Qualitative Research
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
While there has been debate as to an exact definition for qualitative research, there are some
primary characteristics that can be seen across the different practices employed by qualitative
researchers. Merriam (2009) offered the following four characteristics to describe qualitative
research.
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The first characteristic of qualitative research lies in the purpose of qualitative research,
to understand the meaning attributed to individuals’ experiences. The focus of meaning
people attribute to their experiences is on the process rather than the outcome. Likewise,
the intent of qualitative research is used to study individuals’ understanding of their
experiences, not researchers’ perceptions of individuals’ experiences.
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The second characteristic common to qualitative research is that the primary instrument
used to collect and analyze data is the researcher themselves. As can be expected, certain
biases might occur when researchers act as the data collection instrument. Rather than
attempting to remove such biases, qualitative research operates on the belief that biases
presented by the researcher must be considered, accounted for and monitored to
determine their impact on data collection and analysis.
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Third, qualitative research is regarded as an inductive process as researchers often use
qualitative studies to gather evidence in order to establish theories and hypotheses that
previous research has neglected.
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The final characteristic associated with qualitative research considers the products
gleaned from the research. Qualitative research provides highly descriptive data in the
form of words and pictures rather than the numbers produced by other types of research
(Merriam, 2009).
Types of Qualitative Research
When detailing the different types of research practices that are included under the ‘umbrella
term’ of qualitative research, numerous research practices are discussed. However, the following
are listed by Merriam (2009) as some of the most commonly used types of qualitative research.
They include:
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Basic Qualitative Research
Phenomenology
Grounded Theory
Ethnography
Basic Qualitative Research
The basis of basic qualitative research is grounded in constructivism with reality being
constructed by individuals as they interact within a certain environment. The intent of basic
qualitative research is to understand the meaning individuals have attached to a certain
phenomena they have experienced. Merriam states that researchers conducting basic qualitative
research would be primarily interested in “(1) how people interpret their experiences, (2) how
they construct their worlds, and (3) what meaning they attribute to their experiences” (p. 23,
2009). While other types of qualitative research share this same focus, other types of qualitative
research include additional components not found in basic qualitative research. Researchers
conducting basic qualitative research typically collect data through analysis of documents,
observations, and interviews. Data analysis then occurs with data being organized according to
themes, or reoccurring patterns (Merriam, 2009).
Phenomenology
Originally a school of philosophical thought, phenomenology was regarded as “a study of
people’s conscious experiences of their life-world” (Merriam, 2009, p. 25). Phenolmenological
researchers base their studies on the premise that individuals’ shared experiences results in an
‘essence’ or core meaning. Phenomenology researchers compare and analyze people’s shared
experiences in order to determine the ‘essence’ or core meaning of the phenomena. This type of
research requires researchers to explore their own experiences with a certain phenomena in
order to account for their personal viewpoints and assumptions. This process, known as epoche,
has become a common component of all qualitative research. Once researchers gain awareness
of personal viewpoints and assumptions, they must suspend prior beliefs in order to examine the
phenomena of interest. Topics such as love, loneliness and forgiveness are some areas
commonly researched with phenomenology. Phenomenological research typically utilizes
interviews for data collection (Merriam, 2009).
Grounded Theory
Grounded theory research, first introduced in 1967, follows the same process as other qualitative
research; however, grounded theory differs as it concludes with the creation of a theory. Thus,
substantive theories are produced with grounded theory research. Substantive theories differ
from other forms of theories (e.g., Grand Theories) as they involve an every-day occurrence and
are more specific in nature. Grounded theory research often builds theories based on the
changes that occur over time with a certain phenomena as well as other process-oriented topics.
There are some terms commonly used in reference to grounded theory research. The first,
theoretical sampling describes the ongoing process by which researchers use collected data to
determine additional sources and types of data to collect. The constant comparative method
refers to a type of data analysis in which researchers compare segments of data with other
segments to determine existing differences and/or similarities in order to analyze patterns by
which categories are then developed. Although many other types of qualitative research also
utilize the constant comparative method for data analysis, such studies differ from grounded
theory research in that no theory results from data analysis. Another term commonly used in
grounded research, core category, refers to a main category developed from data analysis that is
as connected as possible to the other categories. The core category is of importance to grounded
research as it is used to develop theory. The core category, as well as any hypotheses and other
categories, are “grounded” in (or derived from) the data collected. Unlike other types of research,
hypotheses developed through grounded research are not identified at the beginning of study but
instead are identified at the conclusion of the study once they have been derived from data
collected.
Ethnography
First conducted by anthropologists in the 19th century, ethnographic research is the study of
culture and society. Although culture has been defined in various ways, culture includes
attitudes, beliefs, and values held by a certain group of individuals. Ethnographic research is a
process as well as a product and can take several forms (e.g., autoethnography, life history). Data
collection for ethnographic research typically requires the researcher to act as a participant
observer and immerse themselves within the culture and/or society being studied. Interviews,
observations, collected artifacts and documents, and the researcher’s journal all act as additional
sources of data. The report of findings consists of not just a description of particular events and
data sources, but requires researchers to share the understandings they’ve garnered of the
phenomena. A note of caution, while many qualitative studies might be labeled as ethnographic
simply due to the field’s origination from ethnographic research, not all qualitative studies bear
the necessary components to be considered ethnography (Merriam, 2009).
Conducting Qualitative Research
Qualitative research begins as most other types of research, with a question researchers want
answered. From there, researchers utilize a variety of techniques in order to gain understanding
of how other people view their experiences. Merriam (2009) lists the following steps as integral
to qualitative research:
Select a Topic & Sample
Since there are often various samples a researcher could select to study with qualitative research,
researchers must select who and what to observe and interview, as well as when and where to
conduct research. There are two types of sampling that researchers can select to utilize. The first,
probability sampling, requires the usage of simple random sampling in order for findings to be
generalized to the population. However, as generalization is not a goal of qualitative research,
probability sampling is not necessary and not the most commonly used sampling method in
qualitative research. Instead, most qualitative researchers consider nonprobability sampling to be
most appropriate for sample selection. Purposeful sampling (Patton, 2002, as cited in Merriam,
2009) is the most common type of nonprobability sampling used by qualitative researchers.
Purposeful sampling occurs when a certain sample is selected because researchers believe that
the most information can be gathered by interviewing or observing the particular group.
Purposeful sampling requires researchers to determine specific selection criteria which to select a
sample of participants. Typically this is accomplished by creating a list of certain attributes
necessary in a sample as determined by the purpose of the study. Researchers discuss not only
the criteria by which they selected a certain sample, but also the reasons why certain attributes
were required in the sample (Merriam, 2009).
Purposeful sampling includes various types of sampling procedures with the most common being
the following sampling methods: typical, unique, convenience, snowball, maximum variation,
and theoretical sampling.
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Typical sampling occurs when a sample is selected as reflecting the average or typical
individual. An example of typical sampling would be selecting students who score in the
average range when compared to same-age peers.
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Unique sampling occurs when a sample is selected as they display atypical or unusual
characteristics. An example of unique sample would be selecting students who participate
in the gifted and talented program at their school.
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Convenience sampling occurs when researchers select a specific sample for the ease at
which it is available. This method of sampling is not considered very credible as it often
provides poorer information. An example of convenience sampling would be using the
third graders in your building for a study because you have access to their files.
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Snowball sampling occurs when researchers select some participants and then, while
interviewing a participant are told about another participant who they decide to ask to
participate in the study as well. Researchers who use snowball sampling do not select an
entire sample at the start of a study; instead they locate some participants who then refer
them to other individuals.
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Maximum variation sampling occurs when a sample is selected as representing the
greatest variation of a phenomenon. An example of maximum variation sampling would
be selecting students who rank highest and lowest on measures of motivation to
participate in the study (Merriam, 2009).
The amount of individuals interviewed, sites visited, and documents analyzed entirely depend on
the question being researched, the data gathered, and the progress of the analysis. Thus, there is
no concrete answer regarding the sample size. Researchers have recommended that data
continued to be collected until information gleaned reaches redundancy (Lincoln & Guba, 1985,
as cited in Merriam, 2009).
Collecting Data: Analyzing Documents and Conducting Interviews and Observations:
Conducting Interviews
Interviews can occur in a variety of formats. While some interviews occur person-to-person,
others occur within a group context. Interviews are described as conversations that are used to
gather information that cannot be observed. Such information might include participants’
feelings, interpretations of certain events, and/or descriptions of past events. There are three
primary types of interviews that researchers can select to conduct. These types are often
considered on a continuum-basis and include structured interviews, semi-structured interviews,
and unstructured interviews.
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The first, structured interviews, occurs when a researcher develops specific questions and
determines the order questions will be asked in advance of interviewing. One major
disadvantage associated with this type of interview is that researchers’ assumptions and
prejudgments regarding specific topics might disallow them to ask certain questions that
might provide a wealth of information.
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In the second type of interview, semistructured interviews, researchers typically begin by
asking participants questions regarding topics that have been predetermined prior to the
interview, but the largest portion of the interview consists of researchers exploring
relevant topics as well that might come to light during the course of the interview.
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The final type of interview, the unstructured interview, is considered exploratory as it is
often used when a researcher needs to gather more information on a phenomenon prior to
additional interviews. Unstructured interviews are most commonly used at the beginning
of studies and in tandem to observations. Most studies, however, employ a combination
of interview types in order to collect data (Merriam, 2009).
Obviously the importance of asking good questions during interviews cannot be overemphasized. Merriam (2009) suggests that researchers conduct pilot interviews in order to refine
interview questions as well as interviewing skills. Interviews should be cautious to avoid jargon
while interviewing participants as well as avoid leading questions, asking multiple questions at a
time, and questions that can be answered with a simple yes-no response. Instead researchers
should ask open-ended questions that elicit stories and other descriptive data from interviewees.
Patton (2002 as cited in Merriam, 2009) suggests that the following six types of interview
questions exists:
1. Experience and behavior questions – questions regarding interviewees’ experiences,
actions, or behaviors.
2. Opinion and values questions – the interviewer is concerned with interviewees’ opinions
or beliefs regarding a certain topic or event. Such questions might begin with “In your
opinion.”
3. Feeling questions – require interviewees to reflect on their feelings. Such questions
typically begin with “How did you feel when.”
4. Knowledge questions – questions that ask interviewees to recall specific factual
information.
5. Sensory questions – are used to elicit information regarding what the interviewee say,
heard, etc.
6. Demographic questions – are used to elicit demographic information regarding
information such as the interviewee’s age, education, income, etc.
Strauss, Schatzman, Bucher, and Sabshin (1981, as cited in Merriam, 2009) proposed that four
categories of interview questions exist including:
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Hypothetical – hypothetical questions call for interviewees to speculate about a certain
situation or topic. Hypothetical questions typically begin “What if” or “Suppose.”
Interviewees typically response to such questions with actual situations that they have
experienced.
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Devil’s advocate – devil’s advocate questions are often used when researchers are
interested in interviewees’ opinions regarding a controversial topic. Devil’s advocate
questions can begin with “Some people say.”
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Ideal position – ideal position questions are used to garner opinions as well as
information from interviewees about a certain topic or experience. Ideal position
questions are helpful in revealing positive and negatives associated with a topic and can
begin with “Describe an ideal (something).”
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Interpretive – interpretive questions are used to ensure that the meanings derived by
researchers from certain responses are accurate. These questions also can be used to
encourage interviewees to share more information. An example would be asking a
teacher, “Then would you say that that the new reading program is not as easy to
implement as the one you previously used?”
Conducting Observations and Keeping Field Notes:
Observations are considered to be a tool to collect data “when it is systematic, when it address a
specific research question, and when it is subject to the checks and balances in producing
trustworthy results” (Merriam, 2009, p. 118). Observations are used to collect data for a variety
of reasons. First, since environments being observed are novel to an observer, observers are more
likely to notice occurrences that have become routine or everyday events to individuals involved
in the environment. Also, observations allow researchers the opportunity to document behavior
as it occurs in a certain setting, thus, making observations a first-hand source of information in
comparison to interviews. Finally, observations are often used in conjunction with interviews and
document analysis in order to collect data. This practice is referred to as triangulation when a
variety of sources are used for data collection to substantiate findings (Merriam, 2009).
Merriam (2009) proposed that a researcher should be aware of the following areas when
conducting observations:
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The physical setting – What is the physical setting like? How is space within the setting
utilized? What is included in the setting (e.g., objects, technology)?
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The participants – How many people are in the setting? Who is in the setting? What are
the roles of the people in the setting? Why are certain people in the setting? What are the
characteristics of the people in the setting?
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Activities and interactions – What are the interactions of people like? Describe activities
that are occurring. What time did the activity begin and end? Is this activity something
that is routine or typical to the setting? Who is interacting with whom? In what way are
participants interacting?
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Conversations – Quotes should be taken verbatim in the setting. Conversations should
also be summarized. What does the non-verbal behavior look like?
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Subtle factors – Describe activities that were unplanned. Include information regarding
nonverbal communication including how individuals’ were dressed.
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Researcher’s behavior – Researchers should include information pertaining to their
behavior in the setting. Researchers should also include reflective notes (that are
indicated as such) within their field notes.
As discussed earlier, novice researchers are often plagued by uncertainty regarding how many
observations to complete of a setting as well as how long (the duration) observations should be.
The length and amount of observations is entirely dependent on the research question being
answered and resources available to continue to fund a particular study. In the end, researchers
must simply be satisfied with knowing that they have completed enough observations that have
enabled them to capture a range of patterns associated with the topic of interest.
There are multiple roles researchers can select to take when conducting observations.
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First, a researcher can select to be a complete participant. In this role researchers do not
share with the individuals they’re observing that their purpose is to research the group or
a particular phenomenon. There are several disadvantages associated with researchers
assuming this type of role when observing. Not only is it ethically questionable to
conceal your identity as an observer, researchers also may lose some of their perspective
by becoming too entrenched within the group.
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A second role researchers can choose is to act as a participant who is observing the
group. As with the previously mentioned role as complete participant, acting as a
participant who is observing requires that researchers fully immerse themselves within a
group as an active participant, however, this role does not require the researcher to
conceal their intention to observe the group.
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The third role that a researcher can select is to act, as described by Merriam (2009), as an
“observer as participant.” In this role the researcher’s intention of observing a group is
clear to those being observed and secondary to acting as an observing is participating in
the activities of the setting. The advantage of this role is that it allows the researcher to
form a relationship with individuals being observed in order to establish an identity as an
insider and perhaps be privy to information that would not be shared with individuals
considered outsiders to the group.
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The final type of role a researcher can assume when observing a group is that as a
complete observer. This role requires that the researcher be either concealed from the
group while observing or observing individuals in public locations (Merriam, 2009).
There is some key advice that researcher can take into consideration prior to completing an
observation. Taylor and Bogdan (1984) recommend:
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Listening carefully for key phrases made by individuals.
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Playing back scenes from the observation when there are breaks during the observation.
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Listening especially carefully to remarks made first and last during individuals’
conversations.
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Use both a “wide angle” and “narrow angle” perspective to shift from individual people,
to specific interactions, and then certain activities occurring while blocking out others.
As the purpose of observations in qualitative studies is to collect data of a certain phenomena, an
integral part of qualitative research is field notes. Field notes are the raw data collected from
observations. Data collected during an observation can range from the continuous collection of
information while observing to periodic notes to collecting no information at all during an
observation. While some researchers use technology such as video cameras, audio recorders, and
laptop computers to assist in data collection during observations, researchers must consider the
impact of such devices on the individuals being observed. Instead, many observers use the brief
notes that they have written during an observation as a basis for the narrative description of the
observation that they write as soon as the observation has concluded. In fact, it is quite possible
that writing descriptive field notes will take more time than the actual observation took.
Taylor and Bogdan (1984) especially emphasize the importance of writing descriptive field notes
as soon after the observation as possible. In some situations, researchers have even audio
recorded everything they can remember from the observation while leaving the scene of the
observation (e.g., driving home from the observation site).
Merriam offers the following advice regarding the layout and content of field notes. Researchers
should be sure to:
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Include the date, time, location, and purpose of the observation on the top page of field
notes.
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Include who is in the setting or at least the amount of people present and their roles in the
setting.
Create a diagram of the setting, including where participants are situated.
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Leave a large enough margins on one side of the page of field notes to ensure that notes
can be added later during data analysis.
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Double space between notes when activities in the setting change.
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Use quotation marks when quoting individuals.
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Consecutively number the lines of field notes on the left to make data analysis easier.
Field notes should not only be so descriptive of the setting and people being observed that
readers feel as thought they were present at the time of the observation, field notes should also
include a reflective component, or the researcher’s commentary of the observation, should be set
apart from other field notes either by being written in the margins or bracketed from other notes.
The reflective component of field notes should include information as to the researcher’s
“feelings, reactions, hunches, initial interpretation, speculations, and working hypothesis”
(Merrill, 2009, p. 131). Researchers’ reflections are especially important as they act as a
preliminary form of data analysis.
Analyzing Data
Analyzing Data: During Data Collection
Data analysis in qualitative research is a continual process that begins after the first interview is
conducted, the first observation completed, or the first document is collected and continues
throughout the study to ensure that no information is overlooked that might be critical to
answering the research question. Bogdan and Biklen (2003) made the following ten
recommendations with regards to qualitative research data analysis:
1. Force yourself to make decisions that narrow the study – within the first few observations
or initial interviews, researchers should begin to narrow the focus of their study. For
instance, rather than focusing on an entire school, a researcher might decide to look at a
third grade classroom in depth. Focusing a study allows researchers to study a specific
topic, subject, or event in greater detail.
2. Force yourself to make decisions concerning the type of study you want to accomplish –
Fairly early in a study researchers must make a decision about which type of qualitative
study they would like to pursue (e.g., Grounded Theory, Phenomenology, Basic
Qualitative Research). This is an important step as it will determine researchers’ focus
while gathering data. For instance, will the researcher be more focused on creating
descriptive notes of their observations or will they take care to develop a theory from
their research.
3. Develop analytic questions – while a researcher might begin a study with a list of general
questions that they would like to investigate, shortly after beginning data collection
researchers should begin to reformulate the question(s) that will direct their study.
Basically, at this stage researchers should be prepared to answer an individual who asks,
“What are you collecting data to find out?”
4. Plan data-collection sessions in light of what you find in previous observations – After
each session in the field Bogdan and Biklen recommend that researchers ask themselves,
“What is it that I do not yet know?” This question should then determine how or what
information the researcher will collect when they are next in the field.
5. Write many “observer’s comments” about ideas you generate – One mistake commonly
made by first time researchers is the lack of observer’s comments included when data is
collected. A part of the process of data collection in qualitative research is that the
researcher must spend a considerable amount of time speculating about the meaning of
the data they are collecting. Observer’s comments allow researchers to connect what they
experience in the field to other experiences. For instance, when an event reoccurs a
researcher might speculate about why. The purpose of observer’s comments is to generate
critical thinking that might be relevant to the question being researched.
6. Write memos to yourself about what you are learning – As stated earlier, data analysis in
qualitative research is an ongoing process, thus, once a researcher has been in the field a
couple of times they should read all of the data they have collected and write a one to two
page summary of what they have learned and about what is emerging. The memos created
by researchers at this stage in data analysis do not necessarily follow a certain template,
nor do they necessarily need to be understood by individuals not involved in data
collection. Such memos also serve the purpose of encouraging researchers that they are,
in fact, collecting pertinent information.
7. Try out ideas and themes on subjects – Preliminary ideas should be tested on subjects
during the course of research. For instance, if a researcher has noticed that teachers in the
school seem opposed to implementing a new reading initiative, the researcher might say,
“I’ve noticed that the teachers seem opposed to the reading initiative. What do you
think?” Testing preliminary ideas on subjects allows the researcher to consider why their
ideas might be incorrect or correct as subjects might share information or insights that the
researcher was previously unaware of or had not considered. Of course, researchers must
be careful when using this technique. It is important to remember that participants might
not be aware that their actions and thinking are in conflict or may be resistant towards
explaining a particular situation. Sharing too much information with participants might
also lead some participants to withdraw. Thus, this technique should be reserved for a few
select participants.
8. Begin exploring the literature while you are in the field – one area of debate with
qualitative research has been when researchers should complete a review of existing
literature. One of the reasons for this debate is that qualitative researchers must be
cautious not to use existing research findings as a substitute for their own thoughts.
Rather than attempting to fit their findings with the conclusions of previous research,
qualitative researchers must be cautious to formulate their own concepts. Thus, it has
been suggested that qualitative researchers wait until they have entered the field before
they begin exploring research in their topic of interest. Even then, some advocate that
qualitative researchers read previously published qualitative studies about other topics.
9. Play with metaphors, analogies, and concepts – Bogdan and Biklen (2003) suggest that
researchers ask themselves, “What does this remind me of?” when collecting data. This
question allows researchers to broaden their thinking about their research question.
Qualitative researchers often create phrases while collecting data in an effort to think
more deeply about certain aspects of their research. However after a phrase has been
created a researcher must explain in what setting and circumstances the phrase is likely to
occur.
10. Use visual devices – one technique that some qualitative researchers might often employ
that others never do is the usage of visual devices. Visual devices or charts and graphs
(e.g., tables, diagrams) can be used at all stages of data analysis to summarize thinking
and arrange researchers’ insights.
Analyzing Data: When Data Collection is Complete
As Merriam states regarding data analysis, “Data analysis is one of the few facets, perhaps the
only facet, of doing qualitative research in which there is a preferred way” (2009, p. 171). The
preferred way of data analysis that Merriam speaks of is to analyze data during data collection
rather than waiting to begin data analysis until all data has been collected. The purpose of
ongoing data analysis is to ensure that the data collected is not unfocused and repetitious. Once
researchers have gotten to the point where they feel comfortable that they have collected enough
data to answer the research question, researchers can continue the process of making sense of the
information they have collected.
At this stage, researchers begin to analyze the data by identifying segments within the data that
may assist them in answering the research question. Segments can range from a single word a
participant uttered to an entire page of field notes. Lincoln and Guba (2000) suggest that,
regardless of the size of the segment identified, researchers should be certain to select segments
that can stand on their own without little more than the context provided and be pertinent to the
study. Often such segments or themes are referred to by qualitative researchers as categories.
Determining which categories or themes are present in collected interview transcripts and field
notes begins with the researcher reading through such documents and writing notes including
any comments or questions that they may have regarding the research that has been collected.
This stage in the data analysis process is often referred to as open coding because the researcher
is ‘open’ to any comments or questions that might be worth exploring.
References
Bogdan, R.C. & Biklen, S.K. (2003). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to
theories and methods (4th ed.). New York: Pearson Education group.
Lincoln, Y. & Guba, E. (2000). Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging
confluences. In N.K. Denzin & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research
(pp. 163-188). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Merriam, S. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
Taylor, S. & Bogdan, R. (1984). Introduction to qualitative research methods. New York: Wiley.