Thank you for your request to our REL Reference Desk regarding research on the effect
of terms and labels on education performance. The information below represents the most
rigorous research available. Researchers consider the type of methodology used and give
priority to research reports that employ well-described and thorough methods. The
resources are also selected based on the date of the publication with a preference for
research from the last ten years.
Question: What is the effect of language (or terms) that we assign to categories of
students, teachers, schools, or districts?
1. The High-Stakes Effects of "Low-Stakes" Testing. 2011; Papay, J. P.,
Murnane, R. J., Willett, J. B.; Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness;
ERIC Document # ED518135.
Source: ERIC
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED518135.pdf
From the abstract: “In this paper, the authors examine how information that
students receive about their academic performance affects their decisions to enroll
in post-secondary education. In particular, they look at one specific piece of data-student performance on the state standardized mathematics test in grades 8 and 10
in Massachusetts. One key feature of such test-based accountability systems is
that every student receives not only a test score but also a label based on their
performance (for example, Failing, Needs Improvement, Proficient, or
Advanced). The state assigns the labels by determining three cut-points that
divide the fine-grained test score distribution into four regions. Given that
understanding detailed test information can be a costly task, it makes sense to
have a parsimonious summary that is easy for parents and students to interpret. To
summarize, their specific research questions are: (1) Does the performance label
information that urban, low-income students receive on the Massachusetts state
mathematics test affect their post-secondary plans and their college enrollment
decisions?; (2) Are the college enrollment decisions of students who did not
initially plan to attend a four-year college more sensitive to new performance
information than the decisions of students with college-going plans?; and (3)
Does prior test performance shed light on the relative importance of
encouragement and discouragement effects for particular students?”
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2. Make 'Em, Don't Break 'Em: The Power of Words and Labels. 2006; Smith,
V. G., & Mack, F. P.; Journal Of Invitational Theory And Practice, 1237-45.
ERIC Document # EJ767000.
Source: ERIC
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ767000.pdf
From the abstract: “From birth children are labeled, motivated and sometimes
stifled by words. In the home, community ore school, it is obvious that children
cannot escape words and their influence. This article describes the processes and
the effects of words on children's journey to adulthood and underscores the
importance of educators' understanding of positive messages.”
3. Effects of Labeling Students "Learning Disabled": Emergent Themes in the
Research Literature 1970 through 2000. 2011; Osterholm, K., Nash, W. R., &
Kritsonis, W.; FOCUS On Colleges, Universities & Schools, 6(1), 1-11.
Source: General Internet Search Using Google
http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Osterholm,%
20Karen%20Effects%20of%20Labeling%20Students%20Learning%20Disabled.
pdf
From the abstract: “Using an iterative process similar to the constant comparative
method, 34 studies addressing the impact of the learning disabled label were
synthesized. Four overlapping primary themes emerged: expectancies,
stereotypes, and attitudes; stigmatization, rejection, and social distance; action
versus attitude toward labeled individuals; and differential influence of the LD
label when other salient information is provided.”
4. Do School Accountability Systems Make It More Difficult for LowPerforming Schools to Attract and Retain High-Quality Teachers? 2004;
Clotfelter, C. T., Ladd, H. F., Vigdor, J. L., & Diaz, R.; Journal Of Policy
Analysis And Management, 23(2), 251-271.
Source: General Internet Search Using Google
This article is available for purchase through Wiley Online Library:
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pam.20003/abstract
From the abstract: “Administrative data from North Carolina are used to explore
the extent to which that state's relatively sophisticated school-based accountability
system has exacerbated the challenges that schools serving low-performing
students face in retaining and attracting high-quality teachers. Most clear are the
adverse effects on retention rates, and hence on teacher turnover, in such schools.
Less clear is the extent to which that higher turnover has translated into a decline
in the average qualifications of the teachers in the low-performing schools. Other
states with more primitive accountability systems can expect even greater adverse
effects on teacher turnover in low-performing schools.”
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5. Stages of Acceptance of A Learning Disability: The Impact of Labeling.
2002; Higgins, E. L., Raskind, M. H., Goldberg, R. J., & Herman, K. L.; Learning
Disability Quarterly, 25(1), 3-18.
Source: General Internet Search Using Google
This article is available for purchase through Sage Publications:
http://ldq.sagepub.com/content/25/1/3.short
From the abstract: “The research described here is part of a 20-year longitudinal
project tracing the lives of a group of 41 individuals with learning disabilities. The
article enumerates a small piece of the qualitative findings obtained using an
ethnographic approach that emphasized the “emic,” or insider's, perspective.
Since several of the research questions addressed patterns of change over time,
portions of the interview focused on changes in past and present attitudes,
emotions, conceptions and meanings related to the learning disability. A salient
notion emerged from participants' narratives, which they described as “acceptance
of the learning disability.” Further analysis revealed a shared set of
understandings concerning distinct stages of “coming to terms” with the technical
realities of their disability and with the social/emotional impact of being labeled.
These included (a) awareness of their “differentness”; (b) the labeling event; (c)
understanding/negotiating the label; (d) compartmentalization; and (e)
transformation.”
Search Process:
Key words and search strings used in the search:
Education Terms OR Labels OR Language, Academic Performance, School, Teacher,
District, Student Performance OR Achievement, Student Label, District Label, Student
Assignment, Rating OR Labeling Schools, Morale, Accountability Label OR Category
OR Rating OR Language.
Search databases and websites:
Institute of Education Sciences Resources (IES): Regional Educational Laboratory
Program (REL); IES Practice Guides; What Works Clearinghouse (WWC); Doing What
Works (DWW); Institute of Education Sciences (IES); National Center for Education
Research (NCER); National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance
(NCEE); National Center for Special Education (NCSER); National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES);
Other Federally Funded Resources: The Assessment and Accountability
Comprehensive Center; The Center on Innovation and Improvement; The Center on
Instruction; The National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality; National Center for
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Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing; National Center for
Performance Incentives; National Research and Development Center on School Choice,
Competition and Achievement; National Research Center for Career and Technical
Education; National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented
Search Engines and Databases: EBSCO Databases; ERIC; Google, Google Scholar;
General Internet Search
Additional Resources: Education Development Center; WestEd; American Institutes of
Research; The Campbell Collaboration; Center on Education Policy (CEP); Council of
Chief State School Officers (CCSSO); Data Quality Campaign; The Education Trust;
GreatSchools; Just for Kids; Kids Count; National Association of State Boards of
Education (NASBE); National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL);
Disclaimer:
This Ask A REL response was developed by REL-NEI under Contract ED-IES-12-C-0009
from the U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. The content does
not necessarily reflect the views or policies of IES or the U.S. Department of Education,
nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply
endorsement by the U.S. government.
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