Linkage Report
Sample School
Somewhere, State
ACT Instituion Code : 9999
June 2009
COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
Page: i
Sample School
ACT Institution Code: 9999
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Title
Section 1: Introduction
► Overview
► Executive Summary
Page
1-2
1
2
Section 2: Writing Skills
► Summary
► Percent of Your Matched Students in COMPASS
and CAAP Reference Group Quartiles
► Percent of Your Matched Students in COMPASS
Quartiles across CAAP Quartiles
► Means, Standard Deviations, and Frequencies:
Your Matched Students Compared to COMPASS
and CAAP Reference Groups
3-6
Section 3: Reading
► Summary
► Percent of Your Matched Students in COMPASS
and CAAP Reference Group Quartiles
► Percent of Your Matched Students in COMPASS
Quartiles across CAAP Quartiles
► Means, Standard Deviations, and Frequencies:
Your Matched Students Compared to COMPASS
and CAAP Reference Groups
7-10
Section 4: Mathematics/Algebra
► Summary
► Percent of Your Matched Students in COMPASS
and CAAP Reference Group Quartiles
► Percent of Your Matched Students in COMPASS
Quartiles across CAAP Quartiles
► Means, Standard Deviations, and Frequencies:
Your Matched Students Compared to COMPASS
and CAAP Reference Groups
11-14
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
Page: 1
Sample School
ACT Institution Code: 9999
Introduction
Overview
This report contains results for your students who tested with both COMPASS and CAAP (your matched students). Your matched students'
progress is compared to all recently-tested students whose scores on the COMPASS and CAAP tests have been matched (reference group).
Due to normal group variability, performance of your matched students should be tracked over multiple years.
Information is provided about the growth of your students' general education cognitive skills between the times they tested with COMPASS
and CAAP. Because the content specifications of three pairs of tests from COMPASS and CAAP are similar, it is possible to track student
performance for your matched students. Similar test pairs include:
►COMPASS Writing Skills test - CAAP Writing Skills test
►COMPASS Reading test - CAAP Reading test
►COMPASS Algebra test - CAAP Mathematics test
Note: It is not possible to Link the CAAP Writing Essay, Critical Thinking, and Science modules to the COMPASS tests.
Interpreting your linkage report
Figure 1 indicates the percent of your matched students' COMPASS scores falling into each reference group COMPASS quartile range.
Figure 2 indicates the percent of your matched students' CAAP scores falling into each reference group CAAP quartile range.
Table 1 contains the number and percent of your matched students falling into the joint COMPASS and CAAP quartile ranges that were
established using reference group results.
Table 2 presents frequencies, means, and standard deviations describing the performance of your students and the reference group on
COMPASS and CAAP.
How are the reference groups and quartile ranges identified?
The reference group information uses all matched student records aggregated across multiple years to promote stability in normative results.
This aggregated information is then analyzed such that student scores fall into the bottom, second, third, or top quarter on COMPASS and
CAAP. These groups are referred to as "quartile ranges".
Important facts to note
►CAAP modules require greater knowledge and more complex cognitive skills than the COMPASS tests. Therefore, students that have
maintained their quartile range or progressed into a higher range from COMPASS to CAAP have increased their knowledge and cognitive skills.
►It is very difficult for students in the top COMPASS quartile range to progress because they literally have nowhere to go except to remain at
an equivalent level or go down on CAAP. Similarly, it is impossible for students in the bottom COMPASS quartile range to demonstrate a
decrease in performance because they have nowhere to go except remain at an equivalent level or go up on CAAP. Students near the middle
of the score scale can just as easily increase or decrease quartile ranges.
►Suggestions are made in the sections labeled 'What to Look For' and 'What to Do'. These are intended to begin the process of interpreting
your results and identifying potential solutions and are not the only options to consider.
►The data contained in this report are based on those students from your institution who took both COMPASS and CAAP. These students
may not be typical of all students from your institution. Please use caution if you wish to generalize these results to your entire student body.
COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
Page: 2
Sample School
ACT Institution Code: 9999
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1,2
WRITING SKILLS
37% of students from your institution were in the same
READING
38% of students from your institution were in the same
quartile range on CAAP as they were on COMPASS
quartile range on CAAP as they were on COMPASS
24% of students from your institution were in a lower
38% of students from your institution were in a lower
quartile range on CAAP than they were on COMPASS
quartile range on CAAP than they were on COMPASS
39% of students from your institution were in a higher
33% of students from your institution were in a higher
quartile range on CAAP than they were on COMPASS
quartile range on CAAP than they were on COMPASS
N = 38
N = 45
MATHEMATICS
60% of students from your institution were in the same
quartile range on CAAP as they were on COMPASS
23% of students from your institution were in a lower
quartile range on CAAP than they were on COMPASS
17% of students from your institution were in a higher
quartile range on CAAP than they were on COMPASS
N = 48
1
%'s may not add up to 100% because of rounding.
2
Due to small sample sizes, results for tests where N<25 should be interpreted with caution.
Note : - indicates no test data available.
COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
Page: 3
Sample School
ACT Institution Code: 9999
COMPASS AND CAAP WRITING SKILLS 1,2
COMPASS and CAAP Writing Skills tests measure students' understanding of the conventions of standard written
English in punctuation, grammar, sentence structure, strategy, organization, and style.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
►
37% of students from your institution were in the same
quartile range on CAAP as they were on COMPASS
►
24% of students from your institution were in a lower
quartile range on CAAP than they were on COMPASS
►
39% of students from your institution were in a higher
quartile range on CAAP than they were on COMPASS
N = 38
1
%'s may not add up to 100% because of rounding.
2
Due to small sample sizes, results for tests where N<25 should be interpreted with caution.
COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
Page: 4
Sample School
ACT Institution Code: 9999
Performance of Your COMPASS/CAAP Matched Students in COMPASS and CAAP Writing Skills Quartiles
Percent of Matched
Students
100%
Figure 1. Percent of Your Matched Students' COMPASS Scores in the Reference Group
COMPASS Quartiles - Writing Skills
75%
50%
25%
21%
18%
26%
34%
0%
1-24
25-49
50-74
75 and above
Reference Group COMPASS Score Percentile Rank
Percent of Matched
Students
100%
Figure 2. Percent of Your Matched Students' Scores in the Reference Group
CAAP Quartiles - Writing Skills
75%
50%
25%
13%
34%
34%
50-74
75 and above
18%
0%
1-24
25-49
Reference Group CAAP Score Percentile Rank
What to Look For:
*Within a given COMPASS/CAAP quartile range, how does the
percentage of your matched students compare to the
reference group?
*On COMPASS and CAAP, does your institution have a higher
percentage of your matched students in the upper or lower
quartiles?
*What changes occurred between COMPASS and CAAP
testings?
What to Do:
*Verify that your institution offers all the necessary
English/writing skills courses for students to advance.
*Review your curricula to determine if your courses are
rigorous.
*Determine if your English/writing skills curricula include, but
are not necessarily limited to, instruction on punctuation,
grammar and usage, sentence structure, strategy,
organization, and style.
COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
Page: 5
Sample School
ACT Institution Code: 9999
Performance of Your COMPASS/CAAP Matched Students Across COMPASS/CAAP Writing Skills Quartiles
Table 1. Percent of Your Matched Students in COMPASS Quartiles Across CAAP Quartiles
COMPASS Writing Skills
Score Percentile Rank
01-24
25-49
50-74
75 and above
Totals across Quartiles
Totals across
Quartiles
N
%
8
21%
7
18%
10
26%
13
34%
38
CAAP Writing Skills Score Percentile Rank
25-49
50-74
75 and above
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
9%
3
7%
2
4%
0
0%
4%
5
11%
6
13%
2
4%
4%
4
9%
3
7%
2
4%
0%
3
7%
2
4%
5
11%
18%
15
33%
13
29%
9
20%
01-24
N
4
2
2
0
8
Table 1 enables you to compare the percentages of your students falling into each of the COMPASS reference group quartiles, while
tracking whether students either remained in the same, progressed to the next, or fell to a lower reference group quartile range on
CAAP. The highlighted diagonal displays those students who remained in the same reference group quartile on CAAP as on COMPASS.
Those above the diagonal fell into a lower quartile range on CAAP, and those below the highlighted diagonal progressed to a higher
quartile.
For example, look at the column for the second quartile for CAAP Writing Skills (Score Percentile Rank of 25-49); 33% of your students
scored in this quartile on the CAAP Writing Skills test. Of those 33%, 7% of your students scored in the first quartile, 11% scored in
the second quartile, 9% scored in the third quartile, and 7% scored in the fourth quartile on the COMPASS Writing Skills test.
Compared to COMPASS, 11% scored in the same quartile on CAAP where 7% increased from the first quartile on COMPASS to the
second quartile on CAAP, and 16% dropped from higher quartiles on COMPASS to the second quartile on CAAP.
Ideally, you would like to see most of your students either maintaining or progressing into higher quartile ranges on CAAP than on
COMPASS as this indicates greater growth than exhibited by the reference group.
What to Look for:
*Do you consistently have more students progressing into higher
quartile ranges?
*Is a larger percentage of your matched students in the first quartile
on COMPASS in higher quartiles on CAAP?
*Across quartiles on COMPASS, is a larger percentage of your matched
students in higher quartiles on CAAP?
*Is the percentage of your matched students in the top quartile on
COMPASS equal to the percentage of your matched students in the top
quartile on CAAP?
What to Do:
*Determine if your matched students have taken all the necessary
coursework between COMPASS and CAAP testings to maintain or
improve their quartile ranking.
*Encourage every students to take all the necessary general education
coursework.
*Look at the motivation levels of your students to infer if most students
gave their best effort on CAAP. (See the CAAP Institutional Summary
Report for motivation information.)
COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
Page: 6
Sample School
ACT Institution Code: 9999
Performance of Your COMPASS/CAAP Matched Students on COMPASS and CAAP Writing Skills
Table 2. Frequencies, Means, and Standard Deviations for Your Matched Students Compared to the
Reference Group on COMPASS and CAAP
COMPASS Writing Skills
Reference Group:
Your Matched Students:
CAAP Writing Skills
N
5,220
Mean
70.6
S.D.
24.6
Reference Group:
38
76.1
23.1
Your Matched Students:
What to Look For:
*Is the Writing Skills mean for your matched students greater or less
than the mean for the reference group on the COMPASS Writing
Skills test?
*Is the Writing Skills mean for your matched students greater or less
than the mean for the reference group on the CAAP Writing Skills?
N
5,220
Mean
61.4
S.D.
4.7
38
62.7
4.1
What to Do:
*Determine if your matched students need more rigorous Englishrelated instruction.
*Refer to your CAAP Institutional Summary Report to examine the
descriptive statistics for your entire CAAP-tested population and for
subgroups (e.g., age, ethnicity, gender).
Your COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
This report should be used as one piece of information in
assessing the progress and status of your matched
students. The accuracy of overall student progress and
status reflected in this report is dependent on the quality of
your sample.
Additional Information to Review
Other information that you could use to supplement this
report include:
*The CAAP Institutional Summary Report
When reviewing this report consider the following:
*Are the students in this report a representative sample
of all students at your institution?
*Are the students in this report similar to the reference
group used as the comparison group?
*Student Grades/GPA in their English/writing courses
* The CAAP Content Analysis Report
*The number and rigor of English/writing courses taken
by the students who took CAAP
*Other student information (e.g., student major, full time,
part time, motivation, etc.)
COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
Page: 7
Sample School
ACT Institution Code: 9999
COMPASS AND CAAP READING 1,2
Based on selections of prose fiction that are representative of material commonly encountered in college curricula,
COMPASS and CAAP Reading tests measure students' reading comprehension by requiring students to derive
meaning, make comparisons and generalizations, and manipulate information.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
►
38% of students from your institution were in the same
quartile range on CAAP as they were on COMPASS
►
29% of students from your institution were in a lower
quartile range on CAAP than they were on COMPASS
►
33% of students from your institution were in a higher
quartile range on CAAP than they were on COMPASS
N = 45
1
%'s may not add up to 100% because of rounding.
2
Due to small sample sizes, results for tests where N<25 should be interpreted with caution.
COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
Page: 8
Sample School
ACT Institution Code: 9999
Performance of Your COMPASS/CAAP Matched Students in COMPASS and CAAP Reading Quartiles
Percent of Matched
Students
Figure 1. Percent of Your Matched Students' COMPASS Scores in the Reference Group
COMPASS Quartiles - Reading
100%
75%
50%
33%
25%
24%
20%
22%
0%
1-24
Percent of
Matched Students
100%
25-49
50-74
Reference Group COMPASS Score Percentile Rank
75 and above
Figure 2. Percent of Your Matched Students' CAAP Scores in the Reference Group
CAAP Quartiles - Reading
75%
50%
33%
25%
29%
20%
18%
0%
1-24
25-49
50-74
75 and above
Reference Group CAAP Score Percentile Rank
What to Look For:
*Within a given COMPASS/CAAP quartile range, how does the
percentage of your matched students compare to the reference
group?
*On COMPASS and CAAP, does your institution have a higher
percentage of your matched students in the upper or lower
quartiles?
*What changes occurred between COMPASS and CAAP
testings?
What to Do:
*Verify your institution offers all the necessary reading-related
courses for students to advance.
*Review your curricula to determine if your courses are
rigorous.
*Determine if your reading-related curricula include, but are not
necessarily limited to, instruction on reasoning and referring
skills.
COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
Page: 9
Sample School
ACT Institution Code: 9999
Performance of Your COMPASS/CAAP Matched Students Across COMPASS/CAAP Reading Quartiles
Table 1. Percent of Your Matched Students in COMPASS Quartiles Across CAAP Quartiles
COMPASS Reading
Score Percentile Rank
01-24
25-49
50-74
75 and above
Totals across Quartiles
Totals across
Quartiles
N
%
9
20%
15
33%
11
24%
10
22%
45
01-24
N
4
2
2
0
5
%
9%
4%
4%
0%
13%
CAAP Reading Score Percentile Rank
25-49
50-74
N
%
N
%
3
7%
2
4%
5
11%
6
13%
4
9%
3
7%
3
7%
2
4%
7
18%
13
34%
75 and above
N
%
0
0%
2
4%
2
4%
5
11%
13
34%
Table 1 enables you to compare the percentages of your students falling into each of the COMPASS reference group quartiles, while
tracking whether students either remained in the same, progressed to the next, or fell to a lower reference group quartile range on
CAAP. The highlighted diagonal dispays those students who remained in the same reference group quartile on CAAP as on COMPASS.
Those above the diagonal fell into a lower quartile range on CAAP and those below the highlighted diagonal progressed to a higher
quartile.
For example, look at the column for the second quartile for CAAP Reading (Score Percentile Rank of 25-49); 33% of your students
scored in this quartile on the CAAP Reading test. Of those 33%, 7% of your students scored in the first quartile, 11% scored in the
second quartile, 9% scored in the third quartile, and 7% scored in the fourth quartile on the COMPASS Reading test. Compared to
COMPASS, 11% scored in the same quartile on CAAP where 7% increased from the first quartile on COMPASS to the second quartile on
CAAP, and 16% dropped from higher quartiles on COMPASS to the second quartile on CAAP.
Ideally, you would like to see most of your students either maintaining or progressing into higher quartile ranges on CAAP than on
COMPASS as this indicates greater growth than exhibited by the reference group.
What to Look for:
*Do you consistently have more students progressing into higher
quartile ranges?
*Is a larger percentage of your matched students in the first quartile
on COMPASS in higher quartiles on CAAP?
*Across quartiles on COMPASS, is a larger percentage of students in
higher quartiles on CAAP?
*Is the percentage of your matched students in the top quartile on
COMPASS equal to the percentage of your matched students in the top
quartile on CAAP?
What to Do:
*Determine if your matched students have taken all the necessary
coursework between COMPASS and CAAP testings to maintain or
improve their quartile ranking.
*Encourage every student to take all the necessary general education
coursework.
*Look at the motivation levels of your students to infer if most students
gave their best effort on CAAP. (See the CAAP Instiitutional Summary
Report for information on motivation.)
Page: 10
COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
Sample School
ACT Insitution Code: 9999
Performance of Your COMPASS/CAAP Matched Students in COMPASS and CAAP Reading
Table 2. Frequencies, Means, and Standard Deviations for Your Matched Students Compared to the
Reference Group on COMPASS and CAAP
COMPASS Reading
Reference Group:
Your Matched Students:
CAAP Reading
N
4,529
Mean
82.2
S.D.
13.8
Reference Group:
45
83.0
10.6
Your Matched Students:
N
4,529
Mean
59.9
S.D.
5.4
45
59.7
4.2
What to Look For:
*Is the COMPASS Reading mean for Your Matched Students greater
or less than the COMPASS Reading mean for the Reference Group?
What to Do:
*Determine if your matched students need more rigorous readingrelated instruction.
*Is the CAAP Reading mean for Your Matched Students greater or
less than the CAAP Reading mean for the Reference Group?
*Refer to your CAAP Institutional Summary Report to examine the
descriptive statistics for your entire CAAP-tested population and for
subgroups (e.g., age, ethnicity, gender).
Your COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
This report should be used as one piece of information
in assessing the progress and status of your matched
students. The accuracy of overall student status and
progress reflected in this report is based on the quality
of your sample.
Additional Information to Review
Other information that you could use to supplement this
report include:
*The CAAP Institutional Summary Report
When reviewing this report consider the following:
*Are the students in this report a representative
sample of all students at your institution?
*Are the students in this report similar to the
reference group used as the comparison group?
*Student Grades/GPA in their English courses.
*The CAAP Content Analysis Report
*The number and rigor of reading-related courses taken
by the students who took CAAP
*Other student information (e.g., student major, full
time, part time, motivation, etc.)
COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
Page: 11
Sample School
ACT Institution Code: 9999
COMPASS ALGEBRA/ CAAP MATHEMATICS 1,2
Based on mathematical problems encountered in many postsecondary curricula, COMPASS Algebra and CAAP
Mathematics tests measure students' proficiency in mathematical reasoning.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
►
60% of students from your institution were in the same
quartile range on CAAP as they were on COMPASS
►
23% of students from your institution were in a lower
quartile range on CAAP than they were on COMPASS
►
17% of students from your institution were in a higher
quartile range on CAAP than they were on COMPASS
N = 48
1
%'s may not add up to 100% because of rounding.
2
Due to small sample sizes, results for tests where N<25 should be interpreted with caution.
COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
Page: 12
Sample School
ACT Insitution Code: 9999
Performance of Your COMPASS/CAAP Matched Students in COMPASS Algebra and CAAP Mathematics
Percent of Matched
Students
100%
Figure 1. Percent of Your Matched Students' COMPASS Scores in the Reference Group
Quartiles - Algebra
75%
50%
33%
27%
31%
25%
8%
0%
1-24
Percent of Matched
Students
100%
25-49
50-74
Reference Group COMPASS Score Percentile Rank
75 and above
Figure 2. Percent of Your Matched Students' CAAP Scores in the Reference Group
Quartiles - Mathematics
75%
42%
50%
25%
27%
23%
8%
0%
1-24
25-49
50-74
Reference Group CAAP Score Percentile Rank
What to Look For:
*Within a given COMPASS/CAAP quartile range, how does the
percentage of your matched students compare to the reference
group?
*On COMPASS and CAAP, does your institution have a higher
percentage of your matched students in the upper or lower
quartiles?
*What changes occurred between COMPASS and CAAP
testings?
75 and above
What to Do:
*Verify that your institution offers all the appropriate
mathematics-related courses for students to advance.
*Review your curricula to determine if your courses are
rigorous.
*Determine if your curricula include, but are not necessarily
limited to, instruction in Prealgebra, Elementary Algebra,
Intermediate Algebra, Coordinate Geometry, College Algebra,
and Trigonometry.
COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
Page: 13
Sample School
ACT Institution Code: 9999
Performance of Your COMPASS/CAAP Matched Students Across COMPASS Algebra/CAAP Mathematics Quartiles
Table 1. Percent of Your Matched Students in COMPASS Quartiles Across CAAP Quartiles
COMPASS Algebra
Score Percentile Rank
01-24
25-49
50-74
75 and above
Totals across Quartiles
Totals across
Quartiles
N
%
13
27%
16
33%
15
31%
4
8%
48
CAAP Mathematics Score Percentile Rank
25-49
50-74
75 and above
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
13%
3
6%
3
6%
1
2%
8%
12
25%
0
0%
0
0%
2%
4
8%
9
19%
1
2%
0%
1
2%
1
2%
2
4%
23%
20
42%
13
27%
4
8%
01-24
N
6
4
1
0
11
Table 1 enables you to compare the percentages of your students falling into each of the COMPASS quartiles, while tracking whether
students either remained in the same quartile range, progressed into the next quartile range, or fell to a lower quartile range on CAAP.
The highlighted diagonal displays those students who remained in the same quartile on CAAP as on COMPASS. Those above the
diagonal fell into a lower quartile range on CAAP and those below the highlighted diagonal progressed to a higher quartile.
For example, look at the column for the second quartile for CAAP Mathematics (Score Percentile Rank of 25-49); 42% of your students
scored in this quartile on the CAAP Mathematics test. Of those 42%, 6% of your students scored in the first quartile, 25% scored in
the second quartile, 8% scored in the third quartile, and 2% scored in the fourth quartile on the COMPASS Algebra test. Compared to
COMPASS, 25% scored in the same quartile on CAAP where 6% increased from the first quartile on COMPASS to the second quartile on
CAAP, and 10% dropped from higher quartiles on COMPASS to the second quartile on CAAP.
Ideally, you would like to see most of your students either maintaining or progressing into higher quartile ranges on CAAP than on
COMPASS as this indicates greater growth than exhibited by the reference group.
What to Look for:
*Do you consistently have more students progressing into higher
quartile ranges?
*Is a larger percentage of your students in the lowest quartile on
COMPASS in higher quartiles on CAAP?
*Across quartiles on COMPASS, is a larger percentage of students in
higher quartiles on CAAP?
*Is the percentage of students in the top quartile on COMPASS equal
to the percentage of students in the top quartile on CAAP?
What to Do:
*Determine if students have taken all the necessary coursework
between COMPASS and CAAP testings to maintain or improve their
quartile ranking.
*Encourage all students to take all the necessary general education
coursework.
*Look at the motivation levels of your students to infer if most students
gave their best effort on CAAP.
COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
Page: 14
Sample School
ACT Institution Code: 9999
Performance of Your COMPASS/CAAP Matched Students in COMPASS Algebra and CAAP Mathematics
Table 2. Frequencies, Means, and Standard Deviations for Your Matched Students Compared to the
Reference Group on COMPASS and CAAP
COMPASS Algebra
Reference Group:
Your Matched Students:
CAAP Mathematics
N
5,523
Mean
37.2
S.D.
19.9
Reference Group:
48
29.1
12.6
Your Matched Students:
N
5,523
Mean
56.6
S.D.
3.5
48
55.1
3.1
What to Look For:
*Is the COMPASS Algebra mean for Your Matched Students greater
or less than the COMPASS Algebra mean for the Reference Group?
What to Do:
*Determine if your matched students need more rigorous
mathematics-related instruction.
*Is the CAAP Mathematics mean for Your Matched Students greater
or less than the CAAP Mathematics mean for the Reference Group?
*Refer to your CAAP Institutional Summary Report to examine
the descriptive statistics for your entire CAAP-tested population
and for subgroups (e.g., age, ethnicity, gender).
Your COMPASS/CAAP Linkage Report
This report should be used as one piece of information in
assessing the progress and status of the matched students
at your institution. The accuracy of overall student status
and progress reflected in this report is based on the
quality of your sample.
Additional Information to Review
Other information that you could use to supplement this
report include:
*The CAAP Institutional Summary Report
When reviewing this report consider the following:
*Are the students in this report a representative sample
of all students at your institution?
*Are the students in this report similar to the reference
group used as the comparison group?
*Student Grades/GPA in their Math courses
*The CAAP Content Analysis Report
*The number and rigor of mathematics courses taken by
the students who took CAAP
*Other student information (e.g., student major, full
time, part time, motivation, etc.)