Cultural policy in
Indonesia
----a4
al
Haryati Soebadio
Baaed on Annual Reports of the Department
of Education and Culture and material of the
Centres and Directorates of the DirectorateGeneral of Culture
Unesco
I
Studies and documents on cultural policies
Recent titles in this series:
Cultural policy in Australia, by Jean Battersby
Cultural policy in Guatemala, by Edna Nuñez de Rodas
Some aspects of cultural policies in Austria, by Harald Gardos and Manfred Wagner
Cultural policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, by M u h a m m a d Abdullah al-Mani and
Abd ur-Rahman Sbit as-Sbit
Cultural policy in Jordan, by Hani Al-Amad
Cultural policy in the Sudan, by Mohamed Abdel Hai
Cultural policy in the United Kingdom, by Nigel Abercrombie
Cultural policy in the Mongolian People’s Republic, a study prepared under the auspices
of the Mongolian National Commission for Unesco
Cultural policy in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, by G. Shevchuk
Cultural policy in the Yemen Arab Republic, by Abdul-Rahman Al-Haddad
Some aspects of cultural policy in Nepal, by Shaphalya Amatya
Cultural policy in the People’s Republic of China, by Bai Liu
For a complete list of titles see page 61
Published in 1985 by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization,
7 place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris
Printed by Imprimerie des Presses Universitaires
de France, Vendame
ISBN 92-3-102246-6
(8Unesco 1985
Printed in France
r
Preface
T h e purpose of this series is to show h o w cultural policies are planned and
implemented in various M e m b e r States.
As cultures differ, so does the approach to them. It is for each M e m b e r
State to determine its cultural policy and methods according to its o w n
conception of culture, its socio-economic system, political ideology and
technical development. However, the methods of cultural policy (like those
of general development policy) have certain c o m m o n problems; these are
largely institutional, administrative and financial in nature, and the need
has increasingly been stressed for exchanging experiences and information
about them. This series, each issue of which follows as far as possible a
similar pattern so as to m a k e comparison easier, is mainly concerned with
these technical aspects of cultural policy.
In general, the studies deal with the principles and methods of cultural
policy, the evaluation of cultural needs, administrative structures and
management, planning and financing, the organization of resources, legislation, budgeting, public and private institutions, cultural content in education, cultural autonomy and decentralization, the training of personnel,
institutional infrastructures for meeting specific cultural needs, the
safeguarding of the cultural heritage, institutions for the dissemination of
the arts, international cultural co-operation and other related subjects.
T h e studies, which cover countries belonging to differing social and
economic systems, geographical areas and levels of development, present,
therefore, a wide variety of approaches and methods in cultural policy.
Taken as a whole, they can provide guidelines to countries that have yet
to establish cultural policies, while all countries,especially those seeking n e w
formulations of such policies, can profit by the experience already gained.
This study was prepared for Unesco by Professor Haryati Soebadio,
Director-General of Culture of the Department of Education and Culture
of Indonesia.
T h e author is responsible for the choice and the presentation of the
facts contained in this book and for the opinions expressed therein, which
are not necessarily those of Unesco and do not commit the Organization.
Contents
9 Introduction
13 Historical synopsis of cultural administration
18 General direction of cultural policy
20 Administration and financial structures of
cultural activities
33 Programmes of cultural development
46 L a w s and regulations for cultural development
48 Aid to creativity and cultural dissemination
50 International co-operationin the field of culture
59 Medium- and long-term policy of cultural
development
Introduction
Indonesia is an archipelago of continental dimensions, consisting of
13,667 islands, large and small, of which some 6,000 are inhabitable, the
others being either too small or too inhospitable. A m o n g the inhabited
islands are some of the largest in the world, such as Kalimantan (Borneo)
with a n area measuring 539,640 k m 2 , Sumatra with 437,606 km2,Sulawesi
(Celebes)with 189,216 km2and Java (onitso w n approximately 120,000km2,
or seen as one unit together with Madura measuring 132,187 km2). S o m e
fifty other islands are of average size, such as the well-known island of
Bali, with a n area of 5,561 km2.T h e remainder are very small and sometimes
only occasionally occupied, such as the small islands in the B a y of Jakarta
k n o w n as Pulau Seribu (the Thousand Islands), which are used as recreation and week-end resorts.
This large archipelago stretches on both sides of the Equator, from
latitude 60 North to 110 South over a breadth of 1,888 km, whereas in
length it measures around 5,110 k m , from longitude 950 to 1410 East.
This is approximately the distance from Ireland to the Urals.
T h e population is dense-147 million according to the 1980 census;
a large increase on the 61 million mentioned in the 1930 census of the
Dutch East Indies. T h e 1900 estimate was 35 million, and it is thought
that in 1800 the population cannot have exceeded 10 million.
It is evident that over a long period m a n y groups, scattered over the
area of nearly 10 million km2, were living very m u c h apart and even
completely isolated. T o this day w e m a y still find areas that are not
easily accessible, although the government has in recent years built m a n y
n e w roads and air bases, and also organized n e w ferry and shipping connections all over the country. T h e inland seas have for a long time hampered
direct communication. Thus w e still find areas of almost complete isolation
next to those which have had considerable interaction with the outside
world since the earliest times. This means that in the early days marriage
outside the group w a s virtually impossible in s o m e groups, but in others it
9
Introduction
was relatively easy. Thus, inbreeding was the rule in some groups, which
resulted in certain types and physical characteristics becoming dominant
over an entire area, although in other areas there was virtually a
complete mixture of physical characteristics. The same could be said
of cultural customs. This situation m a y well be one of the most important
reasons why Indonesia’s population consists of so many groups that
seem to be ethnically divergent in physiognomy, customs and kinship
systems.
However, modern socio-cultural research has long since established
a basic similarity, even a common root, for the languages and dialects
spoken in the archipelago. From the point of view of language ‘families’,
the Indonesians are Austronesians or, to use another name, MalayoPolynesians. This language family stretches from Madagascar to Oceanic
Polynesia. However,probably also as a consequenceof long isolation,many
sub-languagesand sub-dialectswere formed. Recent research done by
the Centre for Language Development, Indonesia, has registered over
400 languages and dialects, and it is expected that hundreds more will be
added to this list. These languages range from such widely spoken
languages as Javanese, spoken by some 60 million or more Javanese, to
some dialects and languages that are spoken by very small groups, sometimes not exceeding a few thousand individuals. Parallel to the languages
and dialects, w e find a corresponding number of ethnic groups and
sub-groups.
However, divergency was not the only result of ethnic development
in various degrees of isolation dwing ancient times.D u e to its geographical
situation between two oceans (the Pacific and the Indian Oceans) and
between two continents (Asia and Australia), Indonesia has also been
subject to influence from foreign countries since relatively early times.
Owing to the enormous distances involved, this foreign influence differed
from area to area and from island to island.Thus w e find islands and inland
areas of the larger islands that were virtually untouched by outside
influenceand remained,until recent times,next to areas where continuous
communication with the outside world resulted in the creation of a culture
that became a mixture of various elements, blending and absorbing
foreign ideas into the original structure. In this way Chinese, Indian
(Hindu-Buddhist), Arabic (Muslim) and European (Christian) influences
have been integrated in various degrees into the local cultures which
are very varied and m a y be divided very roughly into the following
categories:
1. Those that have remained relatively archaic until very recent times,
such as the cultures of the people in the small islands to the west of
Sumatra (Nias,Enggano or the Mentawais), the culture of some Bataks
in Central Sumatra,the Dayaks of Kalimantan, the Torajas of South
Sulawesi, some groups inhabiting the smaller islands and groups of
islands in the east of Indonesia and Irian Jaya (West Inan).
10
Introduction
2. Those that have received a strong Indian influence and where both
Hinduism and Buddhism were able to take root especially as in Central
and East Java, where powerful Hindu-Javanese kingdoms were
established existing until the coming of Islam in the fifteenth century
A.D. and where to this day that influence is felt, despite the spread of
Islam; Bali, where the population has largely remained Hindu; and
various other areas that were influenced by the former Hindu-Javanese
kingdoms.
3. Those that were almost completely Islamized,such as Sumatra (except
the Batak area in Central Sumatra), where Islam first arrived and
where Marco Polo found concrete evidence of an indigenous Muslim
community in 1292, when he passed through on his w a y back from
China to Europe; the coastal areas of the larger islands; and smaller
islands like Madura, Lombok and others.
4. Those that received Western and Christian influence more or less
directly on their former archaic cultural structures, such as m a n y
Bataks, Torajas and other areas in the east of Indonesia.
It will be obvious that such a categorization cannot Ise maintained as
strictly as the division presented here suggests. As already mentioned,
the inland seas dividing the islands were at the same time also a means of
communication. The coastal areas have, through trade, also received
Chinese and other foreign influence from early times. Moreover, as was
previously suggested, there must have existed much inter-island trading
since early times.
It should be noted that, on one hand, the various aspects of foreign
influence have been the cause of deepening inter-ethnicdifferences where
these existed, while on the other hand they were the means of bringing
divergent groups together.
None the less, the basic roots remain apparent, for the Indonesians
have shown a remarkable ability to adapt foreign influence in such a way
that something new is created that is found nowhere else and differs
considerably from the original influence. This ability has been called
‘local genius’ by foreign scholars and m a y be seen, for instance, in the
creation of the temple of Borobudur which is unique in the Buddhist world.
The basic c o m m o n roots and the variety of local customs that have
developed in the course of time are acknowledged in the coat of arms of
the Republic of Indonesia with its motto Bhinneku Tunggul Ilia, taken
from sn Old Javanese manuscript of possibly the eleventh century A.D.,
the Sutusoma. Literally, the motto’s meaning is ‘[Although] divided it is
[nevertheless] one’, which usually is translated as ‘Unity in Diversity’.
The many ethnic groups m a y vary in their local cultures and languages or
adaptations,but nevertheless have one and the same basis which is still
obvious today. Therefore it was never a problem for Indonesians to find
the right basis for a policy in which to develop national culture. The state
Constitution drawn up in 1945when Indonesia proclaimed its independence
11
Introduction
states that the government has the task of developing national culture,
with local customs and traditions forming the basis from which to develop
this culture. Thus, national culture m a y be expected to develop through
its o w n specific identity.
A policy for developing national culture on the basis of which the
national identity m a y be strengthened has to be aware therefore of those
values remaining from ancient times. Influence from foreign cultures and
the positive effects of modernization m a y then be absorbed harmoniously
with this national identity and the general principles of culture.
Indonesia’sbasic philosophy of culture is contained in the five principles
of the national ideology, Pancasila, sometimes translated as ‘five pillars’.
These are: (a) belief in God; (b) tolerance; (c) humanity; (d) democracy;
(e) social justice.
This state ideology should be seen, and has to be implemented, in
relation to the composition of the country’s population. A basic ideology
or philosophy is necessary in order to contain the needs of such a variety
of groups with their o w n local customs, traditions, local beliefs and
religions. T h e Constitution, including the Pancasila,which upholds national
ideology, guarantees legal acknowledgement and equality of rights for all
groups.
Furthermore, in formulating its cultural policy, Indonesia needs to
take into account the national policy of development in general, for
culture is not the only aspect. An interrelation has to be acknowledged
between culture and development, and likewise between the development
of culture, cultural identity and the country’s material development;
because, in the formulation of its cultural policy, Indonesia, as a still
developing country, has to remain aware of the cultural dangers and
consequences as well as the side-effects of development for its people.
On one hand, development needs a culturally congruent environment to be
successful, while on the other, it also tends to bring negative side-effects
in its wake, which m a y only be solved through cultural measures.
In short, Indonesia’s cultural policy should aim at enhancing development through a dynamic type of national culture-a culture that is able
to cope and agree with the specific needs of a country in the process of development and which also has a strong personal identity, able to withstand
negative external influence as well as internal conflicts as a result of
development. A t the s a m e time, it should be able to recognize and absorb
positive influence and change in both the material and the spiritual sense.
12
Historical synopsis
of cultural administration
Although w e have seen in the ancient Indonesian manuscripts such as
old Javanese historiography some sort of cultural administration, this
only started in the modern sense with colonialism. In the early days of the
Netherlands East Indies, cultural policy was not a government matter
and cultural affairs were left very m u c h to private persons and organizations until the end of the nineteenth century. It was scholarly interest
in the life and manners of people in the colonies, the so-called ‘oriental
studies’, that started a whole n e w branch of scientific study,which developed
during the nineteenth century, but which had started m u c h earlier. This
interest in ‘eastern’ people’s life (specifically languages and customs),
had previously led to the establishment of the Batavian Society of Arts
and Sciences in 1778 through the initiative of Dutch scholars. T h e society
started a m u s e u m and a library devoted to the cultures of the archipelago.
It became the Royal Batavian Society in 1925 and was reorganized as a
centre of ‘all cultural sciences’, such as ‘linguistics, philology, historiography, ethnography, social anthropology, prehistory, archaeology,
Islamology, customary law, jurisprudence, economics and sociology’ in
Indonesia-in fact, ‘oriental studies’ as they were then conceived. Despite
its large scope, the society has contributed m u c h to the study of Indonesian
life and culture. T h e m u s e u m is at present the National M u s e u m in Jakarta,
and the library attached to it, with its well-known collection of indigenous
manuscripts, is n o w a part of the National Library, likewise situated in
Jakarta.
Another n a m e connected with oriental studies is that of Sir T h o m a s
Stamford Raffles. As Lieutenant-General during the British interregnum
(1811-16) in Indonesia, he was the first to recognize the importance of the
temple of Borobudur, which at the time was in ruins, the Indonesians
living around it having been converted to Islam three centuries earlier.
Raffles’s two-volume History of Java, written in 1817, is a monumental
standard work for its time and is still worth reading.
13
Historical synopsis of cultural administration
Oriental studies at their best produced some pioneering work in the
research of language and local customs. They were conducted by a scholarly
international community including a German, W. von Humboldt, w h o
in 1861 in his book Die Kawìsprache detected that Old Javanese (which he
called Kawi) was linguistically an Indonesian language and not related
to Sanskrit, despite the occurrence of m a n y words derived or borrowed
from it. Von Humboldt’s work was in fact very advanced, but it took
more than half a century before it was universally acknowledged that the
study of Old Javanese need not be done through Sansluit studies as it had
previously at universities in the Netherlands until the 1950s,although as
recently as the 1970s a n amateur of Old Javanese in Indonesia called it a
‘language derived from Sanskrit’.
T h e government’s interest in Indonesian cultural studies started at the
beginning of the twentieth century. Primarily it commenced with the
preservation of historical remains. In 1901 a commission was set u p for
archaeological research (Commissie in Nederlandsch-Indië voor Oudheidkundig Onderzoek van Java en Madoera), mainly concerned with Java
and Madura. D r J. L. A. Brandes, himself a n astute scholar of Indonesian
archaeology, was its first Head. In 1913,the commission was changed into
the more effective Archaeological Service (Oudheidkundige Dienst) under
the leadership of Professor Dr N. J. K r o m , another scholar of Indonesian
culture, whose book on Hindu-Javanese history (Hindoe-Javaansche
Geschiedenis) is still considered an important work.
Linguistic research into the languages of Indonesian was also considered
important enough to justify the establishment of a government-sponsored
publishing house, Balai Poestaka, in 1918.Balai Poestaka has produced
m a n y important publications containing indigenous works of literary
value in Malay and other vernacular tongues. At present, it is still government-sponsored and has retained its former name, though under the n e w
spelling system it is written ‘Balai Pustaka’. It is engaged in the publication
of books for schools and other institutions of education and socio-cultural
research, especially those that are considered important but m a y be
difficult to sell because they are too specialized. Balai Pustaka has to date
produced several publications in co-operation with international study
programmes.
T h e Netherlands Government’s interest in the culture and languages
of Indonesia extended to colonial services as well. Prospective civil servants,
for instance, were required to familiarize themselves with the languages
and customs of the region in which they were to work. Training in the
languages and adat (customary law) of Indonesia together with more
thorough studies of its culture were provided at Leyden University. In
later years, not only were Dutch civil servants educated in Leyden, but
also Indonesians, including future political leaders such as, for example,
M o h a m m a d Hatta, one-time Vice-president of the Republic of Indonesia.
At the same time, in Indonesia, as in the rest of Asia, the realization of
14
Historical synopsis of cultural administration
the importance of national culture c a m e in the wake of nationalism.
Indonesian nationalism, crystallized in 1908 with the establishment of
Boedi Oetomo, followed in 1922 by T a m a n Siswa, which as national
educational centres, stressed the importance of national identity. These,
in the initial stages, took shape in regional cultural manifestations.
National awakening culminated in the Sumpah Penuda (Youth Pledge)
of 28 October 1928, which proclaimed it would work to achieve ‘One
Nation, O n e Language and O n e Country, Indonesia’.
T h e Japanese occupation (1942-45) indirectly stimulated Indonesian
cultural life. In the first place, Dutch was completely eliminated as the
language of official communication and replaced by Malay which had been
chosen in 1928 by Indonesian youth as a basis for the development of
Indonesian. T o this end, a commission for language study was established,
the Komisi Bahasa, which was given the task of selecting n e w words so as
to m a k e basic Malay capabIe of becoming the national language of
Indonesia, Bahasa Indonesia. W h e n at a later stage in their occupation the
Japanese started to m a k e their o w n language obligatory, Indonesian had
already firmly taken root and was nationally accepted at all educational
levels.
T h e Japanese also created a cultural centre, Keimin B u n k a Sidhosho,
to promote Indonesian art and culture, whereas Poetera, headed by
national leaders, provided opportunities for exhibitions, performances and
other activities.
With Independence gained in 1945, the Indonesian Government
established the Ministry of Education and Culture (at present called
the Department of Education and Culture) as a consequence of Article 31
and Article 32 on education and culture in the state Constitution. Within
this Ministry, there was a Cultural Department consisting of three separate
divisions, Archaeology, Art and Languages.
T h e Division for Archaeology contained, and was the successor of,
the Dutch East Indies Archaeological Service which was established
in 1913.
T h e Division for Art was responsible for the establishment of various
education institutes for art, such as the Indonesian A c a d e m y of Fine
Arts (Akademi Seni Rupa, shortened ASRI), the Indonesian A c a d e m y
of Music (Akademi Seni Musik, or ASMI), both in Yogyakarta, and the
Conservatorium of Traditional Music (Akademi Seni Karawitan, or ASKI)
in Surakarta, Central Java.
T h e Division for Languages consisted of t w o parts in 1952. O n e was
the former (Dutch) Institute for Literature (Instituut voor Taal en Cultuur
Onderzoek) in the Faculty of Letters, University of Indonesia, Jakarta.
T h e other was the Language Division in the Cultural Department of the
Ministry of Education and Culture. In the same year the Cultural Department opened branches in the provinces: M e d a n (North Sumatra), Bukit
Tinggi (West Sumatra), Palembang (South Sumatra), Jakarta, Bandung
15
Historical synopsis of cultural administration
(West Java), Surabaya (East Java), Denpasar (Bali), Makassar (Ujungpandang, in South Sulawesi) and A m b o n (Moluccas).
In 1956 the following changes took place: (a) the Division for Archaeology became the autonomous Institute of Archaeology; (b) one part of the
Division for Languages became the Sub-Division of Customs and Traditions within the Cultural Department of the Ministry of Education and
Culture; (c) the other part w a s incorporated into the Language Division
of the Faculty of Letters, University of Indonesia; and (d) the Cultural
Department was given a further responsibility: m u s e u m management
with a brand n e w M u s e u m Section.
An extensive ministerial reorganization took place in 1960. As a result
the Cultural Department was incorporated into the Directorate of Culture,
while the M u s e u m Section became autonomous as the National M u s e u m
Institute. Consequently, the Ministry of Education and Culture dealing with cultural management one Directorate (for Culture) and four
institutes: Archaeology, Languages and Literature, the National Museum,
and History and Anthropology. Cultural branch offices were set up in
the provinces under the auspices of the Inspectorate of Provincial
Culture.
Further changes were m a d e in 1966.T h e ministry, n o w called the Department of Education and Culture, was divided into five directorates-general,
a m o n g which was included a Directorate-General of Culture, although,
in 1969,the number of directorates-generalwas reduced to three: Education,
Culture and Youth and Sports. However, since 1975 the Department of
Education and Culture has been further divided into seven divisions:
1. Secretariat-General.
2. Inspectorate-General.
3. Directorate-General of Primary and Secondary Education.
4. Directorate-General of Higher Education.
5. Directorate-General of Non-formal Education, Youth and Sports.
6. Directorate-General of Culture.
7. Research and Development Centre for Education and Culture.
T h e Directorate-General for Culture, which is responsible for cultural
matters, is divided into the following sections:
1. Secretariat.
2. Directorate of History and Traditional Values.
3. Directorate of Arts.
4. Directorate of Museums.
5. Directorate for the Preservation and Restoration of Historical and
Archaeological Monuments.
6. Directorate of Local Beliefs.
In addition, the Directorate-General for Culture has three centres under
its aegis-Centre for Library Development, Centre for Language Development, National Centre for Archaeological Research-and nine provincial
branches throughout Indonesia as follows:
16
‘Tari Serimpi’. Serimpi dance from Yogyakarta (Java).
This is a dance of welcome.
‘Tarii,Golek‘.Golek dance from Yogyakarta.
Indonesian youth displays a lively interest in the visual arts.
Sculpture frieze on one of the temples of the Prambanan complex.
The frieze tells the story of Rama’s search for Sita, kidnapped by
King Ravana. [Photo: Unesco/David Davies.]
A Unesco expert
helps direct the
Bandung Teaching
Aids Centre, where,
among other
methods,
marionettes are used
to explain and
illustrate simple
stories. [Photo:
Unesco/David
D avies.]
Historical synopsis of cultural administration
1. T h e National M u s e u m (Jakarta).
2. T h e National Library (Jakarta).
3. T w o documentation centres for history and traditional values
(Yogyakarta and Ujungpandang).
4. Thirteen cultural centres in thirteen provinces, but the aim is to build
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
one in every provincial capital. T h e thirteen in use at the m o m e n t are:
Sumatra-Banda
Aceh, Medan, Padang and Lampung; Kalimantan
and
-Pontianak, Banjarmasin and Samarinda; Sulawesi-Manado
Ujungpandang; Java-Yogyakarta, Surakarta and Surabaya; BaliDenpasar.
Twelve state museums, but throughout Indonesia there are 133 m u s e u m s
with various collections.
Five preservation centres for history and archaeology: Yogyakarta,
Surakarta, Mojokerto (Java), Denpasar (Bali) and Ujungpandang
(Sulawesi).
Three research centres for languages and literature: Yogyakarta,
Singaraja (Bali) and Ujungpandang.
Provincial libraries in all twenty-seven provinces.
TWO research centres for archaeology: Bali and Sulawesi.
17
General direction
of cultural policy
As
outlined in the Introduction, the Constitution of the Republic of
Indonesia, as drawn up in 1945, and incorporating the Pancasila (state
ideology), forms the basis of cultural activities.
In Article 32 of the Constitution it is explicitly stated that ‘the
Government shall develop the National Culture of Indonesia’. Further
examination of this article reveals that ‘the National Culture of Indonesia’
consists of the following:
National culture is the culture that emerges as a product of the minds of all the
Indonesian peoples. Earlier and indigenous cultures as represented by the local
cultures all over Indonesia are a definite part of national culture. Cultural
endeavours shall be aimed at developing civilization, culture and (national)
unity, without denying novel elements from foreign cultures which m a y develop
or enrich national culture as such and improve the human dignity of the
Indonesian nation.
Article 32 of the Constitution therefore shows that the Indonesian national
culture represents the realization of all the Indonesian people’s active
reaction to their environment and to the challenges of history. Endeavours
to develop national culture require the participation of all sectors of the
Indonesian community as well as that of the government. T h e government’s part is to give overall directives and to provide for incentives as
implied by the Constitution and other state laws and regulations that are
connected with cultural life and development.
Taking the local cultures into consideration, this means that existing
values, basic conceptions and convictions found throughout Indonesia
provide additional impetus to the development of national culture. On
this basis, Indonesia’s cultural policy m a y be said to consist of:
Preservation of what are considered to be the ‘highlights’of local cultures.
This includes preservation of the nation’s cultural heritage, both
material and spiritual. Therefore, the cultural policy includesprotection,
18
General direction of cultural policy
preservation, conservation and restoration in the field of archaeology
and history as well as museology. Preservation and protection of
the spiritual cultural heritage is likewise included in the field of traditional music, dance and other arts and crafts, which w h e n no longer
relevant to modern Indonesian life will be documented for the sake
of scientific study and research, and if still considered important will
be taught in both formal and informal education.
Encouragement of n e w creations based on traditional elements, particularly the development of traditional music and dance for modern art
purposes with the building of modern houses, etc., in the traditional
style.
Encouragement of completely n e w creations, outside the nation’s heritage.
This is important, as Indonesia does not intend to remain a country
merely living on ancient traditions, but wishes to be one of the modern
and technologically advanced nations of the world.
Foreign influence is encouraged, as this m a y m e a n enrichment and
development of national culture. As it is, foreign classical, as well as
modern, music has already gained an important place in Indonesian
cultural life. As was already mentioned in the introduction in the
history of the Indonesian peoples, foreign influence has always been
integrated into the local cultures of the country.
19
Administration and financial
structures of cultural activities
As outlined in the historical synopsis,at present the Department (Ministry)
of Education and Culture, and more specifically its Directorate-General
of Culture through all the centres, directorates and provincial institutes,
is the one institution responsible for cultural activities. However, from a
national viewpoint, the development of national culture and cultural
activities as a whole is implemented through various departments (ministries), directorates-general and other institutions, both of the state as
well as private.
W h e n seen in its provincial context (i.e. activities in the provinces),
it is clear that, not only the Department of Education and Culture is
involved, but also the Department of Internal Affairs through the local
governments, the Department of Information through its representatives
in the provinces as well as the various mass media (radio, television and
film), the Department of Communication, especially its DirectorateGeneral for Tourism, the Department of Industries with specifically its
Directorate-General for Small Industries and the Department of Foreign
Affairs where dealing with foreign relations is involved.
T h e various connections can be clearly seen in Figure 1. First, there is
the Department of Education and Culture, where art and craft education,
for instance, is not monitored through the Directorate-General of Culture,
but is implemented through the directorates-general (three) concerned
with education in general.
Schools, academies and informal courses in arts and crafts are coordinated by the three directorates-general concerned with primary
and secondary education, higher education, and non-formal education,
youth and sports. These also include private establishments, m a n y of
which are government-subsidizedand provided with government-employed
teachers. Government co-ordination controls the level of education with
the Directorate of Arts involved with the Directorate-General of Culture
which has close relations with the artistic world, which it supports and helps
20
Administration and hancial structures
of cultural activities
I
\
-\a
National Mureum
National Library
FIG.1.
21
Administration and hancial structures
of cultural activities
TABLE1.
State art and craft schools (1981/82)
Number
Number
of teachers
of pupils
3-4
4
28
78
100
4
4
4
3-4
3-4
4
3-4
63
40
36
43
42
56
356
339
385
27
99
3-4
3
3
48
410
580
412
3
3
3
3
3
68
28
Type of establishment/location
Duration
(Y-1
Music schools
Medan
Yogyakarta
Traditional dance and music schools
Yogyakarta
Padangpanjang
Bandung
Surakarta
Surabaya
Denpasar
Ujungpandang
52
570
230
309
Visual art schools
Yogyakarta
Padang
Denpasar
Craft schoozs
Yogyakarta
Japara
Tasikmalaya
Pacitan
Guang (Bali)
51
48
15
27
28
732
304
489
356
217
to promote in m a n y cases. Educational material, such as textbooks and
equipment (musical instruments, craft equipment, etc.), are partly provided
by the Directorate-Generalof Culture and purchased under its supervision.
A close relationship and co-operation exists between the directoratesgeneral involved.
In comparison with Indonesia’s large population, the number of art
and craft schools is very small (see Table 1). There are: t w o schools for
contemporary and Western classical music education in M e d a n (North
Sumatra) and Yogyakarta (Java); three fine arts schools, in Padang
(West Sumatra), Yogyakarta and Denpasar (Bali); seven traditional dance
and music schools, in Padangpanjang (West Sumatra), Bandung (West
Java), Yogyakarta and Surakarta (Central Java), Surabaya (East Java),
Denpasar and Ujungpandang (South Sulawesi); five craft schools in
Tasikmalaya (West Java), Yogyakarta, Japara (on the North coast of
Central Java), Pacitan (East Java) and G u a n g (Bali).
It should be observed that the traditional art schools and some craft
schools are situated locally, giving education only in the arts and crafts
of the area involved. T h e dance and music school in Padangpanjang,
22
Administration and hancial structures
of cultural activities
West Sumatra, for instance, concentrates solely on West Sumatran
(Minangkabau) dances and music. The same can be said of the craft
school in Japara, which concentrates exclusively on the fine woodcarving
for which Japara has been famous for centuries.
However, the art academies have a wider orientation,providing formal
education in both the national (mainly traditional) as well as the international and specifically Western imported arts.
There are seven state academies of art, co-ordinatedby the Institute
of Arts at the Directorate-Generalof Higher Education, Department of
Education and Culture. Of these seven academies of art, only one is
concerned with visual arts. However, at the Institute of Technology in
Bandung, West Java, there is a Faculty of Fine Arts, specializing mainly
in modern painting and sculpture.
Mention m a y also be made of the Academy of Jakarta, an academy
of music, dance and visual arts (including f
ilm and photography), sponsored by the local administration of Jakarta, situated at the Jakarta Art
Centre (Taman Ismael Marzuki), of which the traditional dance and music
group is especially outstanding.
In addition to these schools and academies, there are privately
owned schools and informal courses,some of which have a high reputation,
specifically in the traditional types of art and crafts,such as the education
centres for traditional dance and music situated in and sponsored by the
princely houses of Surakarta and Yogyakarta. These centres are considered
to be preservation centres of the traditional dances and music formerly
only allowed at the princely palaces. As such, they also attract interets
from foreign pupils. Another popular centre for dance and music in
Yogyakarta is Bagong Kussudiardjo’s,whose training centre is built along
TABLE2.
State Art Academies (1981/82)l
Name and type
Art Academy of Padangpanjang (music and
dance)
Academy for Dance and Choreography,
Bandung
Academy of Fine Arts, Yogyakarta
Academy of Traditional Performing Arts,
Yogyakarta
Conservatorium,Yogyakarta
Academy for Dance and Choreography,
Surakarta
Academy for Dance and Choreography,
Denpasar
1. Academies follow a four-yearcourse.
23
Number of
Number of
staff
students
20
224
47
63
424
789
34
21
348
137
32
684
27
236
Administration and financial structures
of cultural activities
the lines of a traditional village where pupils are resident. This centre has
become a focus of very interesting innovations based on traditional themes.
Bagong Kussudiardjo’s special groups perform on national as well as
international stages.
S o m e well-known painters, such as Amri Y a h y a of international repute,
have also opened private centres where painting, especially batik painting,
is taught.
T h e schools and academies cited in Table 2, as well as some private
organizations, cater mainly for future artists and/or teaching staffs of the
arts, those that want to m a k e art their profession. However, in most
school systems art education is also given, to disseminate and improve
art appreciation. Courses m a y be given within the regular curriculum.
Drawing, singing and reading music m a y c o m e under this category.
Extracurricular art subjects are traditional music and dance, folk drama
and others.
T h e Directorate-Generalof Culture shown in Figure 1 has the following
divisions and responsibilities:
Directorate of Arts
T h e Directorate of Arts is concerned with the conservation, preservation
and development of visual and performing arts, both traditional and
contemporary. Programmes are developed in which the various types of
art from all over the country, from the most traditional to the more
modern and the truly contemporary, are exhibited, performed and discussed. T h e aim is to introduce t h e m nationwide and m a k e these art forms
more widely known,thus giving the population a basis for the development
of national art without sacrificing the local arts and cultures as the main
source of reference.
At the provincial level, the directorate is assisted by officials in charge
of the arts attached to the Provincial Representative of the Department
of Education and Culture (see Fig. 2). T h e directorate is also responsible
for various cultural centres in the provinces mentioned in the historical
synopsis. O n e of the main functions of these centres is promotion and
development of local, as well as national culture, through art festivals and
inter-provincial exchange of art activities. These programmes always
have the full co-operation of both the local administration as well as the
provincial representative of the Department of Education and Culture.
Co-operation consista very often of budgetary assistance or facilities.
Figure 2 shows the co-ordinationin the provinces.
International co-operationin the field of the arts is also conducted
through the Directorate of Arts. International art activities m a y be channelled through multilateral co-operation agencies, such as Unesco, COCI,
SEAMEO or A S E A N , as well as through bilateral arrangements.
24
Administration and hancial structures
of cultural activities
Department of
Education and Culture
T
Secretariat-General
Directorate-General
ofCulture
Provincial representative
ofthe Department of
Branch institutions
in the provinces
__--
Education and Culture
..-_ __ _ --- - - - _--
Í
I
I
I
Cultural Institutes
Provincial representatives
of the Departmentsof
Information,Communication
(Tourism)and Industries
(Small Industries)
Department of
Internal Affairs
FIG.2.
However, special mention should be m a d e of commercial art arrangements, organized by entrepreneurs and co-ordinated by an interdepartmental commission.
Directorate for the Preservation and Restoration
of Historical and Archaeological Monuments
This directorate is responsible for the preservation, restoration, rehabilitation and protection of historical and archaeological remains in the form
of both permanent and moving objects that are considered ‘monuments’.
Indonesia recognizes t w o types of monument: Gdead’(no longer functioning
at the time of discovery) and ‘living’(still functioning). D e a d monuments
are, for instance, the old Hindu or Buddhist temples and shrines in central
and east Java which were mostly in ruins at the time of discovery, because
25
Administration and hancial structures
of cultural activities
the local people had changed religion, an example being the Temple of
Borobudur, which is considered a general national m o n u m e n t and was
restored as such. Living monuments are, for instance, the old mosques,
churches and palaces or buildings in various areas that are still functioning
as before. T h e directorate deals with both types.
T h e protection and conservation of monuments aims not only to
maintain and preserve, but also to promote knowledge and cultural
consciousness about such monuments as a part of the Indonesian national
cultural heritage. T h e monuments m a y be used as sources for inspiration
and stimulation for innovative creativity in cultural developm.ent while
preserving the cultural identity of the Indonesians as a nation.
T h e directorate deals, in its responsibilities,with organs on the national
as well as the provincial level, being directly responsible for five cultural
preserves for archaeology and history mentioned in the historical synopsis
in Central Java, the Yogyakarta area, East Java, Bali and South Sulawesi.
International relations are also the concern of the directorate. In the
field of archaeology and preservation of monuments, Indonesia has
co-operation programmes through Spafa, Icomos and other multilateral
organizations, although with some countries it has bilateral arrangements,
as will be discussed below.
Directorate of M u s e u m s
T h e Directorate of M u s e u m s is concerned with the promotion and development of m u s e u m s as a means of disseminating information on cultural
heritage, in particular through displays of material objects. T h e activities
of the directorate are not limited to one type of m u s e u m only, but include
general and specialized museums. It is also actively involved in the protection of moving objects of historical and general cultural value. T h e
Directorate of M u s e u m s is responsible for the National Museum, the
provincial (state)museums, a number of state-owned specialized museums,
a planetarium and an oceanorium. It is also available to assist and advise
privately owned museums.
A t the provincial level, the directorate has specialists in charge of
museums, and a Provincial Representativeof the Department of Education
and Culture (Fig.2) in charge of historical and archaeological affairs.
Full advantage is taken of international co-operation, through such
bodies as I C O M , for the development of museums, personnel and mobile
exhibitions abroad and within the country.
26
Administration and financial structures
of cultural activities
Directorate of History
and Traditional Values
This directorate is responsible for the promotion of the awareness of
history a m o n g the Indonesian peoples as a nation. It is also responsible
for the promotion and promulgation of national culture in relation to
national unity and integrity, within the existing historical, cultural,
religious and educational backgrounds.
T o this end, the Directorate of History and Traditional Values collects
data and information from all over the country as a basis for the formulation of its policy. It also advises on Indonesian culture for the further
enrichment and development of national culture.
T h e directorate conducts studies and research on national and local
history together with the ideas of national and local figures, both orally
and in writing. It also deals with oral traditions,such as legends, myths and
fairy tales, containing information on culture, games, popular sports as
activities and other cultural pursuits.
T h e Directorate of History and Traditional Values is mainly concerned
with the intangible aspects of culture; it therefore co-operates with both
domestic and foreign institutions of cultural research.
Directorate of Local Beliefs
T h e establishment of a special directorate concerned with local religious
beliefs, as opposed to the great international religions (which c o m e under
the jurisdiction of the Department of Religious Affairs), was deemed
necessary by Decree of Parliament in 1978.
It was recognized that these beliefs are very m u c h part of Indonesian
culture, and thus the n e w directorate was placed in the Department of
Education and Culture, with the Directorate-General of Culture.
T h e n e w directorate deals with these various beliefs, which to a certain
extent dominate the social behaviour patterns of their believers. However,
the directorate is more concerned with the believers than with the systems
themselves. T h e directorate is relatively n e w and therefore its activities of
documenting what seems to be important for these people is at an early
stage. E v e n so, as part of the cultural heritage and values of Indonesia,
it is necessary to have adequate knowledge of these ideas and convictions.
T h e directorate reaches the provinces through seminars and inventory
programmes assisted by staff of the Provincial Representative of the
Department of Education and Culture.
27
Administration and financial structures
of cultural activities
The National Museum
T h e National M u s e u m was formerly the Central M u s e u m established by
the Dutch Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences in 1778. As the National
Museum, which it became by Minister’s decree in 1980, it has t w o main
functions. First, it is a technical unit on the national level of the DirectorateGeneral of Culture and therefore expected to present the national image
of Indonesia with its richness in cultural heritage and traditional values
for which the museum’s collection is already well known. Second, it is
an institution where information on culture in general, and on material
culture in particular, is m a d e available to the public, at the same time,
supporting cultural education in the school system.
Further development of the National M u s e u m will be carried out in
three phases, based on priorities and needs, as follows: (a) development of
the m u s e u m building (further enlargement is urgently required) and
development of public services; (b) development of technical staff; (c) development of research.
The National Library
T h e National Library, situated in Jakarta, has recently been established.
A t the time of writing, it has no building of its own, though plans are
envisaged.
T h e main bulk of the National Library’s collection consists of the
contents of the former library of the National Museum, the basis of which
was founded by the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences in 1778, at the
same time as the museum.
A s heir to the former library of the National Museum, which the United
Nations suggested should become Indonesia’s deposit library, the National
Library is at the m o m e n t fulfilling this role. Therefore, a larger area has
been allocated for its building.
T h e National Library enjoys international co-operation between m a n y
of the most important libraries in South-East Asia as well as in other areas.
It it also a m e m b e r of various international associations of libraries.
For administrative purposes the Centres for Library and Language
Development and the National Centre for Archaeological Research come
under the Secretariat-General. However, to all intents and purposes they
are co-ordinated by the Directorate-General of Culture.
CENTRE FOR LIBRARY DEVELOPMENT
T h e responsibilities of the Centre for Library Development include the
formulation of a policy with regard to library development, co-ordination
28
Administration and hancial structures
of cultural activities
of the provincial libraries and development of librariesin general, especially
the public libraries and school libraries.
Library development policy is aimed at establishing a national system
of libraries capable of stimulating and promoting reading interest and
reading habits (still a problem in Indonesia where total literacy has not
yet been completely attained), promoting the development of existing
libraries and the provision of library material (specificallybooks and other
reading material written in Indonesian for the rural community) and
assistance in the establishment of n e w libraries.
T h e organization network of the Centre for Library Development covers
also the National Library in Jakarta and twenty-six provincial libraries
outside Jakarta.
Centre for Language Development
T h e Centre for Language Development is initially concerned with the
development of Indonesian as both the national and the state language
of Indonesia in accordance with Article 36 of the Constitution of 1945.
T h e development of Indonesian is aimed at making it an efficientlanguage
of administration, a m e d i u m of instruction in the school system, the means
of national communication and a symbol of national pride and identity.
It is likewise aimed at making it an efficient language for science and
technology.
T h e centre also deals with the development of national literature and
local languages and their literatures. Recording of, and research on,
national literature includes manuscripts and books written in the past in
Malay, the basis of the national language, Indonesian. T h e local languages
and their literature, both oral and written, are recorded, researched and
will be translated into Indonesian for publication. Part of the results of
such recording have been published. Language maps, general and specialized dictionaries (including dictionaries of technical terms), handbooks
and scientific essays on language and literature are part of the centre’s
activities.
T h e centre also promotes and takes part in national co-operationwith
Indonesian institutions of higher learning and other relevant bodies. It
conducts international co-operation programmes with the relevant institutions in such countries as Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines, the
Netherlands and France, as well as with international agencies such as
A S E A N , Unesco and others.
O n the provincial level, the centre is supported by three offices of
linguistic research in Yogyakarta, Ujungpandang (South Sulawesi) and
Singaraja (Bali).
29
Administration and hancial structures
of cultural activities
National Centre for Archaeological Research
In 1975, the functions of the former Institute of Archaeology, which was
the successor of the Dutch Oudheidkundige Dienst (see the historical
synopsis), were divided into two: (a) preservation and conservation, and
(b) research.
T h e Directorate for the Preservation and Restoration of Historical
and Archaeological Monuments took over preservation and conservation,
whilst research is n o w the responsibility of the National Centre for Archaeological Research. Archaeological research activities are concerned with
Indonesian cultures of all periods of history, from prehistory onwards.
For practical reasons, the programme of activities is divided into four
fields: prehistory, classical archaeology, archaeology of the Islamic period
and archaeometrics.
T h e objectives are not merely to reconstruct Indonesian cultural
history and to develop n e w concepts and theories, but also to exhibit
ancient and indigenous cultures to the public, to stimulate creativity and
provide a solid basis for the search for cultural identity.
T h e centre is also conducting excavations in various sites all over
Indonesia. A t the provincial level, it is assisted by t w o offices of archaeological research, in Yogyakarta and Bali.
A s Figure 2 shows, all the branches, directorates and centres already
cited maintain close co-operationwith various departments, directoratesgeneral and other institutions at the provincial level with the local administration having general responsibility for everything in its area. G o o d
relations with the provincial administration are therefore a necessity for
all departments with activities in the provinces. It is here that the various
provincial representatives of the departments have a role to play, with the
provincial branches of the technical directorates-general responsible for
the implementation of their policies and programmes. T h e representative
of the Department of Education and Culture is also responsible for coordination between all the offices and institutions operating in his province
which c o m e under the aegis of the department.
Close co-operation also exists between offices and institutions of the
Department of Education and Culture and representatives of other
departments in the provinces. Almost every department is represented
in the provinces. In s o m e cases, directorates-general have their o w n
representation as well, as those of the Directorates-Generalof Tourism and
Small Industries (see Fig. 2).
Co-operation between those representatives consists, for instance, of
joint programmes in arts and crafts exhibitions, dance and music festivals
and organization of cultural contests.
In promotion of cultural sites and monuments for tourism there is
always close co-operation between the Directorates-General of Tourism
and of Culture, thus ameliorating, the negative effects of tourism on
30
Administration and hancial structures
of cultural activities
cultural values and heritage. Indonesia believes that tourism need not
necessarily be considered a negative influence on cultural life and development. For example, the popular notion that the souvenir industry
is a threat to maintaining quality in arts and crafts m a y in fact be offset
by measures to promote the use of cheaper material and the production of
smaller objects, without lowering the standard of technique and craftsmanship. In the same vein, theatrical performances for tourists m a y still
be maintained at a high level of professional skill, even though the performance itself m a y be shortened and the contents popularized. It is in
this field particularly that the institutions for cultural development and
those for the promotion of tourism and craft industries m a y work together
and thus preserve the quality of Indonesian art and crafts.
Figure 3 shows the co-ordination between the institutions concerned
with cultural life and those dealing with foreign relations.
Technically, foreign co-operation programmes have to be conducted
Departmentof
Foreign Affairs
Cepanment of
Education and Culture
u
Multilateral corporations
FIG.3.
31
Administration and hancial structures
of cultural activities
via the Department of Foreign Affairs and its relevant directorates-general
and directorates, though this m a y be done through the Indonesian
embassies and legations abroad, or through the foreign equivalents in
Indonesia. Multilateral agencies have the option of contacting their o w n
representatives in Indonesia or likewise approaching the Indonesian
embassies and legations.
In Indonesia, w h e n programmes of scientific research are an area of
study, contact should also be m a d e with the Indonesian Institute of
Sciences, which will then approach relevant or interested institutions
in Indonesia for co-operation. This is especially relevant with research
in the provinces, where an introduction from the Institute of Sciences is
mandatory.
Financial support
Practically all of the funding needed for the development of national
culture comes from the Government of Indonesia through routine as well
as development budgets of the Department of Education and Culture.
Joint programmes with other departments, however, m a y be partially
financed by the relevant departments, directorates-general, directorates
and the local administration.
T h e development budget (which also takes into account priority
programmes of cultural development) has been m a d e available for the last
t w o periods of the five-year development programmes of Indonesia, which
are n o w approaching the end of the third and the beginning of the fourth
periods.
In international programmes, bilateral as well as multilateral, foreignfunded assistance is very often provided. Nevertheless, the largest part of
cultural financing remains the responsibility of the Indonesian Government.
32
Restoratioii work at the National Centre for Archaeological
Research (PUSPAN).
Carvings o n the front of the Shiva Temple at Prambanan.
[Photo: Unesco/David Davies.]
The Temple of Sari (ninth to tenth centuries).
[Photo: Unesco/Mireille Vautier.]
Programmes of cultural
development
Having established a set of principles and the relevant administration for
cultural development on a national level, Indonesia still faces problems in
bringing these principles into practice in its multi-ethnic and also (as far as
education is concerned) multi-layered population. These problems have a
definite influence on the flow or mainstream of cultural policy. In outline,
the problems faced by Indonesia consist of the following:
Basically, national development represents the process of change in all
sectors of life, which n o w occurs m u c h more rapidly than ever before.
Indonesia’s multi-ethniccommunity, with its varied historical and cultural
backgrounds, therefore undergoes corresponding changes in its systems
of values as a result of national development.
T h e rapid flow of present-day foreign cultural influences due to the
development of modern technology, especially in the field of c o m m u n i cation and transportation, has immensely facilitated intercultural
contacts.
T h e enormous growth in population requires a corresponding increase in
the quality, quantity and variety of the means of life.
Indonesia’s multi-ethnic background was, of necessity, a direct reason for
considering national culture to be the guideline for patterns of social
behaviour of the nation. This, as previously mentioned, was the aim of the
Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia. However, while national culture
is still in the process of development there still remains at present diverse
ethnic as well as local cultures as regards specific social environments.
Indonesia has also to consider that material development has initiated
various changes in value m u c h faster than in the old days w h e n c o m m u n i cation was more difficult.It is this rapid change that creates the problems,
for cultural adaptation to foreign influence is slow and inconsistent. This
strong foreign cultural influence has led to a weakening of the people’s
capacity to select and filter with the consequent loss of the ability to
choose correctly what is needed in accordance with the existing values
33
Programmes of cultural development
and ideals. Unqualified adoption of foreign cultural influence could result in
the elimination of earlier, more dominant values and ideals, which in the
end could weaken cultural identity and lead to frustration.
Social pressures and restlessness are increasingly expressed in the mass
media. Various forms of violence, crime and juvenile delinquency occur
more frequently every day, clearly indicating the existence of inconsistencies in the institutions which regulate social behaviour and intercourse.
This situation m a y be overcome by adequate cultural development.
It is the Indonesian Government’s policy to develop national culture
by means of increasing opportunities or socialization, in which knowledge
of the values and principal ideals that m a k e u p the national customs are
promoted.
These ideals are considered highly important a m o n g Indonesia’s
population with its multi-ethniccultural background. But until Indonesians
consider their customs within the total framework of a national culture and
until this becomes fully developed interethnic relations m a y undergo
disguised or visible problems of understanding, despite the c o m m o n
national aim.
Socialization m a y be effected through formal education within the
school system. However, formal cultural education seems to be a fairly
n e w tradition in developing countries such as Indonesia. T h e school system
is used more to promote skills and attitudes aimed at certain objectives.
M u c h that is necessary in social life cannot be obtained at school. O n e
example in Indonesia is the lack of social intercourse between the various
sectors of the community, which would help the child in his behaviour and
social life out of school. There is also no school subject dealing with the
etiquette relevant to social relations a m o n g members of society. Organizations and institutions are therefore needed to assist children to widen
their behaviour patterns relevant to life outside the school system.
As elsewhere, Indonesia possesses various youth organizations with
these aims. There are organizations such as the B o y Scout Movement,
art centres, sport centres, organizations for nature lovers, mountain
climbers and so on. However, most of them accommodate only members
having special interests and are thus limited in scope. E v e n organizations of a more general character, such as those set u p in cities for the
local youth living in that particular area, are insufficient to satisfy the
need for skills and attitudes necessary for the development of national
culture.
T h e Department of Education and Culture, through the DirectorateGeneral of Culture, has therefore established programmes of activities
incorporating the values and ideals which form the basis of Indonesian
culture. These values and ideals are promoted and offered as variations or
alternatives in the customs of Indonesian national social life and behaviour.
These programmes aim at introducing values and ideals that have
hitherto been known, or relevant, to certain closed ethnic societies or regions,
34
Programmes of cultural development
although they m a y be in keeping with the national values and ideals as
outlined in the Constitution. Of the various alternatives offered, those that
are ultimately accepted m a y be expected to become part of, and enrich,
the national culture, providing it with the nuances of colour needed to
appeal to the Indonesian nation.
In this way, every group and individual m a y be said to be given the
opportunity to play a significant role in the relevant original community,
and at the same time to be actively involved in the preservation of national
cultural identity and the development of national culture. For, in all the
policies and programmes of culture, it is the preservation of cultural
identity and the development of national culture through cultural identity
that is necessary.
T h e programmes executed by the Directorate-General of Culture
through its directorates, centres and branches in the provinces, and in
close co-operation with other institutions connected with cultural development, are grouped under five headings:
1. Programme of history, archaeology and museum development.
2. Development of the arts.
3. Development of language,literature, books and libraries.
4. Cultural inventory.
5. Local religious beliefs.
History, archaeology
and m u s e u m development
T h e programme is executed through three directorates-History and
Traditional Values, Preservation and Restoration of Historical and
Archaeological Monuments, Museums-with
their respective branches in
the provinces, and in co-operation with the National Centre-for Archaeological Research.
In general the programme is aimed at promoting historical awareness,
specifically in relation to: (a) Indonesian history as the history of the
Indonesian people as members of one nation; (b) encouraging innovation
and creativity by studying history and archaeological remains, taking
into consideration cultural roots represented by cultural heritage.
HISTORY
T h e history programme not only records past events, but also studies
socio-culturalbackground. Take, for example, one item in this programme:
the study of the lives of national figures, war heroes and independence
movements, etc. T h e aim is not just to relate their deeds or the events
of the time but to place t h e m in the context of the lives and the sociocultural environment of the people of the relevant time, and place. In this
35
Programmes of cultural development
w a y it is hoped to be able to give a more critical view of historical events
of local or provincial relevance which m a y encourage people of all levels
to study their history.
T h e results of such studies are then m a d e known. T h e subjects m a y be
used for books and articles aimed at various levels of education. Through
this programme material is acquired for writing textbooks and reading
matter for schools, youth libraries, and literacy programmes, both for
adults and children. T h e more scientific reports are dealt with in the
relevant journals and other suitable publications.
Through thk programme, a six-volume National History of Indonesia
has been written, which has already been reprinted three times. It is n o w
considered to need re-editing,which is being done at present.
Included a m o n g the results achieved in this programme to date
(1981/82) are the following items:
1. Recording of: (a) historical events in connection with national movements in the provinces; (b) samples of local education; (c) youth
movements; (d) local struggles against the colonial government.
2. Publication of: (a) lives of various national heroes of the struggle for
Independence; (b) local histories in various fields; (c) lives of local
heroes in the W a r of Independence.
3. Consultations in the field of historical films: (a) the life of Kartini
(national hero of women’s liberation); (b) local struggle against the
colonial government in West Sumatra, and others.
T h e programme also includes scientific seminars on history. T w o seminars
were held in 1981/82: one on national history, convened in Jakarta, and
the other on local history, held at Denpasar, Bali. Historians from all over
Indonesia were invited. T h e seminar on local history was divided into t w o
parts: local history as such, and local history in relation to the national
movement for Independence.
T h e provincial offices of the Directorate of History and Traditional
Values are also very active. T h e oftice in Yogyakarta, for instance, in the
same fiscal year (1981/82)finished a manuscript on the history of national
development programmes in the villages around Yogyakarta and its
impact on the population. T h e branch in Ujungpandang has documented
the names given to various village administrations together with the
relevant background. In this, as in other work, close co-operationis always
maintained with scientific institutions and local universities.
ARCHAEOLOGY
T h e archaeology programme includes the identification of archaeological
sites, conservation, preservation and protection. Field research since 1970
has enabled the government to identify at least 2,885 archaeological sites.
Meanwhile 2,110 have c o m e under government control. As was already
mentioned, five archaeological preservation centres, in Central Java, the
36
Programmes of cultural development
Yogyakarta area, East Java, Bali and South Sulawesi have been established
to assist in protection and preservation.
A m o n g the m a n y projects for protection and restoration, there are such
large long-term programmes as the project for the restoration of the temple
of Borobudur (international aid through Unesco was received for this),
which was finished in October 1982, and inaugurated in February 1983 by
the President of the Republic of Indonesia in the presence of the DirectorGeneral of Unesco. Other long-term programmes are the restoration of the
temple complex of Prambanan in Central Java, or the historical site of the
capital of the K i n g d o m of Majapahit in East Java, the port city of Banten,
West Java and several others. These concern the so-called ‘dead‘ m o n u ments. However, a number of still functioning monuments, such as old
mosques, churches, traditional houses, government buildings and so on are
likewise restored and protected. For the fiscal year 1981/82 some examples
m a y be cited:
1. Protection and preservation: (a) protection of a megalithic site in W e s t
Java, near the t o w n of Cianjur, that was threatened by the building
of a n e w road;(b)a statue,probably from the twelfth century,was m o v e d
from Bogor, West Java, to the site m u s e u m at Pasir Angin; (c) preservation measures for 200 historical buildings and the relevant sites in
fifteen provinces; (d) purchase of fossils and prehistoric pottery from
private owners.
2. Restoration: (a) twenty-nine sites were m a p p e d for restoration measures;
(b) techno-archaeologicalstudies were m a d e of seven historical places
of worship in Bali, of the temple of Kalasan in Central Java, and of an
ancient church in Menado, North Sulawesi; (c) restoration work started
in Banten, West Java, on the islands in East Indonesia (Lombok,
S u m b a w a and Flores), in the Moluccas and the Jakarta area; (d) restoration of the Borobudur temple was finished; (e) other long-term restoration programmes continue.
3. Documentation and inventories: (a) registration of historical and
archaeological objects, totalling 5,168 items; (b) data collecting of the
remains of t w o temples situated on the L a w u mountain, East Java;
(c) data collecting of various traditional houses and old sultan’s palaces
(e.g. of the Sumenep great house in Madura, former colonial government
buildings on the island of Banda and others).
4. Activities at the preservation centres include the protection and
preservation of sites in: (a) Central Java, 150 sites; (b) the Yogyakarta
area, 65 sites; (c) East Java, 92 sites; (d) Bali, 70 sites; (e) South
Sulawesi, 101 sites, including the well-known prehistoric rock paintings
at Leang-Leang.
A s the object of this programme is protection and preservation, there is
close collaboration with institutions that are concerned with security,
such as the state police, the Attorney-Generaland the local administrations.
Safeguarding the cultural heritage is a priority and m u c h has already
37
Programmes of cultural development
been achieved. N o n e the less, with all Indonesia’s innumerable ports and
harbours, security presents serious problems. A m o n g the objects saved
in the fiscal year of 1981/82were the following:elevenitems of gold jewellery
weighing 180 grams; one prehistoric h u m a n skull; statues and parts of
statues of B u d d h a and Shiva, possibly from the ninth or tenth century;
a lamp of the thirteenth or fourteenth century; old ceramics from
Kalimantan and other not yet identified places.
Excavations, specifically the task of the National Centre for Archaeological Research, are conducted all over Indonesia. In the last five years,
excavation activities have m o v e d from Java and Sumatra to the east part
of Indonesia on research into the existence of an archipelagic state in
earlier times.
MUSEUM DEVELOPMENT
T h e m u s e u m development programme includes the establishment of state
museums in every provincial capital. So far, ten state museums have been
finished and are functioning. Jakarta, as the capital of the state, possesses
the National M u s e u m and various other, more specialized museums, such
as the M u s e u m of Textiles, the W a y a n g Museum, M u s e u m for Ceramics,
and others.
T h e ten state m u s e u m s in the provincial capitals are as follows:
Aceh: State M u s e u m in Banda Aceh.
V e s t Sumatra: Adityawarman M u s e u m (named after an ancient king)
in Padang.
Vest Java: State M u s e u m in Bandung.
Yogyokarta area: Sonobudoyo M u s e u m in the city of Yogyakarta, already
well k n o w n in colonial times.
East Java: Tantular M u s e u m (named after an Old Javanese author) in
Surabaya.
Bali: State M u s e u m in Denpasar, a very beautiful compound in OldBalinese style.
South Kalimantan: L a d u n g Mangkurat M u s e u m (named after a local
hero) in Banjarmasin.
East Kalimantan: State M u s e u m in Samarinda.
South Sulawesi: State M u s e u m in Ujungpandang, situated in the former
Dutch Fort Rotterdam.
Moluccas: Siwalima M u s e u m in A m b o n , a n e w building on a beautiful
site overlooking the B a y of A m b o n .
T h e programme is not only concerned with the building of museums, it
also provides training and periodical refresher courses for m u s e u m personnel. Besides the ten state m u s e u m s in the provinces and the National
M u s e u m in Jakarta, there are 118 specialized and thirty-four private
museums all over Indonesia that are subsidized by the government. They
38
Programmes of cultural development
all need more qualified personnel, which is still a problem in Indonesia,
although the number of trained staff has considerably increased in the past
decade. In 1970, there were very few trained m u s e u m personnel, but
in 1982 there were 532 well-qualified m u s e u m workers and administrative
staff. Nevertheless, local training and refresher courses, as well as training
possibilities abroad, need to be maintained to reach the numbers required
for all the existing, as well as the planned museums.
Another serious problem is conservation of m u s e u m pieces. Various
site m u s e u m s have archaeologists working with pottery and other material
found on the excavation sites. However, conservation techniques for
old manuscripts, paintings, woodwork and so on, still have to be maintained through foreign assistance programmes. A t present, a n u m b e r
of junior m u s e u m officials are being trained abroad in conservation
methods.
T h e programme sometimes assists in the purchase of collections.
Although the local administration is expected to cover the provinces,
co-operationin general is excellent, as the m u s e u m s are naturally considered
an asset in each area.
Development of the arts
Nationally, the t w o aims for the arts are the development of artistic
creativity and art appreciation. These are pursued through various activities. There are as follows:
1. T h e establishment of cultural centres, called Taman Budaya (‘cultural gardens’), in the provincial capitals. Art exhibitions, performances
and other cultural activities are held in these centres. A t present, thirteen
cultural centres have been established: Aceh (Banda Aceh); North Sumatra
(Medan); West Sumatra (Padang); Province of L a m p u n g ( L a m p u n g
town); West Kalimantan (Pontianak); South Kalimantan (Banjarmasin);
East Kalimantan (Samarinda); North Sulawesi (Menado); South Sulawesi
(Ujungpandang); Central Java (Surakarta; not the capital, but a wellk n o w n centre of Javanese traditional court dances and music); Yogyakarta
area (Yogyakarta city); East Java (Surabaya); Bali (Denpasar).
Examples of activities in one of the cultural centres, Ujungpandang,
during 1981 and 1982 are as follows:
Exhibitions: photos; paintings by local painters; paintings by w o m a n
painters;exhibition of contemporary calligraphy,newspaper illustration,etc.
Performances: traditional dances and music from the villages of Wajo,
Jeneponto, Pangkep, Takalar, Enrekang and Majene; competitive dance
performances by pupils from primary schools; folksong festival; women’s
choral singing; music for orchestra consisting of traditional musical
instruments combined with modern (Western) instruments (experimental);
drama performances by local theatre groups using local scripts.
39
Programmes of cultural development
Miscellaneous: cultural films; reading of poetry or folk stories; first
performances of local drama scripts followed by critical evaluation and
discussions;recitation or stage performance;publication of local authors,etc.
Interest naturally varies from province to province. S o m e areas produce
traditional arts, whereas others enjoy more contemporary and popular
art forms.
2. Assistance to state art schools and art academies (see Tables 1
and 2). Although the state institutions have first priority, private establishments also receive aid (see 6 below).
3. Organization of national festivals of art. Such national festivals are
usually held in Jakarta, but other provincial capitals m a y also be chosen.
Yearly programmes include the national folk dance festival, the national
competitive festival of wayang performances, the national festival of
(Western) classical music and m a n y others.
4. Competitions: H u m o r o u s entertainments (one-man as well as group
performances) are very popular in Indonesia and are often performed, both
live on the stage and on television. A national competition of humour
was held in 1981, as were local competitions, with a view to promoting
this type of entertainment in the provinces. These take place periodically
with assistance from the cultural centres and the local administrations.
National competitionsfor music are also held including in 1982 kroncong
(native music for small orchestra, based originally on Portuguese music,
but long since adapted into local music). Competitions are also held for
solo singing, composition, etc.
5. Exhibitions of painting, photography, woodcarving, ceramics (both
modern and traditional), modern sculpture, textiles and m a n y others are
held.
6. Subsidies and other aid. Subsidies are given to individual artists as
well as to artists’ organizations and institutions of art instruction. Subsidies
m a y consist of grants, a yearly allowance or the purchase of equipment.
7. Special mention should be m a d e of the promotion of folk theatre,
called ‘s~cio-drama~.
Indonesia possesses m a n y types of folk theatre,
sometimes consisting of one-man shows, very often with musical accompaniment. In the old days, s o m e of these types of folk theatre were the m e d i u m
used for communication. In illiterate areas, with no modern communication
is still very popular. M a n y groups
systems, this type of cc~mmunication’
have reached a high level of art. T h e programme of art development is
assisting around 60,568 villages in preserving and developing this art form.
Funds for international co-operation programmes in the arts are
usually also provided by this programme for the development of the arts.
In the fiscal year 1981/82 Indonesia organized various art programmes,
both regionally and elsewhere, and has also set u p art groups through the
same channels. T h e following are of particular importance: the painting
and photography exhibitions of ASEAN countries; the ASEAN youth
orchestra music workshop and performances; the SPAFA worshop on
40
Programmes of cultural development
performing arts; accommodation and organization for various performances
of foreign groups including individual performers from India, Turkey,
Pakistan, France, Japan and other countries; the organization of exhibitions by foreign countries in Indonesia, such as the craft exhibition of
Finland, etc.
Development of languages,
literature, books and libraries
In a country which still has a large illiteracy problem, this programme is
considered of major importance, as it enhances the government policy of
development of literacy in general. These include special pioneer programmes as for example, ‘bringing books into the villages’, promoting the
enjoyment of reading, etc.
LANGUAGE
Language development concerns both the national language, Indonesian,
as well as the vernacular. As the national language is a comparatively
n e w developing language, based on Malay, m u c h is still being done in the
field of linguistic research and lexicographical development. O n e of the
first successful endeavours was the development of a spelling system
consistent with language conditions in the country. This n e w system,which
was m a d e legal in 1972, w a s developed from the earlier processes of spelling
originating, in 1901 and 1946. This system is n o w also applied to the local
languages.
T h e programme of national language development includes the following items:
Linguistic study to improve textbooks on the teaching of Indonesian.
General and more intensive studies are published, both for the use of
schools as well as for research.
Compilation of dictionaries. This includes the specialized or technical
vocabularies resulting from studies of specific terms, m a d e nationally
and in co-operationwith Malaysia within the framework of collaboration between the national languages of both countries as established
in 1975 by a joint Ministerial mandate.
Language promotion through the mass media. T h e weekly programme
on television aimed at the correct use of the national language at all
levels and for all purposes of national communication. Various journals
and magazines are also assisting the programme with language evaluation features.
M a n y of the local languages and dialects have not yet been m a p p e d out
or studied in detail. T h e programme is therefore concerned with the
following:
41
Programmes of cultural development
Mapping of these local languages. There has been widespread international
co-operationin this for several years. T h e vernaculars in Irian Jaya,
for instance, are being coded and m a p p e d in collaboration with scholars
of various nationalities.
Linguistic inventory, followed by more exhaustive research. This prog r a m m e is likewise done with the assistance of scholars from various
countries.
Compilation of vocabularies.
Language research into old vernaculars, such as Old Javanese, Old
Balinese, Buginese and others through philological studies of ancient
manuscripts.
LITERATURE
T h e literature development programme is closely connected with that of
language, assisting as it does in literary-artistic,aesthetic and spiritual
communication. For future success, it is essential that more people m a k e
use and take full advantage of the language in an appropriate way. For
it is only by the development of the national language,both in practical use
and at the spiritual level, that it will become completely established.
Together with the language development programme itself, literature
development also encompasses Indonesian as well as local languages and
dialects.
In developing national literature,it is important to refer to old literature
written in Malay, on which the national language is based. Included in
the programme are various activities, such as: philological study and publication of Old Malay manuscripts; publication and comparative studies
of more recent Malay literature; organization of periodical competitions
for writing literature in Indonesian; publication and reviews of contemporary works; subsidies and assistance with activities written in Indonesian.
Local languages and dialects face further problems for they do not
all possess written literary works. M a n y areas have only recently become
literate. Previously, outside communication was expressed either in Malay
as the linguafranca or in the colonial language. M u c h local literary material
has thus been transmitted orally.
Making a n inventory of local literature, whether written or oral, is a
huge task incorporating various institutions all over the country. T h e
Centre for Language Development and the Directorate of History and
Traditional Values are the only two government institutions concerned
with this task, but provincial universities, offices of the local administration,
the various branch offices of the Department of Education and Culture and
m a n y private organizations and persons all have an interest in local
literature. There is concern that with the development of Indonesian,
local languages will suffer and ultimately die out. T h e younger generation,
even those w h o are using t h e m at h o m e in everyday life,write in Indonesian.
4.2
Programmes of cultural development
However, the languages with a written tradition, such as Javanese,
Sundanese (West Javanese), Balinese, Buginese and others, still possess
journals and periodicals in their o w n languages and m u c h interest is shown
in them.
T h e following was achieved in one year by this programme, through
the Centre for Language Development, in the fiscal year 1981/82.
Various Old Malay manuscripts that have been studied and are ready to
be published are: Hikayat Seribu Masalah (Book of a Thousand Problems);
Hikayat Pandu (Story of Pandu, from the Hindu epic Mahabharata);
Hikayat Agung Saktì (Story of Agung Sakti); Hìkayat Maharaja Ali (Story
of King Ali).
Research has also been carried out comparing Malay texts of older
and more recent periods, and texts that s h o w Islamic influence.
Animal stories in local literature, such as those with the deer as the
hero, and others have also been collected, together with an anthology of
orally transmitted stories.
B O O K S A N D LIBRARIES
Following the Government of Indonesia’s policy of eliminating illiteracy,
books and libraries with the opportunities they offer for intellectual
development, and the diffusion of knowledge, obviously have high priority.
Since 1979, provision for the publication of books, translations from
foreign works, as well as original writing, has been high on the list. Apart
from the purchase and publication of books, the book development prog r a m m e also encourages research and subsequent publishing of research
achieved, Co-operation is welcomed between government-sponsored publishers, such as Balai Pustaka, various state university presses and others,
with private publishing houses, both national and foreign,in the publication
of books that enhance study, development of reading habits and interest
in general knowledge. For instance, the National Book Development
Programme located at the Department of Education and Culture, has
received assistance from Unesco/UNDP.
T h e programme of the Centre for Library Development also involves
other institutions. It not only consists of building and maintaining provincial libraries, but includes m a n y other activities. In addition to the
National Library in Jakarta, and the twenty-seven provincial libraries,
there are at the m o m e n t 285 general libraries scattered over m a n y districts.
T h e number will reach 316 by the end of the current five-year development
programme, in 1984. This number does not include the m a n y village,
school and mobile libraries, which consist at present of twenty-four
specially converted buses that have been sent to twenty-four of the
twenty-seven provinces.
T h e main problem with these libraries is the lack of trained personnel.
T h e programme of library development is therefore also involved in
43
Programmes of cultural development
personnel training. There is co-operationbetween the library schools and
education centres in Indonesia and with foreign institutions, particularly
the Department of Library and Archival Education at the Faculty of
Letters, University of Indonesia, Jakarta, and t w o other government
establishments in Bandung (attached to the Teachers’ College) and
Surabaya. However, considering the overall national needs, the output
from these institutions is still considered m u c h too small. T h e librarydevelopment programme has, therefore, to hold various refresher courses
for existing library personnel and short technical courses for n e w recruits.
These courses are given in co-operation with lecturers from the institutions
already mentioned with the assistance of representatives from foreign
library education centres invited to Indonesia. Staff are also sent abroad
for additional training. Of particular note are the British Library Schools
operating through the British Council.
Cultural inventory
As with
the other programmes, the cultural inventory programme covers
more than one directory and centre, as it is concerned with the recording
and inventory of m a n y local cultures.
Making a n inventory of local cultures incorporates all the aspects
that have developed throughout history, including archaeology and other
socio-culturalfeatures. Extensive knowledge is needed to understand the
underlying currents of socio-cultural behaviour which m a y help to solve
present-day problems.
Research work on the history of the Indonesian people, as well as on
archaeological and historical remains, has been conducted intensively
since 1976. T h e research activities bave dealt with all parts of Indonesia.
S o m e of the results have been published nationally in approximately
130 books, and a number of articles have been written for foreign journals.
T h e cultural inventory programme has provided personnel and offices
in the provinces, to assist the corresponding directorates and centres in
Jakarta. In addition to the provincial branches already mentioned, there
is the National Centre for Cultural Information established in Jakarta
for which Unesco assistance was received in the initial stage. T h e centre
collects all kinds of information on Indonesian culture by audio-visual
means, written and spoken records, manuscripts, etc.
In this programme, films, videotapes, audiotapes and cassettes have
been m a d e on an as yet modest scale, in addition to books and magazines
which are published regularly. Older film productions (such as those m a d e
during Dutch colonial times) considered to be important for the prog r a m m e of cultural inventory are copied for study and other purposes.
A m o n g such old films are those on Javanese customs and culture dating
from the 1930s which are in the possession of the Sonobudoyo Museum at
44
Programmes of cultural development
Yogyakarta. Copies have been, and are still being, m a d e at the National
Archives, for use both by the archives as well as the National Centre
collection. In co-operation with s o m e foreign countries, a n u m b e r of
personnel have been sent abroad for on-the-job training in audio-visual
aids.
Local religious beliefs
T h e programme includes: inventory, study, documentation and evaluation
of the various beliefs; guidance and information for those interested;
development of technical staff; formulation of a national policy concerning
these beliefs.
Research and bibliographical studies are conducted in order to understand the different concepts. Care is taken that destructive superstitions
are not tolerated in these local beliefs. Thus, it is explicitly stated that
the beliefs involved should concem a trust in God.
T h e final objective is to promote mutual understanding between the
proponents of such beliefs and those of the established religions, to
encourage a national equilibrium that is the ideal of the Indonesian concept
of culture.
45
Laws and regulations
for cultural development
Cultural development is founded on the basis of the Constitution and the
state ideology, Pancasilo.Although this ideology has been established in the
programmes, it is obvious that other regulations are involved.With archaeology, for instance, specifically in relation to the programmes concerned
with preservation and conservation, w e have in the first place, the
Ordinance on Monuments, established in 1931 by the then Dutch East
Indies Government. This Ordinance is well structured and still has the
power of law. None the less, m a n y regulations are no longer considered
adequate. For the past twenty years special instructions, decrees and
other regulations have been added to the Ordinance cited below. Meanwhile,
a complete n e w bill on cultural heritage is being prepared, which it is
hoped will be passed in the near future.
Special instructions and decrees
in connection with monuments
1. Instruction of the Minister of the Interior, February 1960, addressed
to the Provincial Administratinn, on transgressions against the
Ordinance of Monuments.
2. Decree of the President of the Republic of Indonesia, 1962, on coordination of the duties of the police force and security officials of
departments and other institutions of state (this includes the security
measures for the safeguarding of monuments).
3. Combined decree of the Minister of Commerce, the Minister of Finance
and the Director of the Central Bank, 23 March 1970, on the export
of goods from Indonesia (including measurements for the safeguarding
of antique and archaeological objects).
4. Instruction of the Minister of Education and Culture, 15 August 1972,
on the safeguarding of archaeological finds, addressed to the Provincial
Representatives of the Department of Education and Culture.
46
Laws and regulations for cultural development
5. Instruction of the Minister of Education and Culture, 8 January 1973,
on co-operationbetween the provincial representatives of the Department of Education and Culture and the police force on the safeguarding
and preservation of the national cultural heritage.
6. Instruction of the C o m m a n d e r in Chief to restore security,
8 January 1973, specifically with respect to the safeguarding of the
national cultural heritage.
7. Letter of the Chief of Police, April 1973, on the implementation of the
safeguarding and preservation of archaeological objects.
8. Letter of the Chief of Police, 10 January 1976, on the protection,
safeguarding and preservation of objects of national cultural value.
9. Letter of the Minister of Education and Culture, 10 March 1980,
on the safeguarding of national cultural objects, addressed to the
Provincial Representatives of the Department of Education and
Culture.
10. Instruction of the Minister of the Interior, February 1982, on the
safeguarding of monuments and objects of national cultural value,
addressed to the Provincial Administration, from the Governors to
the Village Administrators.
Formal co-operation was set u p between the Director-Generalof Tourism
and the Director-Generalof Culture to promote tourism without adverse
influence on culturalvalues and objects, from which the following documents
m a y be cited: a m e m o r a n d u m of the Minister for Administration Reform,
17 November 1973, regarding projects on the development of culture and
projects on the promotion of tourism, addressed to the Minister of
Education and Culture and the Minister of Communication; a programme
of co-operation between the Directorate-General of Culture and the
Directorate-General of Tourism, as based on three joint decrees signed by
both Directors-General.
For various cultural activities involving the mass media, formal cooperation programmes have been established between the DirectorateGeneral of Culture and the Directorate-General of Radio, Television and
Films.Programmes include joint productions of radio and television series
(art performances and exhibitions) and documentary cultural films.
Close co-operation also exists between the Directorate-General of
Culture and of General Information, specifically involving the Directorate
for Village Information. Programmes include socio-drama performances
that m a y be used as a means of information, joint art and communication
exhibitions, and so on.
T h e L a w of Copyright was established in 1982 enabling copyright
to be better protected on all original creations of art and science.
A bill towards the regulation of libraries is in hand, and a bill for m u seums is being drawn up.
47
Aid to creativity
and cultural dissemination
T h e government has taken various measures to encourage artistic creativity
and cultural dissemination.
A special national medal was established in 1980, to be awarded for
outstanding merit in the field of culture. T h e medal is n a m e d Bintang
Budaya Parama Dharma (star of m e n t to honour the highest achievement in the field of culture). T h e medal can only be awarded to Indonesian
citizens. T o date no one has been deemed worthy of receiving it.
Satyalencana Kebudayaan, a medal of lower merit, has existed since
1959 and m a y be awarded to people of any nationality. This medal has
already been awarded several times.
There are also the awards for art, science, education, social dedication
and sports. These awards were established in 1976 by presidential decree.
They are awarded every year through the Department of Education and
Culture. Candidates m a y be selected from any part of the country with
a board in Jakarta making the choice.
T h e basis for granting a n award in art is both creative merit and
achievement in propagating the arts. Awards have thus been given to
creative artists and to inspired teachers and instructors of art, both
living and dead. T h e award consists of a medal, certificate of merit and
a grant.
T h e Department of Education and Culture offers an award for the best
book in various fields, such as literature and practical science. T h e award
consists of a certificate of merit and a grant.
Such grants and awards in culture and the arts are not only provided
by the government; local administrations have their provincial awards
in various fields. Private organizations exist which sometimes give very
substantial grants for creative works that they consider are of good quality.
In the case of performing arts, such organizations also assist in production.
Youth art organizations which are considered promising often receive
assistance for their productions from various private concerns.
48
Aid to creativity and cultural dissemination
Participants and contestants receive certificates of participation at
national festivals and art competitions. These certificates are given to all
individuals and organizations. Thus, even if they do not win a prize or
certificate of merit, they have written proof that they have participated
in a national festival or contest which has encouraged people to join
national activities and is m u c h appreciated.
At the provincial level, local art festivals and competitions are likewise
held periodically. M a n y of the candidates for national activities are chosen
from the winners of local competitions.
T h e art schools, art academies and art institutions, both private and
state organizations, hold periodic exhibitions and performances as a
demonstration of their pupils’ creativity. Often these activities are c o m bined with local festivals.
Indonesia does m u c h to promote art and general cultural activities
through m a n y channels.
49
International co-operation
in the field of culture
International co-operation is conducted on a bilateral, regional and multilateral basis. Regional and multilateral co-operation is becoming increasingly important as it becomes more effective. However, in certain fields,
co-operation between several parties is considered more advantageous.
Nevertheless, bilateral arrangements have so far appeared to be the
simplest, fastest and probably most beneficial as there are only t w o parties
involved w h o can communicate with each other directly. Technically,
bilateral co-operation works in m a n y ways, according to the needs and
capabilities of the parties concerned, each method having its o w n advantages and drawbacks.
Co-operationbased on cwltural agreements
Cultural agreements are drawn u p on a reciprocal basis. As was, for instance,
stated in one of the agreements drawn u p between Indonesia and a
participating country:
The two Contracting Parties agree to facilitate the organization of artistic,
literary, scientific and educational exhibitions, the holding of lectures, concerts
and theatrical performances, in the territory of the other party.
S o m e cultural agreements are drawn up in very general terms so as not to
restrict the activities over any length of time. With some countries, the
agreements concerning exchange of publications, art items, films, and
television and radio broadcasts are set out in more detail. For practical
purposes, auch detailed agreements very often need modification by
adding statements such as ‘in accordance with the capability of each of
the parties’, or ‘taking into consideration the situation in each country of
the parties concerned‘. Such modifications are necessary because it has
proved to be impossible to implement exchange programmes as intended
50
International co-operationin the field of culture
in a fully balanced manner for various reasons, such as economics, internal
politics and cultural conditions.
A cultural agreement m a y also incorporate special programmes that
are established with separate and more restricted agreements, as in the
cultural agreement between Indonesia and the Netherlands which consists
of a n umbrella agreement and separate special programmes on Dutch
teaching and Indonesian studies. T h e programme of Indonesian studies
is essentially a joint research and training programme benefiting from
expertise on both sides in the fields of archaeology, philology, history,
anthropology, customary (adut) law and linguistics, based largely on
sources written in the Dutch language and research in the field executed
in Indonesia.
Co-operation without cultural agreements
For m a n y reasons some cultural agreements are considered far too binding.
They are therefore not always deemed necessary or even beneficial.
Indonesia has, for instance, no agreements with such countries as the
United States of America, Japan and the Federal Republic of Germany.
Yet cultural co-operation between these countries is considered very
necessary and also highly beneficial to Indonesia as a developing country.
Co-operationis effected through ad hoc bilateral needs with each agreement
decided individually.
Reciprocal co-operation between a developing and a developed
country for funding and facilities is not always equal as, in general, funding
is borne by the developed country involved due to its stronger financial
position. Indonesia has benefited greatly from such co-operationbut has
also contributed itself as in the Borobudur exhibitions organized in 1980
and 1981. These were fully funded by the host countries, the Federal
Republic of Germany and Japan, with Indonesia paying for domestic staff
and facilities which c a m e within the regular programmes and budget of
the Directorate for the Preservation and Restoration of Historical and
Archaeological Remains. With the Borobudur exhibition in Japan, air
transportation for the items exhibited was largely paid by the Garuda
Indonesian Airways, insurance being borne by the host countries. However,
the value of the exhibited items (statues of the eighth century a m o n g
other things) far exceeded the amount of funding m a d e available for the
whole enterprise and it is for this reason that exhibitions abroad involving
such valuable items of the cultural heritage are not easily agreed upon by
the Indonesian authorities. Various regulations in fact restrict lending
such items for exhibitions outside Indonesia.
51
International co-operationin the field of culture
Regional and multilateral co-operation
Regional co-operation in South-East Asia is conducted through such
international bodies as the South-East Asian Ministers of Education
Organization (SEAMEO)and the Association of South-East Asian Nations
(ASEAN),where every programme has to be approved by consensus or
by a majority of votes.
Co-operation through SEAMEO includes various programmes, such
as education, science and technology, in addition to art and culture. For
the purpose of this report, the relevant programmes are RELC (SEAMEO
Regional Language Centre) of which the H e a d Office is in Singapore.
RELC provides training and scholarships for proficiency and teaching of
English. SPAFA (SEAMEO Programme of Archaeology and Fine Arts)
of which the centre is in Bangkok, but every m e m b e r country has its
o w n regional ofice. T h e Programme of SPAFA is very important, specifically in archaeological research and training programmes.
RELC is conducted through the Centre for Language Development, and
SPAFA through the Directorate-General of Culture. Various books and
articles have already been published through these programmes.
T h e m e m b e r countries contribute to the budget of the organization
and have to fulfil certain obligations in relation to the implementation of
the programmes. Indonesia is responsible for the programmes linked
with those in departments and other government institutions involved.
In the case of SPAFA, for instance, the activities are linked to the programmes of the Directorate-General of Culture.
Regional co-operationfor culture through ASEAN is relatively new.
In this programme, culture is classified as closely linked with information,
which in ASEAN is called ‘communication’. This programme is therefore
called GProgramme of Culture and Communication’. Activities in this field
include painting and photographic exhibitions, and the performing arts
and music. T h e ASEAN Youth Workshop on Orchestral Music, held in
Kuala Lumpur (1981), Jakarta (1983)and Manila (1984), continuing on to
Singapore and Bangkok, has had outstanding results, both in technical
performance and as a manifestation of regional co-operation.
Multilateral programmes are considered the most difficult to implement.
M a n y cultural programmes are executed through Unesco which, to facilitate
co-operation, divides them into regional programmes as well. Indonesia
has received m u c h assistance from Unesco in facilitating its multilateral
programmes.
Indonesia participates in m a n y of Unesco’s cultural programmes,
specifically those concerned with archaeology and literature, as well as
regional programmes in anthropology and sociology as in the South-East
Asian Programme of Culture (with specific interest in Malay culture), the
regional programme on the research of ancient ports and so on.
52
International co-operationin the field of culture
Co-operation
through Indonesian embassies abroad
A s yet, Indonesia has placed attachés for education in culture in only
nine countries with one ambassador to Unesco in Paris. T h e attachés for
education and culture are in the Indonesian embassies of the following
countries: Australia, Egypt, France, Federal Republic of Germany, Japan,
Malaysia, Netherlands, Thailand, United States of America. In other
countries, education and culture is covered by the attaché for information.
T h e embassies with or without special attachés in the field of education
and culture have t w o duties. T h e y have to represent their country’s
culture, and also to advise Indonesia on the culture of the country in
which they are stationed. Frequently, however, it is not often possible to
carry out the necessary programmes of education and culture owing to
lack of funds.
S o m e Indonesian embassies are already equipped to represent their
art with traditional Indonesian musical instruments, such as a complete
gamelan set (Balinese or Javanese), a set of angklung (bamboo musical
instruments), or a kolintang set (xylophones as traditionally used in north
Celebes), and so on. Embassy staff very often participate in embassy
cultural performances. Sometimes embassies receive visiting art missions
that are sent from Indonesia. Films, slides, video and audio cassettes
are periodically sent to the embassies for cultural programmes, and books
on Indonesian culture are likewise m a d e available with craft items being
sent for exhibitions.
Programmes for Indonesian embassies are executed through and assisted
by the joint efforts of various departments, such as the Departments of
Foreign Affairs, Education and Culture, Information, Industries and
Trade and Commerce.
Co-operation through institutions
Co-operation programmes with various countries, involving specific
institutions for language and literature, are as follows.
CO-OPERATION W I T H MALAYSIA
Co-operation in language and literature with Malaysia is implemented
through the Indonesian-MalaysianLanguage Council. This w a s established
on the basis of the existing cultural agreement between Indonesia and
Malaysia and was signed in 1972 in Jakarta.
T h e Indonesian-Malaysian Council has a meeting twice yearly,
alternating between Indonesia and Malaysia. T h e eighteenth meeting
took place at Palembang, Indonesia, from 29 March to 4 April 1982.
53
.
International co-operationin the field of culture
T h e council has so far succeeded in producing a handbook on spelling
including the formation of technical terms of various branches of science
and technology. Policy in the formation of technical terms is to present a
c o m m o n base, with variations according to different traditions of speech
and language.
T h e Asian Association on National Languages (ASANAL) has also
co-operatedtogether with ASEAN and Unesco for language and literature
in Asia. Co-operation with ASANAL is conducted through scientific
conferences on language and literature policies. These conferences are
organized every t w o years and held in a different Asian country each time.
So far ASANAL conferences have been held in Indonesia, Malaysia and
the Philippines. T h e sixth ASANAL Conference was held in Bali, Indonesia, in September 1981.
T h e above-mentioned activities are fully funded by the Indonesian
Government.
C O - O P E R A T I O N W I T H AUSTRALIA
Co-operationin language and literature with Australia is organized by the
Centre for Language Development, Department of Education and Culture,
Indonesia, the Satya W a c a n a Christian University in Central Java, and
the University of Sydney, Australia.
T h e aim is to organize intensive courses on the Indonesian national
language, literature and culture for Australians. T h e courses in Indonesia
are organized by the Satya W a c a n a Christian University with technical
assistance from the Centre for Language Development. An Indonesian
lecturer is also assigned to the University of Sydney, Australia. Various
other courses in the Indonesian national language and literature exist in
Australia. Indonesian lecturers are recruited for this purpose by various
Australian universities on an individual basis or through the institutions
of higher education in Indonesia.
T h e programmes are fully funded by the Australian authorities.
,
CO-OPERATION W I T H T H E UNITED STATES
OF A M E R I C A
Co-operationin language and literature with the United States of America
includes co-operation with the United States International Service (USIS),
Jakarta, which is specifically concerned with the teaching of English
in Indonesia. This co-operation also includes aid to the American Studies
Centre at the University of Indonesia, Jakarta.
Provision is m a d e for intensive courses in Indonesian for American
students. These courses are provided by the Faculty of Letters, University
of Indonesia, Jakarta, and by the Institutefor Teacher Training in Malang,
East Java.
54
International co-operation in the field of culture
Indonesian lecturers for American institutions of higher education are
recruited, and books and other reading and study material are provided.
Co-operation with the United States is also assisted through the Ford
Foundation consisting of the provision of scholarships for overseas training,
not necessarily to the United States of America; funding for in-service
training in Indonesia and funding for the participation of foreign scholars
in programmes of language and literature and other cultural fields in
Indonesia, or for Indonesian scholars in related programmes in Asia;
library facilities,for various institutions in Indonesia, including the Centre
for Language Development, the National Library and others. This cooperation is fully funded by the Ford Foundation.
CO-OPERATION W I T H T H E N E T E E R L A N D S
Co-operationin language and literature with the Netherlands exists through
the Indonesian Linguistics Development Project (ILDEP).This is a cooperative project with the Centre for Language Development, Indonesia,
and the University of Leyden, Netherlands, completely separate from the
cultural agreement between Indonesia and the Netherlands.
In this specific project, co-operation is concerned with the provision
of scholarships for in-service training in Indonesia and for advanced
training at the University of Leyden. Books and other facilities are provided
by the Centre for Language Development.
In this ILDEP project, various scientific books in linguistics have
already been published with projects in hand for philology and classical
literature. Both Indonesian and Dutch scholars are actively involved in
this publication programme. Except for the in-servicetraining programme
that is partly the responsibility of the Centre for Language Development
and the publication of books which is partly borne by the Indonesian
Government through various institutions, the ILDEP programme is funded by the Netherlands Government through the University of Leyden.
CO-OPERATION W I T H F R A N C E
Co-operationin language and literature with France is implemented through
the French Embassy and the French Cultural Centre in Jakarta. It includes
aid to the development of teaching the French language and literature at
Indonesian universities and teacher training institutions. A specific programme: also exists between the University of Indonesia, Jakarta, and the
University of Montpellier, France, for French language and literature.
However, other inter-university co-operation programmes exist between
Indonesian and French universities in various fields, including science and
technology.
Programmes dealing with classical Indonesian literature, such as
Sundanese (West Javanese) and Buginese (South Celebes) literature are
55
International co-operationin the field of culture
organized by the ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient,through the University
of Padjadjaran, Bandung, West Java, and the University of Hasanuddin,
Ujungpandang, South Sulawesi. A number of scholarly books have been
published through this programme. Another programme of the h o l e
Française d’Extrême-Orient concerns archaeology involving the National
Centre for Archaeological Research with funds being provided for by
both countries through the institutions involved.
C O - O P E R A T I O N WITH J A P A N
Co-operation with Japan is co-ordinated through the Japan Foundation
and includes language, literature and the arts. Aid is given to the Department of Japanese Studies at the Faculty of Letters, University of Indonesia,
Jakarta, and in the case of teachers of Japanese,to various other institutions
in Indonesia for co-operationbetween language, literature and Japanese
culture. Aid to the Japanese section at the University of Indonesia,
‘Jakarta, includes the provision of lecturers at the level of university
professor and books and other equipment for language teaching. T h e
section has already produced one Ph.D.in Japanese history and various
M.A.s in Japanese studies.
Co-operation in the arts, including the exchange of art groups and
individual artists, is through the Directorate-General of Culture.
S o m e specific programmes
T h e following programmes are of special interest to Indonesian cultural
development:
CO-OPERATION REGARDING M U S E U M S
Co-operation regarding m u s e u m s has t w o objectives: first, to introduce the
national and local cultures of Indonesia to non-Indonesians and, second,
to introduce foreign cultural items to Indonesians.
Preparations are already being m a d e to establish an Indonesian law
for m u s e u m s for which Indonesia, as a m e m b e r of the International
Council of M u s e u m s (ICOM)has used its suggestions and information for
the development of m u s e u m s in Indonesia.
ICOM has likewise assisted in the promotion and dissemination of
information on the cultures of Indonesia by organizing exhibitions of
Indonesia’s m u s e u m collections abroad.
Exhibitions of foreign cultures have also been held, mainly through
bilateral co-operation programmes, but also with advice from ICOM.
56
International co-operationin the field of culture
CO-OPERATION REGARDING
A R C H A E O L O G Y A N D HISTORY
There have been many co-operationmeasures concerning the protection of
the Indonesian cultural heritage having archaeological and historical value.
Active co-operation has been established internationally through Interpol.
Indonesia was represented at the Symposium on Cultural Heritage and
Prevention of Cultural Smuggling which was organized by Interpol in the
Philippines in 1977.
Bilateral arrangements have been used to recover Indonesian cultural
items that are considered unique and of special interest to Indonesian
cultural development with such countries as Belgium and the Netherlands.
These arrangements have so far resulted in the return of t w o sculpted
heads of B u d d h a from Belgium, and various items from the Netherlands
including the famous Prajnaparamita statue (thought to be a queen
of East Java), paintings by a nineteenth-century Indonesian painter,
Raden Saleh, regalia of the K i n g d o m of L o m b o k , and other smaller
items returned through private channels. T h e Unesco Convention on the
Protection of Cultural Heritage was highly significant.
Co-operationprogrammes in archaeological research are also considered
important. These are primarily organized for the development of research
methodology in Indonesia and the exchange of data and information.
Indonesia needs to develop research methods and equipment to be able to
cope with excavations and field-work all over the country. S o m e of the
activities implemented through foreign co-operation,include the participation of Indonesian researchers in short-term training, specialization
and exchange programmes; participation of Indonesian researchers in
international conferences in the field; organization of joint research programmes in Indonesia, involving foreign researchers; employment of
foreign experts as instructors and consultants;and exchange of publications.
Such activities are in general funded both by the Indonesian Government and the relevant foreign countries.
C O - O P E R A T I O N IN H I S T O R Y
A N D TRADITIONAL VALUES
This
programme is mainly concerned with research on history and traditional values. A m o n g the activities planned and already implemented
are exchange of written material; exchange of literature on methodology;
participation of Indonesians in training programmes in foreign countries
(primarily the United States and the Netherlands); participation of
Indonesian scholars and researchers in international conferences and
seminars; exchange of documentary films and television programmes on
history and traditional values (at present prepared for ASEAN countries
only); and participation in programmes of the Asian Committee of Culture
for Unesco (ACCU),etc.
57
International co-operationin the field of culture
CO-OPERATION IN T H E ARTS
These co-operation programmes consist mainly in participation by
Indonesian artists and scholars in bilateral, regional and multilateral
programmes, such as the Annual Asian Arts Festival in Hong Kong,
SPAFA Seminars on Technological Development of the Traditional
Performing Arts and various cultural missions.
58
Medium- and long-term policy
of cultural development
Since the first Five-Year Plan of the Republic of Indonesia, set u p in 1968,
culture has been a prominent feature in the government’s overall planning
of national development. In the final year (1983)of the third Five-Year
Plan, it did not seem that culture would lose its importance. National
cultural development is acknowledged as being the basis for national
development in general. Indonesia gives priority to the development of
national culture to enhance cultural identity and national unity as outlined in the constitution and the state ideology.
Thus, the programmes already mentioned on national language,
national history and traditional values, will remain relevant for the
development of Indonesia.
For, as outlined in the Five-Year Plan (in the section on long-term
planning in the chapter on culture), the features considered important are
as follows:
1. Indonesian traditional values have to be developed to enhance cultural
identity, cultural security and national unity.
2. National culture has to be developed on the basis of the Pancasila
(national ideology) and to follow the guidelines of those values that
enhance cultural identity and increase the values of those traditions
that have come d o w n to us.
3. Once a strong cultural identity is established, there is less negative
foreign influence and the people are more able to absorb such foreign
influence as is necessary, which will be positive for the development of
their o w n culture.
4. T h e national language should be developed so as to become the language
used at all levels of communication.
5. Local languages have to remain developed as part of the national
heritage and to enhance the development of the national language.
6. Art development should aim at creativity with the artists themselves
a part of the nation and national culture.
59
Medium- and long-termpolicy of cultural development
7. Ethnic and provincial art forms have to be developed to furnish the
nuances of colour in national art which is itself already varied and
pluralistic.
8. Traditions and historical remains, which are of value for national
identity,national pride and nationalcultural security,must be developed
and enhanced.
Cultural policy has thus to enhance cultural identity in the widest and
most basic sense.
60
Titles in this series:
Cultural policy: a preliminary study
Culturalpolicy in the [Jnited States,by Charles C. Mark
Cultural rights as human rights
Cultural policy in Japan, by Nobuya Shikaumi
Some aspects of French cultural policy, by the Studies and Research Department of the
French Ministry of Culture
Cultural policy in Tunisia,by Ra& Sand
Cultural policy in Great Britain, by Michael Green and Michael Wilding, in
consultation with Richard Hoggart
Cultural policy in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, by A. A. Zvorykin with the
assistance of N. I. Golubtsova and E.I. Rabinovitch
Cultural policy in Czechoslovakia, by Miroslav Marek with the assistance of Milan
Hromádka and Josef Chroust
Cultural policy in Italy, a survey prepared under the auspices of the Italian National
Commission for Unesco
Cultural policy in Yugoslavia,by Stevan Majstorovii:
Cultural policy in Bulgaria, by Kostadine Popov
Some aspects of culturalpolicies in India,by Kapila Malik Vatsyayan
Cultural policy in Cuba, by Jaime Saruski and Gerardo Mosquera
Cultural policy in Egypt, by Magdi W a h b a
Cultural policy in Fidand, a study prepared under the auspices of the Finnish National
Commission for Unesco
Cultural policy in Sri Lanka, by H.H.Bandara
Cultural policy in Nigeria, by T.A. Fasuyi
Cultural policy in Iran,by Djamchid Behnam
Cultural policy in Poland, by Stanislaw Witold Balicki, Jerzy Kossak and Miroslaw
Zulawski
The role of culture in leisure time in New Zealand,by Bernard W.Smyth
Cultural policy in Israel,by Joseph Michman
Cultural policy in Senegal, by Mamadou Seyni M’Bengue
Cultural policy in the Federal Republic of Germany, a study prepared under the auspices
of the German Commission for Unesco
Cultural policy in Indonesia, a study prepared by the staff of the Directorate-General
of Culture, Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia
Cultural policy in the Philippines, a study prepared under the auspices of the Unesco
National Commission of the Philippines
Cultural policy in Liberia,by Kenneth Y.Best
CuZtural policy in Hungary, a survey prepared under the auspices of the Hungarian
National Commission for Unesco
The culturalpolicy of zhe United Republic of Tanzania,by L.A. Mbughuni
Cultural policy in Kenya, by Kivuto Ndeti
Cultural policy in Romania, by Ion Dodu Balan with the co-operationof the Directorates
of the Council of Socialist Culture and Education
Cultural policy in the German Democratic Republic, by Hans Koch
Cultural policy in Afghanistan, by Shafie Rahe1
Cultural policy in the United Republic of Cameroon, by J. C. Bahoken and Englebert
Atangana
Some aspects of cultural policy in Togo, by K.M. Aithnard
Cultural policy in the Republic of Zaire, a study prepared under the direction of
Dr Bokonga Ekanga Botombele
Cultural policy in Ghana, a study prepared by the Cultural Division of the Ministry of
Education and Culture, Accra
Cultural policy in the Republic of Korea, by Kim Yersu
Aspects of Canadian cultural policy, by D.Paul Schafer
Cultural policy in Costa Rica, by Samuel Rovinski
Cultural policy in Jamaica, a study prepared by the Institute of Jamaica
Cultural policy in Guyana, by A. J. Seymour
Cultural policy in Peru, by the National Institute of Culture
Cultural policy in Colombia, by Jorge Eliécer Ruiz, with the assistance of Valentina
Marulanda
Aspects of Algerian cultural policy, by S i d - b e d Baghli
C~SUT
policy
Q ~ in the Republic of Panama, by the National Institute of Culture
Cultural policy in Bolivia,by Mariano Baptista Gumucio
Cultural policy in Argentina, by Edwin R. Harvey
Cultural policy in he Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, by the Institute of Art Criticism, Ethnography and Folklore of the Academy of Sciences of the Byelorussian SSR
Cultural policy in the Revolutionary People’s Republic of Guinea, by the Ministry of Education and Culture under the auspices of the Guinean National Commission for Unesco
Cultural policy in Amaralia, by Jean Battersby
Cultural policy in Guatemala,by Edna Nuiíez de Rodas
Cultural policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, by M u h a m m a d Abdullah al-Mani and
Abd ur-Rahman Sbit as-Sbit
Cultural policy in Jordan, by Hani Al-amad
Cultural policy in the Sudan, by Mohamed Abdel Hai
Cultural policy in the Mongolian People’s Republic, a study prepared under the auspices
of the Mongolian National Commission for Unesco
Cultural policy in the United Kingdom, by Nigel Abercrombie
Cultural policy ín the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, by G. Shevchuk
Cultural policy in the Yemen Arab Republic, by Abdul-Rahman Al-Haddad
Some aspects of cultural policy in Nepal, by Shaphalya Amatya
Cultural policy in the People’s Republic of China,by Bai Liu
Cultural policy in Indonesia,by Haryati Soebadio
The serial numbering of titles in this series, the presentation of which has been modified,
was discontinued with the volume Cultural policy in Italy
[II]CLT.84/XIX.
77/A