CHAPTER 6 • SECTION 2
TREATY WITH SPAIN The United States wanted to secure land claims west of
the Appalachian mountains and to gain shipping rights on the Mississippi River.
To do this, it needed to come to an agreement with Spain, which still held Florida
and the Louisiana Territory, a vast area of land west of the Mississippi River.
Negotiations stalled because of the turmoil in Europe. Spain, unlike Britain,
signed a treaty with France. Spain then feared British retaliation and suspected
that a joint British-American action might be launched against the Louisiana
Territory. Suddenly, Spain agreed to meet with U.S. minister to Great Britain
Thomas Pinckney, and on October 27, 1795, both sides signed a treaty.
Pinckney’s Treaty of 1795, also known as the Treaty of San Lorenzo, included
virtually every concession that the Americans desired. Spain gave up all claims to
land east of the Mississippi (except Florida) and recognized the 31st parallel as the
southern boundary of the United States and the northern boundary of Florida.
Spain also agreed to open the Mississippi River to traffic by Spanish subjects and
U.S. citizens, and to allow American traders to use the port of New Orleans. B
Instruct: Objective 2
Native Americans Resist White
Settlers
IMMIGRATION AND MIGRATION
Border Skirmishes
Pioneers moving west assumed that the 1783 Treaty of Paris, in which Great
Britain had ceded its land rights west of the Appalachians, gave them free rein to
settle the area. But the British still maintained forts in the Northwest Territory—
an area that included what is now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and
Wisconsin—in direct violation of the treaty. In addition to this continued British
presence, the settlers met fierce resistance from the original inhabitants.
British Forts
on U.S. Land, 1783–1794
e Superior
La k
N
W
E
ro n
Fallen Timbers
Aug. 20, 1794
iver
sR
oi
75
75
W
Ft. Recovery
Ft. Greenville
Ft. Finney
Vincennes
150 kilometers
L
e
ak
Eri
NEW YORK
e
Ft. Miami
Ft. Defiance
River
ash
ab
150 miles
Ft. Niagara
Ft. Hamilton
Cincinnati
Ft. Laurens
40°N
Pittsburgh
ATLAN TI C
O C EAN
Ft. Harmar
O hio River
VIRGINIA
KENTUCKY
(1792)
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER
1. Location What is one common
feature of the locations of most of
the British forts on this map?
2. Human–Environment Interaction
Extension Ask students why most of the
forts were located along bodies of water.
(for commerce, defense, and transportation)
Why would this feature be of great
importance to an army?
192
CHAPTER 6
LESS PROFICIENT READERS
Analyzing Causes and Effects
Draw the chart shown to the right on the board. Ask students to complete the
chart by listing the effects of the Native American rejection of the Treaty of Paris.
Remind students that a cause is an action that prompts something to happen, and
that an effect is an event or condition that results from the cause. Once students
list the effects, ask them if these effects caused other effects. Have students add
such secondary effects, if any, to the chart.
CHAPTER 6
70°W
PENNSYLVANIA
Maumee River
U.S.-held fort
St. Louis
Battle
0
Ft. Oswego
rio
e Onta
Ft. Detroit
St. Clair’s Defeat
Nov. 4, 1791
British-held fort
Lak
Hudson River
TERRITORY
NORTHWEST OF
THE OHIO RIVER
Ft. Wayne
in
Ill
0
VERMONT
Hu
River
Interpreting the Map
Though present-day political boundaries are
not shown, students can use rivers to find the
southern boundaries of Ohio and Indiana and
the western boundary of Illinois. Encourage
students to use the rivers and cities shown
to help them understand geographical relationships between battle and fort sites.
Ft. Oswegatchie
e
S
(Louisiana)
HISTORY from VISUALS
192
er
Riv
Ft. Dutchman’s
Point
Ft. Point-au-Fer
(Canada)
ak
Mi
ssi
ss
SPANISH
TERRITORY
DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION
ce
en
wr
B. Answer
Travel and trade
were difficult on
the frontier, and
the Mississippi
offered the easiest means of
transportation
for frontier
farmers and
merchants.
Montreal
BRITISH
TERRITORY
L
Ft. Mackinac
pi
ip
The Treaty of Paris did not clearly define the
border between the new United States and
the British colony of Canada. As a result,
each side claimed some of the same land,
and there were frequent border skirmishes
as Americans moved west. Under the treaty
terms, the British were supposed to evacuate
Detroit, Niagara, Sandusky and four other fortified posts south of the Great Lakes. The
British used these forts as centers for trading
fur with Native Americans and neither group
wanted to give up this highly lucrative business.
Native Americans Resist White Settlers 2
La
Tracing Themes
Skillbuilder
Answers
1. They were
located on or
near water
(lakes or rivers).
2. A lake or river
allows an army
to move soldiers
to and from a
fort quickly,
making it easier
to respond
effectively to
enemy attacks.
Recognizing
Effects
B Why did the
United States
want access to
the Mississippi
River?
St.
In-Depth Resources: Unit 2
• Guided Reading, p. 35
L a ke M i ch i gan
• What were the causes and consequences of
the battle of Fallen Timbers?
• What was the outcome of Jay’s Treaty?
MAIN IDEA
Effect:
Cause: Native Americans
reject Treaty of Paris
Effect:
Effect:
CHAPTER 6 • SECTION 2
More About . . .
Little Turtle
Little Turtle was considered a brilliant military strategist. In November 1791, his forces
routed U.S. troops under General Arthur St.
Clair in the Battle of Mississinewa. In three
hours of brutal fighting, over 900 of St.
Clair’s men were killed or wounded. Despite
his military prowess, however, Little Turtle
eventually laid down his arms and tried to
promote his people’s rights through negotiation and diplomacy. In 1795, for example, he
signed the Treaty of Greenville to end the
Indian Wars in Ohio. Afterwards, he advocated peace and helped stop the Miami
Indians from joining the Shawnee
Confederacy of Tecumseh.
▼
The Miami war chief Little Turtle negotiates with General Anthony Wayne.
MAIN IDEA
Analyzing
Issues
C Why did
Native Americans
demand negotiations with the
United States over
the Northwest
Territory?
C. Answer
Native
Americans had
been excluded
from the negotiations that led to
the Treaty of
Paris and therefore had no
influence over
what was being
done to their
lands.
FIGHTS IN THE NORTHWEST Having been excluded from the negotiations
that led to the Treaty of Paris, Native Americans in the Northwest Territory
never accepted the provisions. They continued to claim their tribal lands and
demanded direct negotiations with the United States. They also took heart
from the presence of British troops, who encouraged their resistance.
When white settlers moved into their territory, Native Americans often
attacked them. C
To gain control over the area that would become Ohio, the federal government sent an army led by General Josiah Harmar. In 1790, Harmar’s troops
clashed with a confederacy of Native American groups led by a chieftain of the
Miami tribe named Little Turtle. The Native Americans won that battle. The
following year, the Miami Confederacy inflicted an even worse defeat on a federal army led by General Arthur St. Clair.
More About . . .
The Battle of Fallen Timbers
During the fighting at Fallen Timbers, Wayne’s
troops were greatly outnumbered by nearly
2,000 Shawnee, Ottawa, and Chippewa.
Wayne sent an advance party to draw the
Native American warriors out of hiding. The
warriors chased the American soldiers, who
led them to Wayne’s troops. Forced out into
the open to fight a conventional battle, the
Native Americans were surrounded on all
sides. The battle was over within 40 minutes.
BATTLE OF FALLEN TIMBERS Finally, in 1792, Washington appointed
General Anthony Wayne to lead federal troops against the Native Americans.
Known as “Mad Anthony” for his reckless courage, Wayne spent an entire year
drilling his men. Greatly impressed, Little Turtle urged his people to seek peace.
A PERSONAL VOICE LITTLE TURTLE
“ We have beaten the enemy twice under different commanders. . . . The Americans
are now led by a chief who never sleeps. . . . We have never been able to surprise
him. . . . It would be prudent to listen to his offers of peace.”
—speech to his allies
The other chiefs did not agree with Little Turtle and replaced him with a less
able leader. On August 20, 1794, Wayne defeated the Miami Confederacy at the
Battle of Fallen Timbers, near present-day Toledo, Ohio. After the battle, Wayne’s
army marched defiantly past the British Fort Miami, only two miles away, and
then built an American post nearby.
Launching the New Nation
ACTIVITY
COOPERATIVE LEARNING
193
BLOCK SCHEDULING
Negotiating a Treaty
Class Time 45 minutes
Task Drafting a treaty that deals fairly with the Native Americans
Purpose To help students understand that the Native Americans were frequently
cheated in their dealings with settlers and the U.S. government
Directions Divide the class into two teams. Have one team represent the interests
of the United States. Have the other team represent the interests of the Native
American people. Students should negotiate a treaty that makes fair concessions
to both sides. For example, the United States might allow the Native Americans to
continue using the land, and the Native Americans might agree to leave the settlers in peace.
Integrated Assessment
• Rubric 3
Launching the New Nation
193