Year 11 Revision Pack: Sociology
About your AQA GCSE Sociology Exam Unit 2 Exam Paper:
 Crime and Deviance Paper 2, Section A
 Mass Media Paper 2, Section B
 Social Inequality Paper 2, Section D
*Important information: There are 4 sections in Paper 2 – you are only required to answer 3 out of the 4
sections. Power, section C has NOT been taught and you are not to attempt to answer this section.
Crime and Deviance: Section A
Defining crime and deviance
A crime: This is an illegal act that is punishable by law. If a person commits a crime and it is detected, they
could be arrested, charged and prosecuted. If found guilty, they will receive a formal sanction such as prison
or a fine.
Deviance: This refers to behaviour which does not conform to the accepted norms in society. If a person
behaves in a deviant fashion they could receive an informal sanction such as being told off or ridiculed.
Deviance can be socially defined:
Definitions of deviance can be changed over time, place and between cultures. For example, it used to be
illegal and deviant to be a homosexual. People’s attitudes change and this can also lead to changes in the law.
TIME – For example, drinking alcohol in the morning or the change in the smoking ban. It is now illegal to
smoke in public places.
PLACE – It is deviant and illegal to be nude in a public place such as a supermarket but will be accepted if it is a
nudist beach.
CULTURE – The use of cannabis is legal in many Arab countries but not in Britain.
Social control
Formal social control - This is based on written rules and laws.
Formal agencies of social control – These are bodies which enforce or punish people who break the law. Eg.
the police, the courts, the prisons etc
Informal social control – This is based on unwritten or ‘taken for granted’ rules and are enforced by agencies
such as the family, peers or religion. They may use negative sanctions such as stopping pocket money to
punish bad behaviour.
New agents of social control
In an attempt to prevent anti-social behaviour, there has been an introduction of CCTV. The UK has more
CCTV surveillance than anywhere else in the world.
Dealing with antisocial behaviour
Formal government sanctions: The police are ‘gatekeepers’ and have the power to enforce the law.
ASBO – Antisocial Behaviour Order
This is seen by some as a solution to deviant, antisocial behaviour, including vandalism, antisocial drinking and
taking drugs. An ASBO can ban a person from visiting certain areas or spending time with certain friends.
Problems with ASBOs: They can be seen by young people as a ‘badge of honour’ and they often will break the
ASBO and reoffend.
Benefit of ASBOs: They are cheaper than sending someone to prison and can be used for less serious crimes.
Other formal sanctions: Tagging and curfews (these will often be alongside the ASBO), fines, community
service and prison sentences.
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Different explanations of crime and deviance
Non-sociological explanations for crime
Biological explanations: A study in 1876 by Lombroso claimed that criminal behaviour was a result of
biological factors. Criminals could be identified through physical defects such as overly large ears and long
arms.
Other biological views include the idea that our genes shape our behaviour. In other words, we are born
criminal.
Psychological explanations
Maternal deprivation – Research shows that lack of a mother’s love in early childhood could lead to a person
developing a criminal personality.
Sociological explanations of crime:
Functionalist theory, Marxist theories, Subcultural theory, Labelling theory and Opportunity Structures
Functionalist theory and the New Right
Some people have not been adequately socialised to accept the norms and values of society. The New Right
argue that boys from single parent families do not have a good role model and may turn to criminal
behaviour.
Marxist theory
This approach links crime to social inequality and relative deprivation. Capitalist society values materialism
and consumerism and we are brainwashed by society to want possessions. Working class people may turn to
crime to get material goods such as mobile phones. The laws favour the rich and crimes such as tax evasion
(white collar crime) is ignored. Therefore, the working class are more likely to get caught and crimes of the
powerful are ignored.
Subcultural theory
This approach explains crime and deviance in terms of the influence of peer groups. The peer group has
distinctive deviant (subterrean) values and young males in particular will join peer groups or gangs and
commit deviant acts in order to be accepted. Albert Cohen argued that working class boys joined delinquent
subcultures in order to gain status within the peer group.
Labelling theory
This approach believes that working class boys are more likely to be labelled (given a negative stigma)
deviant. Being labelled as deviant can result in them being stereotyped (portrayed in a negative light) and this
can help produce a self-fulfilling prophecy where they live up to their label and commit more criminal and
deviant acts.
Opportunity Structures
Young people may become deviant because they live in an area which gives them more opportunities to do
so. The area may have gangs and be an area of social deprivation (poor housing, lack of job opportunities and
high crime rates). Young people may therefore be pushed into crime.
Measuring crime and deviance
There are 2 main ways to measure crime levels:
 Official statistics of crimes recorded by the police.
 Surveys of the public, such as victim surveys and self-report studies.
Official statistics
 This is a secondary source of quantitative data.
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These statistics cannot be taken at face value.
There is a ‘dark figure’ of crime, which is crime that is not reported or recorded by the police.
Crimes such as rape may not be reported because the victim is scared or they may fear the police will
not be sympathetic.
Crimes such as domestic violence against men may not be recorded as it may not be taken seriously
by the police.
White collar crime such as tax evasion and fraud is hard to detect and is underreported and recorded.
Therefore, crime statistics are not valid as they do not give a true picture of the crime rates.
However, they are useful to sociologists as they are free on the internet and trends in crime can be
identified.
Crime surveys: These can help uncover the ‘real’ crime rates.
Victim surveys: Victim surveys ask people about their experiences of crime.
British crime survey
This is a large scale survey of England and Wales and is conducted every year. The first survey was in 1981 and
estimated 11 million crimes. However, the police had recorded only 3 million crimes. This gap is the ‘dark
figure’ of crime.
Advantages of victim surveys
 May uncover the dark figure of crime
 Focuses on the victims’ experiences of crime
 Identifies local crime figures (can show which areas have high crime rates)
Disadvantages of victim surveys
 Not all crimes will be reported by the victim. They may be embarrassed to reveal that they have been
a victim of something like rape
 Participants may lie
 Victims may forget certain incidents
Self Report Studies
A basic self report study asks the individual if they have committed criminal or delinquent behaviour in the
last year. It is anonymous so their names are confidential.
Advantages:
 The age and gender of the offender can be uncovered
 May uncover the ‘dark figure’ of crime
Disadvantages:
 People may lie
 People may forget and this affects the validity of the survey
The social distribution of crime
Age and Crime
Key facts:
 40% of all reported crime is by people under the age of 21
 Findings from self report studies show the majority of young people do not engage in crime
 Young people who are engaged in crime commit relatively minor offences
 Youth crime is known as juvenile delinquency
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Explaining youth crime:
 Peer group pressure and subcultural theories are good explanations of youth crime. Young people
may suffer status frustration (Cohen) and join gangs.
 Functional theory can explain how some young people may lack role models
 Marxist theory can explain how young people suffer from relative deprivation
 Labelling theory can show how young people can become stigmatised and turned into folk devils by
the media. The media can create a moral panic about ‘hoodies’ and gangs. This may lead police to
target young people and therefore lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy
 Opportunity theory can show how young people, living in areas of social deprivation, can be pushed
into joining gangs.
Gender and Crime
Key fact:
Official statistics show that women are much less likely to commit crimes than men. However, the female
crime rate is increasing.
Reasons why women are less criminal:
 Different socialisation: Females are socialised to be less aggressive and more passive. This leads males
into crime
 Fewer opportunities: Young women and girls are supervised and controlled more by their families.
Older women may have a triple shift (work, childcare/housework and emotional work) and not have
the time to commit crimes
 The chivalry effect: The police treat women less harshly and are more lenient, letting them off!
Reasons why female crime rates are rising:
 Changing attitudes: Women are more assertive and there is a new ‘ladette’ culture. Young women are
acting more like boys, getting drunk and into trouble.
 Girls and women have more freedom. Legal changes have given girls more ambition and confidence.
This can lead some into crime.
Ethnicity and Crime
Key fact:
Afro-Caribbean males and Asian males are over-represented in the prison population. They are more likely to
be stopped and searched and arrested than their white counterparts.
Reasons for police targeting of black and Asian males
 Police profiling of ‘typical’ offenders is stereotypical. Negative labelling can lead to the police
focussing on these groups
 Canteen culture: The police develop their own culture ‘off duty’, which may involve telling racist jokes
or using racist language
 Institutional racism: A report after the murder of Stephen Lawrence (The Macpherson Report) found
that black and Asian people were being treated unfairly by the police because of their policies and
practices (such as stop and search)
Reasons why some ethnic minorities may be more criminal
 Afro-Caribbean males are more likely to come from single parent families and may lack role models
(New Right)
 Ethnic minorities are more likely to be working class and suffer relative deprivation (see Marxism)
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Black youth culture promotes violence (gangsta rap) and immediate gratification (get money fast)
Young ethnic minorities are more likely to live in areas of social deprivation and get pushed into
gangs (see Opportunity structure)
Social Class and Crime
Key fact:
Working class people are over-represented in prisons.
Explanations for working class crime:
 Working class are less successful in education, therefore, have less opportunities for success legally
 They may suffer material deprivation (see Marxism)
 Young working class males suffer status frustration (Cohen) and join delinquent gangs to gain status
 They are more likely to live in areas of social deprivation, therefore, there are more opportunities to
commit crime
However, the crime statistics may be biased. The crimes of the powerful often go unrecorded and
unreported.
White Collar Crime
This is crime committed by the middle classes in the course of their work. E.g. tax evasion and fraud. White
collar crime can be divided into:
Corporate crime – This is crime carried out by the bosses of a company in order to increase the profits of the
organisation. E.g. selling harmful and dangerous products
Occupational crime – This is crime carried out by the individual at work and ranges from minor theft to large
scale fraud.
Computer crime – This refers to financial crime carried out via a computer. E.g. An employee transferring
company money into their own personal bank accounts and then deleting the evidence of the transactions.
Reasons why white collar crime is under-represented
 This type of crime is very clever and hard to detect and uncover
 Organisations such as banks do not report these crimes as they would look bad and people would not
trust them with their money
 White collar crime is seen in a better light as it does not seem to have a ‘victim’ in the same way as
street robbery/mugging
 The media tends to focus on violent street crime rather than white collar crime as it is not as exciting
or interesting to read about
 The government is part of the ruling class and they are more likely to ignore the crimes of the middle
classes
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Mass Media: Section B
What is the Mass Media?
Mass media: Refers to the forms of communications (media) that reach a large (mass) audience.
Two types of mass media:
Traditional media – such as newspapers, books, television and radio based on old technology.
New media – such as the internet, cable and satellite TV and digital radio. This reflects the technological
changes in communications within the new digital age.
One way of making sense of the wide range of media that is available today is to divide it into, the press,
broadcasting and electronic media.
The press: This includes newspapers and magazines that are privately owned by press barons and are run as
profit making businesses (Eg. Murdoch’s News International). The press is financed through sales and
advertising.
Broadcasting media: This refers to television and radio. Public service broadcasting such as the BBC is funded
through the television licence fee. Commercial broadcasting such as ITV is funded through advertising.
Electronic media: This refers to the internet and the world wide web. Using this new medium, individuals can
contribute to the content in the form of blogs and youtube. Individuals can communicate and share ideas
Developments in the technology of the mass media
In 1980 there were only 3 terrestrial channels. Today we can subscribe to numerous channels through
satellite and cable TV.
Digital broadcasting (Digitalisation): Multi channel TV with high quality pictures and sound.
Interactivity: Viewers can now use the ‘red button’ and interact with TV. EG. to vote on reality shows like The
X Factor or send texts in to the shows from their mobile phones.
Convergence: Different types of media, telecommunications and computing can now come together
(converge) in one product. Eg. mobile phones can connect to the internet and send emails or watch
programmes.
The internet
Until the 1980s the internet consisted of a few hundred computers dedicated to military (army) use. Today it
is a global system of interconnected computers which gives people access to electronic newspapers etc. It
also enables people to produce content (eg. facebook, twitter, blogs etc) rather than just consume it.
Advantages of the internet
 Access to information quickly and cheaply
 Enables people to respond and give their views via websites or blogs
 People can create content
 More democracy; people can access government websites to get information on their policies etc
 Different political views can be circulated via email and there is open space for discussions with
people globally
Disadvantages of the internet
 Children can access inappropriate material (eg. violence and sexual content) without parents’
knowledge
 Encourages less face to face interaction and too much time spent indoors
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The digital divide
There is a division between those who have access to the internet and new technologies and those who do
not. Older and poorer people are less likely to have access. Only 17% of the underclass can access the internet
at home.
Changes in how we use the media
 There has been a decline in newspaper readership, especially tabloid newspapers. Quality
newspapers have remained stable
 There is a large growth in people owning digital and satellite television services
 Household internet access has grown rapidly (although poorer households are less likely to have
access)
The media’s impact on audiences
You need to distinguish between three broad approaches. These are the ‘hypodermic syringe’ approach, the
uses and gratifications approach and the decoding approach.
The ‘hypodermic syringe’ approach:
According to this approach, the media’s messages work like a drug to brainwash the individual. The media has
a direct and powerful effect on people’s behaviour and beliefs.
Criticism
 Can we measure how people are directly influenced by the media?
 How can we be sure it is the media which influences behaviour?
 Many people question the media and the messages they get.
The uses and gratification approach:
This approach focuses on how members ‘use’ the media. It examines the individual’s needs that are gratified
(satisfied). For example, watching TV might meet a person’s needs for information or entertainment or as a
source of conversation at work.
The decoding approach:
This approach suggests that the audience actively ‘decode’ messages and TV programmes will have different
meanings for different individuals, depending on their age, gender and culture.
Both the decoding and the uses and gratifications approach suggest that the media has less power over the
individual than the ‘hypodermic syringe’ model.
Hyper-reality
New technologies have produced an overload of programmes and ideas and the lines between reality and
images of reality (such as shows like Big Brother) have been blurred. TV has become more real than their
actual reality.
Alienation: People may need this hyper-reality to escape from their real lives because they do not feel
connected to their own day to day world.
The Mass Media and Power
Press ownership
The media is a source of power and influence over individuals. Those who own and control the media have
considerable power themselves.
In Britain press ownership is concentrated in very few hands. It is mainly controlled by individuals such as
Rupert Murdoch, who owns News International (this includes The Sun, The Times, Fox News etc).
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There are two main approaches when examining the power of the press owners; these are the pluralist and
the conflict approach.
The pluralist approach:
This approach believes there is a range of views and interests in society and no single viewpoint dominates.
The range of opinions are reflected in the range newspapers, magazines etc that readers can choose from.
Newspapers give the public what they want to read or they would not buy them and the company would go
bankrupt. Therefore, the public are in control and it is the public that influences the papers’ content.
Profit motive:
Media gatekeepers (editors etc who choose the content) - give the public what they want, in order to sell
newspapers etc.
News values – Gatekeepers include content which is considered newsworthy (things they think will interest
the public).
Other factors which influence media content
 Advertisers – they will not use the newspaper to advertise if they disagree with its content
 Legal issues – There are guidelines and restrictions on media content. Eg. Libel laws (you cannot make
up lies about people to sell more newspapers)
The conflict approach:
Press barons such as Rupert Murdoch own large conglomerates (a coming together of different companies)
such as News International. They have a lot of power to influence political views on a global scale as much of
what people read comes from a few multinational (global) media empires.
Agenda setting – The media have the power to ‘set the agenda’. In other words, being able to focus on certain
issues and ignore others.
Norm referencing – The media can control and outline what is acceptable behaviour. Through norm
referencing they can show some groups (eg. nurses) in a good light and others, such as teenage mothers, in a
bad light. They can shape public opinion.
Propaganda – Marxists would argue that the media can brainwash us. Gatekeepers, such as Murdoch, get
their political messages out through the media. The government can use the media for political spin, ie.
managing the stories and messages going out to the public in order to look good. E.g, Cameron as the family
man (pictured with his children).
The Mass Media and Socialisation
The mass media, along with schools, peer groups and religion, is an important agency of secondary
socialisation.
The mass media and political socialisation
People acquire their political values and beliefs through the media. This will influence how they vote in
elections. In a democracy (a system where people can exercise power by voting for different political parties),
the media plays an important role in election campaigns. Newspapers tend to side with one political party
over another (Murdoch’s ‘The Sun’ etc sides with conservatives, whereas ‘The Mirror’ supports Labour). This
could encourage their readers to vote for that political party.
There are different views on whether the media’s influence is good or bad for democracy:
 Good for democracy – The media can provide information about the party to encourage more voting.
 Bad for democracy - The media has too much influence on how we vote. Negative coverage of
politicians or political parties can bias our views.
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New technologies and political socialisation
 New technology can give voters more information to make informed decisions
 Politicians can create their own blogs to get their views across
 Political parties can email voters directly to encourage them to vote
Media Representations of Gender
Feminists argue that the media represent men and women differently and help to create a ‘masculine’ and
‘feminine’ identity.
Gender socialisation
 The media stereotypes men to be macho and women are stereotyped as housewives or ‘bimbos’. This
stereotype is based on sexism and prejudice, according to feminists and gives a distorted view of
gender
 Adverts, such as Iceland supermarket’s, present the housewife ‘expressive’ image as a role model for
women or women are exploited as se objects in adverts or on page 3 of The Sun
 Women are portrayed in the media as having ‘idealised characteristics’. Eg. A body which is slim and
women are encouraged to be obsessive about hair and make up
 Women in powerful positions are often portrayed as ‘bitches’
 These stereotypes have a cumulative effect (built up over time) and can affect our sense of identity
 Sociologists believe that gender identity is socially constructed by the media
Effects of gender socialisation
 Women are encouraged to take the expressive role and conjugal roles remain segregated. Women
will often do the triple shift
 Women are less likely to be promoted to the top jobs. They reach a glass ceiling due to sexism
Changes in the media and gender socialisation
 TV programmes are changing and are showing a more realistic view of women
 Programmes such as The Apprentice show women to be as ambitious as men
Media Representations of Ethnicity
The media underrepresented black people in the 1950s/60s and by the 1970s/80s black people were being
represented in a negative way, as being more criminal etc.
The cumulative effect (built up over time) of media representation created folk devils with black and Asian
people being portrayed in a stereotypically negative way.
Asian people:
 Stereotyped as terrorists
 Asian women stereotyped as being oppressed within arranged marriages
 Asian people were demonised (seen as evil) and a threat after events such as 9/11. Muslims were
portrayed as fundamentalists (religious extremists)
Black people:
 Stereotyped as violent and more criminal
 Young black people were often stereotyped as ‘gangsta’ and the media have tended to focus on
negative images of ‘hip hop’ culture or knife and gang crime.
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The effects of media representations
 This could lead to labelling by teachers and certain ethnic groups could be stigmatised, which could
result in educational under achievement
 Police canteen culture could lead to police profiling these groups as potential criminals. This could
lead to more stops and searches
 The media can create a moral panic about these ethnic groups
What has changed?
Sociologists have highlighted that TV programmes such as The Crosby Show and Fresh Prince of Bel Air have
more positive black role models. Black people are portrayed as middle class and aspirational (going to law
school etc).
Contemporary media-related issues
The mass media is often seen as having potentially harmful effects on its audiences and this issue has lead to
public debates.
The media and copycat violence:
The hypodermic syringe approach sees the media as having power to influence the audience to commit
copycat crimes. Bandura did an experiment where children watched adults be violent to a Bobo doll. The
children copied the violence they saw. There have been other examples of copycat violence. Eg. From the
movie A Clockwork Orange; an Irish homeless person was beaten to death in real life, copying a scene from
the film.
The media and deviancy amplification:
A moral panic refers to a public outcry created by the media about certain groups or issues. A particular group
is seen as folk devils and becomes defined as a threat. This group is stigmatised by the media.
Media sensationalism is when the media exaggerate stories about these groups or issues.
Stan Cohen – Examined the Mods and Rockers of the 1960s. A moral panic was created when the media
exaggerated the amount of violence when these two groups clashed in different seaside towns. More young
people went to the seaside to get involved because the media made it seem exciting. This led to more
violence. This is called deviancy amplification.
This happened in the London riots (2011) through New Media technologies such as twitter.
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Section D: Social Inequality
Defining Social Inequality:
Refers to the unequal distribution of:
 Resources such as income, wealth and power
 Opportunities related to education, employment, health and good quality housing
Social inequality can be examined in terms of the following social groups: class, gender, ethnicity, age and
disability.
What is social stratification?
This refers to the way society is structured into a hierarchy or strata (layers) that are unequally ranked. It is
like a pyramid and each layer is more powerful than the one below it. The most privileged groups/individuals
are grouped at the top and are the upper classes and the least powerful and wealthy are at the very bottom
and are called the underclass.
Types of stratification
Open systems: Where individuals can move between the different layers and strata
Closed system: When the individual cannot move between different levels.
Open systems: The class system
Status can be achieved (worked for) through education and getting a professional job. There is social mobility
(movement up or down the different classes). Society is a meritocracy: This means that your class and
successes are based on hard work and talent.
Closed systems: slavery and the Hindu Caste system
Status is ascribed (you are born with it) and there is no social mobility (you are unable to move between the
different strata). An example of this is the Untouchables (Dalits) in India, where these people are born into
their position and have to do the lowest paid jobs and cannot marry someone from another, higher caste.
They are looked down on and segregated (kept apart) from the other castes.
Other forms of stratification: Apart from class are gender, age and ethnicity
Life chances
This refers to people’s chances of achieving positive or negative outcomes. Positive outcomes could be good
health, getting rich and having a good education. Poor life chances can lead to negative outcomes, such as
educational failure, bad health and poverty.
Life chances are affected by your social class, gender, ethnicity, age etc. Eg. People from a higher class have
a better chance of doing well in education and buying a nicer house.
Sociological views on social class
Functionalist view: Your social class is based on your talents and hard work. Therefore, society is a
meritocracy and status is achieved. Those in the top positions deserve high pay and status and only the most
talented and qualified people will fill these positions in order that the most important jobs are done by the
best people.
Marxist view: Society is divided into two classes – the proletariat (workers) and the Bourgeoisie (ruling class).
The wealthy bourgeoisie own the property, land, big business etc. The workers don’t own anything and have
to sell their labour to survive. There is a conflict between the two classes because the Ruling Classes want
more profits and this means lower wages for the workers. The class system is therefore unfair and unequal.
Max Weber: Identified four social classes – the property owners, professionals, the petty bourgeoisie (shop
keepers) and the working class. Weber divides class by the amount of status (respect), power and wealth
the individual has. Some jobs have a lot of status and power, such as being an MP, but may not be paid very
highly.
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Measuring social class
The Registrar General’s Scale:
This is the older way to measure social class and is based on a person’s occupation (job). It is divided into
manual (physical) jobs and non-manual (no physical effort). Manual jobs were then divided into skilled (eg
plumbers), semi skilled and unskilled (cleaners). Professional occupations were seen as middle class.
Criticisms of the Registrar General’s Scale:
 It was difficult to place people without jobs. Eg students and unemployed people
 Married housewives became the same social class as their husbands
 Two people with the same occupations, eg. Businessmen, may have big differences in terms of wealth
and status. Eg. One businessman may own a small fruit and veg stall while the other may own a big
company.
The National Statistics Socio-Economic classification (NS-SEC)
There is a newer way to measure someone’s social class and it covers both students and the long term
unemployed. It covers 8 different stratifications.
The NS-SEC groups together occupations which are similar in:
Rewards: such as pay levels and career prospects.
Status: Taking into account whether someone is an employer or employee or self-employed.
Levels of authority: takes into account whether someone has managerial duties or not.
Inequalities in the UK
When writing about stratification, it is important to remember that sources of inequality are based on gender,
ethnicity, age and disability.
Inequality based on gender
 Gender is a social construction and women are socialised to take the expressive (housewife) role.
 Girlification and the ‘pink disease’ in society – eg. girls wear pink and are little princesses; this
teaches them that appearance is more important than brains and doing well.
 Women are more likely to take ‘caring jobs’ such as, nursery nurses, which tend to be low paid
 Women are more likely to work part time because of the ‘triple shift’ and this means they earn less
money and are less likely to apply for promotions
 Society is patriarchal (male dominated) and women do not get the top positions due to the glass
ceiling (an invisible barrier to success). This may be due to longer maternity leave as women are
expected to stay at home and care for babies
 Women earn 13% less pay than men and are more likely to live in poverty when they are pensioners
Government action to reduce gender inequality
 The 1970s Sex Discrimination Act. This law means that someone cannot be discriminated against
(treated unfairly), due to their gender. Women cannot be refused a job or promotion because of their
gender.
 The Equal Pay Act – Means it is against the law to pay women less than men. Male graduates earn
£1,000 ,per year, more than female graduates within 3 years of leaving university. Therefore, barriers
still remain for women and society is still patriarchal. Women are still underrepresented in
government.
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Inequality based on ethnicity
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Sociologists use the term ethnicity rather than race. Race refers to physical differences such as skin
colour, whereas ethnicity includes cultural differences, such as religion, language, customs and
traditions
 Some ethnicities are discriminated against in schools, employment and by the police
 In schools, teachers label some ethnic minorities negatively. This can affect their self concept and
lead to a self fulfilling prophecy (living up to their own label) and educational failure.
 The police have been accused of institutional racism and a canteen culture , which stereotypes
Muslims and young black men. Some Muslims are stereotyped as terrorists after 9/11 and have been
turned into folk devils. This has lead to a moral panic and Islamaphobia (fear of Muslims)
 Young black men are targeted by police profiling, which leads to more stop and search incidents, as
they are seen as more deviant
 Some ethnic minorities are more likely to be unemployed or have low paid jobs. This may be due to
racism or the fact that some groups do not achieve as well in education
Government action to reduce racial discrimination
 The 1970s Race Relations Act – Outlawed discrimination against different ethnic groups in
employment, education, housing etc
 The Equality and Human Rights Commission has the power to enforce equality laws
 Within organisations such as the police, awareness of institutional racism has been raised (eg. the
Macpherson Report – written after the murder of Stephen Lawrence)
Evaluation
Inequalities , in terms of ethnicity , have improved and ethnic groups do have better life chances than in the
past. However, there are still high unemployment rates and, although some groups do well in education
(Indian and Chinese), others are falling behind such as Afro Caribbean students.
Inequality based on Age
Age is socially constructed and there are cultural differences around how people of different ages are treated.
The term ageism (or age discrimination) describes a situation where someone is treated less favourably
because of their age.
 There are very high levels of youth unemployment, with over 1 in 5 (20%) of young people without a
job
 Young people are stereotyped as deviant and there is a media moral panic about ‘Hoodies’. This
means they are less likely to get employment as they are negatively labelled.
 Older people are also less likely to get employment as they are seen as less skilled in ICT and less able
to learn new skills
 The elderly are not as valued in the UK as other cultures and many old people live in pensioner
poverty (especially those from the working class)
 2 million pensioners live in poverty (60% of the average income)
Government action to reduce age discrimination
It is against the law to discriminate against someone due to their age.
Evaluation
The last Labour government did try to help young people get into higher education by providing EMAs.
However, the current government, under David Cameron, has stopped EMAs and youth unemployment has
risen very dramatically.
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Inequality based on disability
 Disabled people are negatively stereotyped as less useful than able bodied people
 A disabled person is twice as likely to be living in poverty than an able bodied person
Government action to reduce disability discrimination
The Disability Discrimination Act (2005) makes it illegal to discriminate against a person because they are
disabled, in terms of employment etc
Evaluation
There is still high unemployment amongst disabled people. This may be due to Access issues. It is still hard for
disabled people to access transport systems, workplaces etc
Note: The Equality Act 2010 overrides all other anti discriminatory legislation, making it illegal to discriminate
against people because of: age, disability, gender, race, religion, sex or sexual orientation.
Wealth and income distribution in Britain
Wealth – refers to the ownership of assets such as houses, cars, land, jewellery etc
Income – refers to the money earned through wages, benefits, stocks and shares etc
Distribution of wealth
Wealth is distributed very unequally in Britain.
 The Super Rich: The top 1% of the population own 33% of all the wealth
 There is a huge wealth gap between rich and poor in Britain
 The gap between rich and poor has widened even more in the last ten years. The rich are getting
richer while the poor are getting poorer
 The Super Rich have a lot of power and influence and can get away with paying very little tax
Poverty in the UK
Poverty can be defined in more than one way:
Absolute poverty: When people cannot afford the minimum levels needed to survive and go without food,
shelter, clean water etc.
Relative poverty: When your income is below the average. Therefore, you are poor compared to everyone
else. They cannot afford the general consumer goods that most people enjoy.
Measuring poverty: Poverty can be measured in different ways :1. Low income – the government uses this as a way to measure poverty. Poverty means living on only 60% of
the average salary.
2. Lack of items – this is a more sociological way to measure poverty and involves deciding which things are
necessities and adding up the cost. Poverty is where you fall below the amount it costs to afford necessities.
Explanations of poverty
Explanations of poverty can be divided into a focus on the individuals or groups while others focus on
structural factors.
Individual explanations of poverty:
 The culture of poverty – The poorest people in society are not socialised to have the values and
attitudes needed to escape poverty. They are fatalistic (feel they cannot change their situation) and
live for the moment, seeking immediate gratification, rather than planning for the future.
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The cycle of deprivation – Poorer people suffer material and cultural deprivation and cannot help
with their children’s education. Their children therefore do less well in school and go into less well
paid jobs or experience unemployment. They then have children and repeat the cycle.
Welfare dependency and the underclass – Conservative politicians, such as David Cameron, agree
with the New Right and believe that generous state benefits encourage ‘work shy’ scroungers. This
has created an underclass of people who do not want to work
Social exclusion – Labour MPs, such as Ed Miliband disagree and see people in poverty as being
marginalised (pushed out) of the social, economic and political life in society
Structural explanations of poverty
Marxism : Poverty is the result of class inequality. The capitalist system gives the ruling class huge wealth,
while producing poverty amongst the workers.
Inadequacies of the welfare state: This is a view that believes state pensions and unemployment benefits are
too low. If they were increased then poverty would be reduced.
Who is more at risk of poverty?
 Young people – more likely to be unemployed and become NEETS . Stereotyped as ‘hoodies’.
 Pensioners (especially women) – Working class pensioners live on low state benefits and live in
relative poverty
 Women – more likely to have worked part time in low paid jobs (child care responsibilities). Are more
likely to live in single parent families and will be less likely to have saved for their old age.
 Ethnic minorities – may not understand the benefits system and are more likely to be unemployed or
in low income jobs due to racism or lower levels of education
Changes in class structure in Britain
Social mobility and meritocracy
Some sociologists believe that Britain is more meritocratic as there has been an increase in social mobility.
Types of social mobility
Intra-generational – mobility of an individual in their own lifetime, due to promotion at work for example.
Inter-generational – mobility between generations. The child becomes a different class to their parents.
Social class has become harder to define over time. Class has become more subjective (how individuals see
themselves). Class identities have weakened and people no longer strongly identify themselves as working or
middle class.
How has the working class changed?
Embourgeoisement: Sociologists believe that, in the last 50 years or so, the working class has developed
more middle class attitudes and patterns of behaviour.
Old working class: Belonged to trade unions and worked in manual industries such as ship building.
New working class: More likely to vote Conservative, own their own home, often are self-employed (eg.
electricians).
How has the middle class changed?
Proletarianism: There has been an increase in jobs such as call centre workers. The work is non-manual but it
is low pay and has low status.
Underclass
This is a relatively new term and refers to the people at the bottom of the hierarchy, who are marginalised
from the rest of society. They have higher levels of crime, drug use and lone parent families.
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