organisations. In 1964 CORE had opened Freedom
Houses giving info advice on education, jobs and opportunities. Ghetto blacks felt ignored
and patronised.
Meredith March - In 1966 James Meredith - the first African American to attend Ole Miss the University of Mississippi, went on a March against Fear. Meredith would walk 350Km
through Southern States helping register African Americans to vote. He was shot by sniper
in Mississippi.
1968 Kerner Report - emphasised social and economic deprivation in ghettos.
Black Panthers - Black Power
Black Power
"This is the twenty-seventh time I have been arrested and I ain't going to jail no more!
The only way we gonna stop them white men from whuppin' us is to take over. What we
gonna start sayin' now is Black Power!"
Stokely Carmichael speaking after James Meredith’s shooting, 1966
Black Power was to provide “political power, economic power and a new self image for
Negroes” Floyd McKissick. It was racial pride, a new black identify and the idea that black
is beautiful. James Brown would sing “Say it loud, I’m black and I’m proud.”
It is at this time the phrase African American becomes used. African styles and names
were used, with some changing their names back to an African identify. The Afro was in,
although Elijah Muhammad criticised all these “jungle styles.” An African festival called
Kwanzaa was brought in to replace Christmas. Black Pride was appearing for the first time.
Black Panthers
In 1966 a new organisation responded to this - the Black Panthers were founded in
Oakland, California. The organisation would be destroyed within three years.
Founded in Oakland, California by Bobby Seale and Huey P Newton.
Aimed at Protecting the Black community through self-defence, later became more
political.
Socialist and Black Nationalist organisation focussed on gaining Land, Bread, Housing,
Clothing, Jobs, Education, Justice and Peace.
Most successful policies were social- free breakfast for children, free medical clinics
Relations with Police - founded to help stop Police brutality (in 1966 only 16/661 Police
officers in Oakland were black.) The Panthers carried weapons and were confrontational by 1970 34 Panthers had been killed in these confrontations along with 15 police. By 1968
Members told not to carry guns.
Described as “the greatest threat to the internal security of this country” By J.Edgar
Hoover, Head of the FBI, 1967
“The Black Panthers were never a group of angry young militants full of fury toward the
"white establishment." The Party operated on love for black people, not hatred of white
people” Dr Huey P Newton Foundation, 2007
OCTOBER 1966
Bobby Seale and Huey Newton found the Black Panther Party for Self Defense in Oakland.
• MAY 2, 1967
Armed Panthers invade the capitol in California to protest legislation limiting their right to
bear arms.
• MARCH 1968
Eldridge Cleaver publishes Soul on Ice, which becomes a best-seller.
• APRIL 6, 1968
Shoot-out between Panthers and Oakland police leaves 17-year-old Panther Bobby Hutton
dead.
• SEPTEMBER 8, 1968
Newton found guilty of voluntary manslaughter of an Oakland police officer and is
sentenced to two to 15 years; an appeals court reverses the conviction; two more trials
end in mistrials.
• JANUARY 17, 1969
UCLA shoot-out between Panthers and US organization kills leaders John Huggins and
Bunchy Carter.
• EARLY 1969
Panthers start free breakfast program for children. Other community programs follow.
• SEPTEMBER 4, 1969
Opening of Chicago Eight trial. Bobby Seale and seven others are accused of crossing
state lines to incite rioting at 1968 Democratic convention.
• DECEMBER 4, 1969
A predawn raid by police leaves Panthers Fred Hampton and Mark Clark dead in a Chicago
apartment.
Although at the height of membership the Black Panthers never numbered above 2000,
they were incredibly influential. The Brown Berets copied them for Latino rights, as did the
Yellow Panther, Richard Akoi
Red Power
Conditions for Native Americans were terrible.
Bureau of Indian Affairs - 1964 Californian tribes compensated for millions of acres at rate
of 47 cents an acre, the market value of 1861.
The population began a drift to towns, with large growth in poverty and alcoholism. Life
expectancy was 20 years below US average and suicide rates double. 95% of natives lived
in delapitated housing compared to the national average of 8%. Majority had no running
water and an unemployment rate of 70% with half not receiving benefits.
Native American organisations copied the methods of Civil Rights. Red Power organisation
AIM (the American Indian Movement) used direct methods such as - fish in for treat
rights to fish as well as legal action against taking reservation lands.
Essay Questions
Describe the role of Malcolm X in the development of Black Nationalism and Black Power
movements in the USA in the 1960s.
How far was the effectiveness of the civil rights movement in the 1960s limited by
internal divisions?
How far is it accurate to say that the Black Power movements of the 1960s achieved
nothing for black Americans?
How far do you agree that the Black Power movement hindered Black civil rights in the
1960s?
Sample Essay - This is a Level 5 Answer - Why?
Describe the role of Malcolm X in the development of Black Nationalism and
Black Power Movements in the USA in 1960’s.
Malcolm X played one of the leading roles in the development of Black Power and
nationalism movements in USA.
He was seen as a black icon and a role model for all the black people who lived in the
ghettos because he was originally from the ghetto himself so they connected more with
him than Martin Luther King Jr due to the fact that they knew he had encountered their
experience. His aims were to improve the lives of black Americans and radical social
change; he encouraged armed self-defence, which inspired other minority groups to take a
stand for Black Power, such as the infamous Black Panthers. During his period with the
Nation of Islam, he quickly rose within the NOI, recruiting thousands of new members in
Detroit, Boston, Philadelphia and New York and other states were there were masses of
black ghettos. The Blacks in the ghettos saw him as a ray of light as he brought to light
the ghetto conditions and brought American blacks more closely into contact with
oppressed blacks through his speeches and his books. ‘He made black nationalism in its
various forms appealing to the angry generation of blacks youths’ quoted Claude Andrew
Clegg, this impacted on the black power movement because the youths were adapting to
his violent motives. Also with Black Nationalism movements he rejected the idea of
integration with the white community, one of his objectives were to create a separate
black nation either within the USA or in Africa and with youths and blacks who accepted
the goal thus widening the racial equality gap of the two races.
Towards the rise of black power, he did play an important role, as mentioned earlier the
blacks in the ghettos supported his views, especially when he said black people should
defend themselves by any means possible. This lead to an increase in riots and violence
among the black community towards the white community, civil rights organisations such
as Congress Of Racial Equality and Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee who were
impatient with the slow progress of equality towards blacks that they resulted to the black
power movement schemes and became militant. Congress Of Racial Equality declared nonviolence as inappropriate if black people needed to defend themselves. Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee voted to expel whites, urged blacks to ally with other
blacks, this could be said to be an indirect effect from Malcolm X role in Black Power and
Nationalism.
Black power was very closely linked to the Black Panthers in Watts as they were seen to
be a prime example of the black people retaliating to police and white brutality. They were
indeed inspired by Malcolm X and his teachings of violence and hatred for the whites to go
up against the authorities. Many blacks living in ghettos were proud of the Black Panthers
because they represented the pride, black violence, black separatism and nationalism; that
were most of the views preached by Malcolm X. He was able to manipulate many black
people into the mindset of the NOI and black power. “Malcolm X was important as the
harbinger of black power of the 1960’s and as a role model, inspiration and icon for
discontented ghetto blacks. He also played a big part in the alienation of white America.”
Quoted by Sanders a historian.
However even though he did achieve all that, he was not involved in the organisation of
Black power, it did suffer from poor organisation and hardly any leadership. He never
involved himself or NOI in the South and was not on the frontline. He hindered the
development by his statement about the assassination of John F Kennedy, and the uneasy
relationship he had with Elijah Mohammed the leader of the NOI. His socialising with MLK
Jr. did not help the development because it was seen as him going back on what he
preached and been a hypocrite, these events eventually lead to his assassination by the
NOI. The death of Malcolm X would have had a positive affect on the Black Power and the
Black Nationalism Movements because it would consequential lead to divisions within the
organisations and that is what happened, which was one of the reasons for the fall of
Black Power.
The role of Malcolm X was more of a figurehead and speaker, a person who was able to
inspire the black people in their time of need, the fact that he has already experienced
what the ghetto blacks went through gave that conclusive connection between the blacks
and Malcolm X. Through his speeches and writings he was able to give black people the
courage to do defend themselves against violence and stand up and take what they know
is theirs. It seems as though Malcolm X was the Martin Luther King Jr of Black Power and
Black Nationalism movement because black people looked up him and followed his belief
and he was able to raise the morale of black people who had nothing to life for. Even after
his death the blacks that lived in ghettos found for Black power showing the impact
Malcolm X had on their lives.
How far had the status of Hispanic and Native Americans improved by the late 1960s?
The question is focused on two significant minorities, Hispanic and Native Americans, and
on the extent to which their position within American society had improved by the late
1960s. Answers may deal with both minorities separately.
There was little change for Hispanic Americans in the years to 1960. They remained the
victims of prejudice and some segregation, though their hopes were raised by the election
of the Catholic Kennedy in 1960.
Kennedy, however, did little for them, and it was left to leading campaigners such as Cesar
Chavez to work for improved social and economic rights in the 1960s.
Native Americans were better organised through the National Congress of American
Indians. It had made only limited progress by 1960, and thus younger Native Americans
set up the more radical National Indian Youth Council in 1960.
Government relocation programmes led to some movement to the cities, though there was
no real improvement in employment, living standards or life expectancy.
Both minorities were inspired by Black Power to set up similar militant organisations:
Alianza for Hispanics, and the American Indian Movement, though neither had achieved
anything significant by the end of this period.
A simple outline of some changes to the status of either or both minorities will be marked
within Levels 1 and 2, and progression will depend on the range and depth of relevant
material. Answers which attempt some analysis of changes over time, however limited,
will access Level 3, though there may be extended passages of narrative,. At Level 4 there
will be some explicit attempt to address questions of changing status, perhaps with some
comparison of Hispanic and Native American rights. At Level 5 there will be a clear
attempt to evaluate perceived changes, perhaps linking the growth of Black Power with
‘Brown Power’ and ‘Red Power’.
Remember you have 35 minutes for each quesiton and will always have a choice between
questions.
Exam mark boundaries
A - 23/30
B - 20/30
C 18/30
D 16/30
E 14/30
ONLY 9 Marks separate an A from an E - make every mark count!
Use the 7 paragraph structure
1)Introduction - set out the terms of the question
2)3) Paragraphs explaining points that agree
4)5) Paragraphs explaining points that disagree
6)Paragraph on either agree or disagree
7)Conclusion - Get off the fence and chose a side! Make a judgement.
Quick tips *always make sure you use links - use the words of the question to make a judgement at
the end of each paragraph.
*Use a range of evidence - from the dates set out in the question, don’t go outside these!
*Answer the question - always include judgement
*Check your work - reading it through just once and adding corrections generally adds 2
marks.
Knowledge of Chronology is essential
Define the terms of your question in your introduction
Use paragraphs and good english
deal with all the terms in the question
Level 1:
Answers at this level will be very simplistic, irrelevant or vague.
Level 2:
Answers at this level might tell the story or part of the story without addressing the
question, or might list the key points without backing them up with specific examples.
Level 3:
At level 3 answers will attempt to focus on the question and have some strengths (some
paragraphs will have point, supporting evidence and linkage back to the question), but
answers will also have significant areas of weakness. For example, the focus on the
question may drift, the answer may lack specific examples or parts of the essay may
simply tell the story.
Level 4:
At level 4 answers will clearly attempt to tackle the question and demonstrate
a detailed knowledge of the period studied.
Level 5:
Answers that are judged to be level 5 will be thorough and detailed – they will
clearly engage with the specific question providing a balanced and carefully
reasoned argument that reaches a clear and supported judgment.
Full List of all previous Examination Questions.
AS Sample Paper
How far is it accurate to describe black Americans as second class citizens in the years
1945–55?
How far is it accurate to say that the Black Power movements of the 1960s achieved
nothing for black Americans?
How far did race relations improve in the USA in the years 1968–2001?
Why in the 1980s did moral and religious issues gain such importance in US politics?
Jan 2009
How important was the contribution of Martin Luther King to the civil rights movement in
the years 1955–68?
How far had the status of Hispanic and Native Americans improved by the late 1960s?
Why was the Republican Party so successful in Presidential elections in the years 1968–
88?
How successfully did Ronald Reagan deal with the economic problems which faced the
USA in the early 1980s?
June 2009
How far did the position of Black Americans improve in the years 1945–55?
How far do you agree that the Black Power movement hindered Black civil rights in the
1960s?
January 2010
To what extent was the Federal Government responsible for improving the status of black
people in the United States in the years 1945–64?
How far was the effectiveness of the civil rights movement in the 1960s limited by internal
divisions?
June 2010
How accurate is it to say that the status of black people in the United States changed very
little in the years 1945–55?
How far was peaceful protest responsible for the successes of the civil rights movement in
the years 1955–64?
Jan 2011
To what extent was the National Association for the advancement of Colored People
responsible for the successes of the civil rights campaign in the years 1945-57?
How far were the forces opposed to civil rights responsible for the failures of the civil
rights movement in the 1960s?
June 2011
How far do you agree that the impact of the Second World War was the main reason why
the position of African Americans improved in the years 1945-55?
How accurate is it to say the Martin Luther King’s policy of peaceful protest was the most
important reason for the success of the civil rights movement in the years 1955-68?
Best of luck!
JCE 2012
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