Reprinted from:
Occasional Paper 109
Trade and Discovery:
The Scientific Study of Artefacts
from Post-Medieval Europe
and Beyond
f ·.
Edited by Duncan R. Hook
and David R.M. Gaimster
British Museum Press 1995
... .... ,.
1
•••
TRANS-SAHARAN COMMERCE IN THE MEDIEVAL AND
POST-MEDIEVAL ERAS: RESULTS FROM THE LABORATORY
STUDY OF CERAMICS
Rahma El Hraiki, Anne Schmitt and Maurice Picon
SUMMARY
On different sites in the south ofthe Sahara, imported ceramics have been found. The ir origins make it
possible to identify caravan routes during the medieval and post-medieval periods. Ceramics gathered
main/y in Mauritania, on the Tegdaoust site, and also in Niger, on the Azelik site have been studied in
the laboratory in arder to determine their origins. The reference material used for this purpose come
from excavated sites and prospection in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt. The origins identified in
the laboratory confirm the leading part played by Sijilmasa, Morocco, in the !rade with the Mauritanian
sites. On the Niger sites, the material originatingfrom Sijilmasa seems to be absent. However, strong
Egyptian influences can be observed.
INTRODUCTION
lmported ceramics have been discovered on many sites south ofthe Sahara desert. These are mainly
pale-coloured clay, calcareous, lead-glazed and tin-glazed ceramics originating from neighbouring
Mediterranean countries. The ceramics under study at the Laboratoire de Céramologie come mainly from
two sites - Tegdaoust in Mauritania, formerly called Aoudaghost Region, and Azelik in the Niger
Republic, formerly Takadda (Fig. 1).
The town of Aoudaghost in Sahelian Africa is frequently mentioned by Arab writers. They attach
considerable importance to it as far as trans-Saharan trade is concerned during the medieval and the
beginning of the post-medieval periods. The ancient town bas been identified with the present site of
Tegdaoust in Mauritania. Excavations began on the site in 1960 and continued with sorne interruptions
until 1976 under the direction ofProfessorJ. Devisse;Ms D. Robert and Mr S. Robert. 1 The excavations
revealed various living quarters and craft activity areas which indicate a highly developed urban
organization. Thousands of imported ceramics have been discovered, the origin of which was totally
unknown. The dating of the different stages of the occupation of the site is particularly difficult. The
small number offourteenth-century dates are very uncertain, and the imported ceramics do not possess
sufficient stylistic information to enable precise dating.
The beginning of imports to Tegdaoust bas been placed by excavators somewhere between the
eighth and tenth centuries; it is the later date that now seems more probable. The ending of imports
presents similar uncertainty and bas been placed between the thirteenth and sixteenth centÙries.
The town ofTakadda appears later than Aoudaghost in Arab texts. lt is also an important caravan
centre which bas been identified with the present site of Azelik in the Republic ofNiger. It bas been the
object of surface prospections and sorne limited excavations between 1973 and 1985.2 The imported
material is rarer than in Tegdaoust. However, written documents place the activity at Takadda with much
more precision between the fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries.
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117
El Hraild, Schmitt and Picon
METHODS AND RESULTS
The laboratory team was asked to determine the origin of imported ceramics in order to deduce aspects
of trans-Saharan commerce. The objective was to use these findings to complete or query indications
documented in the literature.
The method used is based upon the comparison of the chemical composition of ceramics of
unknown origin, with that of known references. Analyses were performed using X-ray fluorescence
spectrometry (employing a Siemens SRS 200 sequential spectrometer), concentrating on the following
17 chemical elements: K, Rb, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Mn, Ni, Zn, Al, Cr, Fe, Si, Ti, Zr, Ce, V.
The three-step approach adopted will be outlined briefly, using the Tegdaoust cerarnics as an
example.
Preliminary classification
Preliminary classification covers 66 sampies of ceramics from the Tegdaoust region. lt was performed
using cluster analysis by average linkage methods on standardised variables relating to the 17 measured
chemical elements (an in-house laboratory computer programme). Classification reveals the existence
of severa! groups, including the group A which will be used as an example in this paper (Fig. 2).
Highlighting of similarities
Among the large number of reference samples (the compositions ofwhich were compared with those of
the Tegdaoust ceramics), the samples originating from the medieval site of Sijilmasa, in the south of
Morocco, feature strong composition similarities with group A ceramics (Fig. 3).
Appraisal of similarities
As similarities may be identified only in relation to differences, two additional approaches were included
to establish effectively that the group A ceramics effectively originated from the Sijilmasa site:
1. Comparison with ceramics from sites which were thought (for historical, geographical or other
reasons) to have exported ceramics to Tegdaoust (for example, Fez, Marrakech, Cordova, Tahert,
Achir, The Beni Hamad Kalaa, Kairouan etc.). lt is feasible to check that the group A ceramics
are different from those originating from these sites.
2. Comparison with ceramics and clays from regions close to Sijilmasa, where geological data
suggests they could present composition similarities with samples from Sijilmasa and thus with
the group A (e.g. ceramics from Zagora (Fig. 4)). Therefore, we can check that the compositions
of group A are closer to those of the Sijilmasa ceramics than to those of ceramics and clays from
the various regions close to Sijilmasa.3
The deeper the investigation ofthese last two stages, the more likely it seems that the group A
ceramics originate from Sijilmasa.
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118
El Hraiki, Schmitt and Picon
RESULTS
The research operations conducted on the basis of these principles, resulted in just over half the
Tegdaoust ceramics being assigned to Sijilmasa. The second largest group which fi gures among the
ceramics imported in Tegdaoust, is among the most ancient imports collected from this site. This group
is currently undergoing identification. It may originate from Sedrata in the south of Algeria (however,
current research conditions in Algeria seriously inhibit identification possibilities). A third group, not
especially represented at Tegdaoust, originated from the Kairouan region in Tunisia. Ail these imports
seem to begin in Tegdaoust in the tenth century and continue up until the thirteenth-fourteenth centuries.4
Compositions of the three ceramic groups are listed in Table 1. It is noted that the compositions
of the groups are very different from one another. However, similar compositions can be found in many
places in the Maghreb. This being the case, it is important to consider the following two points: it is
necessary to have, for ali the sites which have produced the ceramics found in the south Sahara, analyses
ofnumerous pieces of reference material from the likely place of production (37 on Figure 3, more than
100 were analysed). lt is also necessary to use very sensitive methods of classification and comparison
of the compositions, ofwhich Figure 3 is only a simplified illustration. It is also very desirable to have
a large data bank of compositions of the imported ceramics in ali these regions to permit t!le validation
ofthe similarities of compositions observed. Thus this means that severa! thousands of analyses were
necessary for this research of caravan routes.
DISCUSSION
ln the Azelik region, there do not appear to be any imports from Sijilmasa. lt is also true that the Jater
date of settlements in this location (no earlier than the thirteenth century), may parti ally explain the rarity
of imports. It is yet again this late date which may explain the absence of samples from the group
presumed to come from Sedrata, despite the relative proximity of this site. However, imports from the
region of Kairouan and more generally from Ifriqiya, appear somewhat plentiful as compared with
Tegdaoust; although the literature makes no reference to this point, proximity undoubtedly played a role.
Imports from Egypt, however, are the most significant aspect of ceramics collected from the Azelik
region. 5 These imports were unknown in Tegdaoust. With regard to Azelik, ali these imports seem to
date from between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries.
Determining the origin of ceramics imported into Tegdaoust and Azelik is only the first stage of
the research undertaken on trans-Saharan caravan routes during the medieval and post-medieval periods.
To be able to trace exactly the routes taken by the caravans, it is necessary to study the ceramics of the
principal caravan stops also. The work has been done for the Zagora site (Fig. 1) and for Tamedoult, 300
km to the south-west of Zagora. These two sites have a smalllocal production of ceramics, but a very
large quantity of ceramics imported from Sijilmasa can also be found there. These observations seem
to confirm local traditions according to which, caravans from Sijilmasa followed the Anti-Atlas towards
the south-west before cutting south around Tamedoult.
The study of other caravan stops is in progress. Such studies, unfortunately, remain in the planning
stage as the political situation in the regions concerned does not permit any research at the present ti me.
Despite the thousands ofimported sherds collected from Tegdaoust, it is di ffi cult to talk about true
commerce for these abjects. ln both Tegdaoust and Azelik, they were probably household goodS"{Qr a
section of the population living in these towns. The distribution of such products outside urban locations,
seems virtually non-existent.
R. El Hraiki, INSAP, Avenue John Kennedy, Rabat-Souissi, Morocco.
A. Schmitt and M Picon, Laboratoire de Céramologie, 7 rue Rau/in, 69365 Lyon cedex 07, France.
119
El Hraiki, Schmitt and Pican
NOTES
2
4
D. and S. Robert and J. Devisse, Tegdaoust / : Recherches sur Aoudaghost (Paris, 1970); Cl.
Vanacker, Tegdaoust II: Fouille d'un Quartier Artisanal, Mémoire de l'Institut Mauritanien de
Recherche Scientifique (Paris, 1979); J. Devisse et al., Tegdaoust Ill: Recherches sur Aoudaghost,
Campagnes 1960/65, Enquêtes générales, Recherche sur les Civilisations 25 (Paris, 1983); J.
Polet, Tegdaoust IV: Fouille d'un Quartier de Tegdaoust, Recherche sur les Civilisations 54
(Paris, 1985); D. Robert-Chaleix, Tegdaoust V: Une Concession Médiévale à Tegdaoust,
Recherche sur les Civilisations 82 (Paris, 1989).
S. Bernus and P. Cressier (eds), La région d'In Gall-Tegidda N Tesemt (Niger}, Programme
Archéologique d'Urgence -1977-1981, Etudes Nigériennes 51 (Niamey, 1991).
R. El Hraiki, Recherche Ethno-archéologique sur la Céramique du Maroc, unpublished thesis
Université Lyon 2 (1989).
R. El Hraiki, D. Robert and M. Picon, 'Ateliers producteurs et commerce transsaharien à 1'époque
médiévale', in La ceramica medievale ne/ Mediterraneo occidentale (Florence, 1986) 51-4.
P. Cressier and M. Picon, 'Céramiques médiévales d'importation à Azelik-Takadda (République
du Niger)', to be published in Ve Colloque International sur la céramique médiévale en
Méditerranée occidentale (Rabat, 1991 ).
Table 1 Compositions ofthree groups of ceramics found at Tegdaoust probably
from Sijilmasa (A), perhaps from Sedrata (B) and from Kairouan (C)
Elements expressed as per cent
Group
KP MgO CaO
A
rn
3.20 3.83 17.8
n=30 s
0.88 0.44
2.2
MnO Al 20 3 FeP3 Si02
0.070 16.8 6.64 50.0
0.018 1.5
0.49
2.7
Ti02 PPs
0.723 0.73
0.043 1.08
B
rn
n=l6 s
3.37
0.30
3.25
0.36
14.3
1.8
0.055 20.5
0.019 1.1
6.05
0.58
50.9
1.9
0.840 0.58
0.043 0.54
c
rn
n=3
s
0.75
0.15
2.00
0.22
18.4
1.5
0.047 11.3
0.013 1.1
4.58
0.56
61.8
3.4
0.582 0.51
0.054 0.19
Elements expressed as parts per million (ppm)
Sr
Group
Rb
Ba
Ni
A
rn
104
497
385
60
n=30 s
27
79
108
8
Zn
91
20
Cr
121
14
Zr
147
17
Ce
74
7
150 .
26
B
rn
n= 16 s
143
40
469
60
414
48
59
6
80
8
138
9
138
16
87
6
271
51
c
7
6
592
63
330
142
38
73
4
86
7
168
8
71
11
96
n=3
rn
s
5
r:.
Notes n = number of sam pies in each group, rn = mean, s = standard deviation
120
v
-
5
··-....
,;
0
200 400 600 km
Sijilmasa
•
•
Zagora
•
Sedrata
Tegdaoust
•
• Azelik
4
... ~
N
Fig. 1
Location of the Tegdaoust and Azelik sites and sorne of the production centres in the Maghreb region
Fig. 2
Preliminary classification of ceramics imponed on the Tegdaoust site and identification of a specifie
group (group A)
A+ re ferences
Fig. 3
Classification of imponed ceramics at the Tegdaoust site (in black, samples of group A from Fig.
2), and various types of samples from Sijilmasa (idem.ified by white symbols). The remaining
samples come from Kairouan and perhaps from Sedrata, or are isolated samples and samples with
composition changes.
Fig. 4
Classification of cerarnics imported on the Tegdaoust site (in black, samples of group A from Fig.
2), and samples from the region of Zagora (identified by white squares)
122