Journal of Family Psychology
2008, Vol. 22, No. 3, 561–573
Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association
0893-3200/08/$12.00
DOI: 10.1037/0893-3200.22.3.561
Interdependence of Parenting of Mothers and Fathers of Infants
Melissa A. Barnett
University of New Orleans
Min Deng, W. Roger Mills-Koonce, Michael Willoughby, and Martha Cox
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
This study examined the relations among parenting behaviors of 97 coresident mothers and
fathers of infants during a dyadic free-play setting. The authors examined the extent to which
observed sensitive and intrusive parenting behaviors in mother– child and father– child dyads
were related and how perceived marital quality may be associated with the similarity between
maternal and paternal parenting behaviors. The authors found support for interdependence of
parenting by mothers and fathers. High perceived marital quality was associated with
interdependence of sensitive parenting behaviors in mother–infant and father–infant interactions. Negative parenting behaviors by mothers and fathers were interrelated regardless of
marital quality. The findings highlight the importance of studying parenting by mothers and
fathers as embedded within particular family systems.
Keywords: parenting, family systems, fathers, infancy, marital quality
Parenting of mothers and fathers may be independently
and interactively related to child outcomes (Kaczynski, Lindahl, Malik, & Laurenceau, 2006; National Institute for
Child Health and Development Early Child Care Research
Network [NICHD ECCRN], 2004; Ryan, Martin, &
Brooks-Gunn, 2006; Tamis-LeMonda, Shannon, Cabrera, &
Lamb, 2004; Volling, Blandon, & Gorvine, 2006). Moreover, there may be considerable variability of parenting
behaviors of mothers and fathers within the same family. A
number of studies have compared parenting behaviors and
determinants of parenting for mothers and fathers of infants
and toddlers (Belsky, Youngblade, Rovine, & Volling,
1991; Corwyn & Bradley, 1999; Feldman, 2000; Lovas,
2005; Pelchat, Bisson, Bois, & Saucier, 2003; Roopnarine,
Fouts, Lamb, & Lewis-Elligan, 2005). A related body of
literature has explored the relationship between marital processes and parenting behaviors (Cox, Paley, Payne, &
Burchinal, 1999; Cummings & Davies, 2002; Erel & Bur-
man, 1995; Fincham, 1998; Grych, 2002; Kaczynski et al.,
2006; Krishnakumar & Buehler, 2000). The present study
sought to build on these areas of research by examining the
interdependency of parenting by mothers and fathers within
the same family. Specifically, we explored the extent to
which each partner’s perception of the marital relationship
may be associated with the degree to which mothers and
fathers display similar sensitive and negative parenting behaviors. The goal of this investigation was to identify family
systems in which there is considerable interdependency of
positive or negative parenting behaviors across the mother–
infant and father–infant dyads.
Early parenting by mothers and fathers should be studied
within a family context. Family systems theories highlight
the importance of considering the dynamic nature of interactions between the marital and parenting systems, as
mother–father relationships likely influence and are influenced by parent– child relationships (Cox & Paley, 1997;
Minuchin, 1985). Considerable research has explored interactions between the marital relationship and parenting, and
more limited research has explored associations among the
interactions that occur between mothers and children and
fathers and children within the same family. The coparenting literature, which focuses generally on whole-family
interactions and on how parents present a united (or contradictory) approach to parenting (Feinberg, 2002; Gable,
Crnic, & Belsky, 1995; J. McHale, 1997; J. McHale et al.,
2002), has explored ways in which the marital relationship
may be related to consistency across parents and/or to
alliances and agreement in parenting practices (J. McHale et
al., 2002). However, there has been little investigation to
understand how the marital relationship may be associated
with the degree to which observational qualities of mother–
child and father– child interactions are similar.
Melissa A. Barnett, Department of Psychology, University of
New Orleans; Min Deng, W. Roger Mills-Koonce, Michael Willoughby, and Martha Cox, Center for Developmental Science,
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
This study was supported by The North Carolina Child Development Research Collaborative, which is funded by the National
Science Foundation through Children’s Research Initiative Grant
BCS-0126475.
We would like to thank all of the parents who participated in the
Durham Child Health and Development Study and the research
assistants for their valuable help in collecting and coding these
data.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Melissa A. Barnett, University of New Orleans, Department of
Psychology, New Orleans, LA 70148. E-mail: [email protected]
561
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The present study, therefore, although related to the literatures on coparenting and marital conflict and parenting
behaviors, is distinct in that the focus is on the degree to
which parenting in one parent– child dyad is interrelated to
parenting in the other parent– child dyad. In fact, there is
limited empirical or theoretical evidence to suggest when
and how the parenting of mothers and fathers within the
same family is likely to be similar (Bell et al., 2007; Lovas,
2005; Russell & Russell, 1994; Winsler, Madigan, & Aquilino, 2005). In some families, positive emotions and interactions in one relationship may spread to the other relationship, whereas in other families this may not happen, and
in fact negative emotions and interactions in one relationship may spread to the other relationship. Understanding
these complex, multilevel interactions may be particularly
important during infancy, when patterns of parenting are
established (Bell et al., 2007; Cox et al., 1999).
Experiencing negative and insensitive interactions with
both parents versus only one parent likely carries greater
risk for the child. Likewise, experiencing sensitive, positive
interactions with at least one parent may be an important
protective factor when the parenting of the other parent is
impaired (Mezulis, Hyde, & Clark, 2004). Similarly, exposure to sensitive parenting by both parents is likely linked to
optimal child outcomes. For example, Ryan et al. (2006)
demonstrated that at 24 and 36 months of age, children in
two-parent families that had at least one parent with observed supportive behaviors had better cognitive outcomes
than did those children without any supportive parents,
whereas those children with supportive mothers and fathers
attained the highest cognitive scores. Further, the coparenting literature suggests that consistent, positive parenting is
linked to more favorable child outcomes (Feinberg, 2002;
Gable et al., 1995; J. McHale et al., 2002). Therefore, it is
important to understand the conditions under which there is
contagion of negative or positive emotion and behavior
between parent– child subsystems.
Recent research on fathers has called attention to the
importance of understanding the father– child relationship
within the larger family context. Research on fathering has
examined the ways in which father– child interactions may
differ from mother– child interactions (Cabrera, TamisLeMonda, Bradley, Hofferth, & Lamb, 2000; Lamb, 1997).
The literature sometimes fails to recognize that mothers and
fathers parent within the same family, and the parenting of
one partner likely influences and is influenced by the parenting of the other partner. Moreover, with the exception of
the coparenting literature, similarity among mothering and
fathering within the same family has often been assumed
implicitly rather than examined explicitly (Russell & Russell, 1994). The extent of influence between mothers and
fathers in the same family may be a function of the quality
of their relationship with each other.
Marital Quality
Considerable research has demonstrated links between
marital quality and parenting. Two recent meta-analytic
reviews have suggested that the relationship between global
marital quality (Erel & Burman, 1995) and marital conflict
(Krishnakumar & Buehler, 2000) and parenting is modest
but consistent, although the direction of effects is not always
clear (Grych, 2002). The spillover hypothesis suggests that
conflict in the marital relationship is linked to negative
parent– child interactions. Marital hostility, conflict, and
withdrawal have been linked to harsh and coercive, as well
as unresponsive and insensitive, parenting behaviors (Belsky et al., 1991; Cox et al., 1999; Cummings & Davies,
2002; Kaczynski et al., 2006; Krishnakumar & Buehler,
2000). This spillover from the marital relationship to the
parent– child relationship has been demonstrated for mothers and fathers. However, paternal parenting behaviors may
be more closely related to marital relations than maternal
parenting behaviors (Belsky et al., 1991; Feldman, 2000;
Fincham, 1998; Kaczynski et al., 2006; Krishnakumar &
Buehler, 2000; Parke, 1996; Pelchat et al., 2003). For example, in a review of associations between marital and
parenting processes, Coiro and Emery (1998) concluded
that marital quality and conflict are often related to the
parenting of both parents, but when there are gender differences in the links between marital quality and parenting, the
parenting of fathers is more affected, especially during
infancy and toddlerhood. In comparison to mothering, fathering may be more interdependent with the mother– child
and mother–father relationship (Doherty, Kouneski, &
Erickson, 1998). For men, the roles of father and husband
may be less distinct than the roles of mother and wife for
women (Coiro & Emery, 1998; Parke, 1996). A loving and
supportive marital relationship may provide a context for
positive fathering behaviors to be learned and practiced
(Bradford & Hawkins, 2006).
The nature of the relationship between marital processes
and parenting may vary for mothers and fathers. For example, Belsky et al. (1991) showed that mothers and fathers
were both influenced in their parenting by the marital relationship, but in different ways. They found that, over time,
reduced marital satisfaction among fathers was associated
with less sensitive parenting, whereas reduced marital satisfaction among mothers was associated with more involved, sensitive parenting. This compensatory relationship
between marital discord and parenting for mothers, however, appears to be rare in the extant literature (Krishnakumar & Buehler, 2000). Margolin, Gordis, and Oliver (2004)
also have found that similar marital experiences may facilitate the emergence of different parenting behaviors for
mothers and fathers. In their study, they found that marital
hostility was related to a lack of empathy toward the child
for fathers and the expression of negative affect toward the
child for mothers during dyadic interactions with 9- to
13-year-old children.
Thus, the level of emotional support in the marriage and
the level of conflict and hostility may be related to different
observed qualities of parenting by mothers and fathers. In
addition, the coparenting literature suggests that more positive marital relations predict more cohesive coparenting
behaviors (J. McHale et al., 2002; Schoppe-Sullivan, Mangelsdorf, Brown, & Sokolowski, 2007). These traditional
approaches to studying spillover from the marital to the
MATERNAL AND PATERNAL PARENTING DURING INFANCY
parental system, however, do not consider how the relationship between parents may influence associations between
qualities of the mother– child relationship and the father–
child relationship. The family context that emotionally supportive or hostile and conflicted marital relationships provide may be associated with the extent to which sensitive
emotion and behavior and negative emotion and behavior in
one parent– child dyad spill over to the other parent– child
dyad. As noted, the degree to which there is spillover
between positive and negative aspects of the mother– child
and father– child relationship likely carries implications for
child development.
Partner Parenting
In addition to the marital relationship influencing parenting, the parenting of mothers may influence the parenting of
fathers; and vice versa, the parenting of fathers may influence the parenting of mothers. Early fathering may be
particularly contingent on mothering because mothers are
likely to assume the primary caregiver role (Bradford &
Hawkins, 2006; Coiro & Emery, 1998; Doherty et al., 1998;
Parke, 1996). Mothers may model or scaffold parenting
behaviors for fathers. However, there has been limited empirical testing of the premise that early parenting contingency is unidirectional, such that mothers influence fathers
but fathers do not influence mothers. Family systems perspectives suggest that the influence of partner parenting
would flow both ways so that the mother– child and father–
child subsystems would influence each other (Cox & Paley,
1997). Especially in infancy when both parents are adjusting to the infant, parents may rely on each other for successful models of interacting with that particular child
(Schoppe-Sullivan et al., 2007).
The manner in which one parent influences the parenting
of the other parent may differ in specific family systems.
When marriages are characterized by high conflict and low
emotional support, the negative aspects of parenting in one
parent– child relationship may be more likely to spill over to
the other parent– child relationship. In contrast, when marriages are characterized by low conflict and high emotional
support, the positive aspects of one parent’s parenting may
be more likely to spill over to the other parent’s parenting.
Marital system influences on parenting spillover may be
particularly apparent for fathers, as the father’s parenting
may be both more contingent on the mother’s parenting and
more closely linked to marital quality than the mother’s
parenting (Doherty et al., 1998).
Approaches to Studying Maternal and Paternal
Behaviors Jointly
Much of the extant research on fathering is subject to
shared method variance, as many studies have relied on a
single reporter, usually the mother or the child, to provide
information regarding paternal behaviors and child outcomes (Coley, 2001; Marsiglio, Amato, Day, & Lamb,
2000), and researchers have often assessed the independent
and dependent variables using the same type of methodol-
563
ogy (Grych, 2002). Furthermore, there is a lack of research
that utilizes diverse samples addressing parenting by mothers and fathers within the same family (Cabrera et al., 2000;
Kelley, Smith, Green, Berndt, & Rogers, 1998; Roopnarine
et al., 2005). Although evidence suggests that the parenting
of mothers and that of fathers during early childhood are
modestly correlated (Corwyn & Bradley, 1999; Feldman,
2000; Pelchat et al., 2003; Russell & Russell, 1994; Winsler
et al., 2005), few studies have systematically examined
differences in the magnitude of this correlation or family
factors that may shape the nature of this correlation (Lovas,
2005; Russell & Russell, 1994; Ryan et al., 2006). A notable
exception is Russell and Russell’s (1994) study of Australian middle-class parents of school-aged children, in which
they reported considerable variability in the similarity of
maternal and paternal parenting behaviors and attitudes
across families. Moreover, correlations indicate the degree
of within-family similarity, but these correlations tell us
little about directional effects or process-level interactions
(Lovas, 2005; Russell & Russell, 1994). Designing successful family interventions, however, may require identifying
more specifically which parent’s behavior is driving the
other parent’s behavior. In addition, understanding mean
differences and correlational patterns in mothering and fathering behaviors reveals little about the nature of family
processes that may be related to these differences and that
ultimately may impact child outcomes. Uncovering these
processes, rather than inferring similar or different processes on the basis of different mean levels, has the potential
to inform family interventions.
The Present Study
In this study, we examined a model to predict simultaneously the observed parenting of mothers and fathers,
including measures of partner parenting and interactions
among perceived marital quality and partner parenting. In
doing so, we examined the spillover of early parenting from
one parent– child dyad to the other parent– child dyad and
considered how perceived marital quality may be associated
with the linkages between parenting behaviors. We addressed three primary research questions: (a) Do maternal
sensitivity and negative intrusiveness predict paternal sensitivity and negative intrusiveness? (b) Likewise, do paternal sensitivity and negative intrusiveness predict maternal
sensitivity and negative intrusiveness? (c) Does perceived
marital quality moderate the relationships between maternal
and paternal sensitivity and maternal and paternal negative
intrusiveness?
We expected that mothers may scaffold or serve as role
models for fathers in interacting with their infants so that
higher levels of maternal negative and sensitive parenting
would predict higher levels of these same parenting behaviors by fathers. We further hypothesized that spillover between parent– child interactions would differ on the basis of
parental perceptions of marital quality. We expected perceived marital quality to moderate the relationship between
one partner’s parenting and the other partner’s parenting.
Specifically, we hypothesized that when marital quality was
564
BARNETT, DENG, MILLS-KOONCE, WILLOUGHBY, AND COX
high, there would be interdependence of sensitive parenting
such that the sensitive parenting of each partner would
predict the sensitive parenting of the other partner. Likewise, we expected that when marital quality was low, there
would be interdependence of negative parenting such that
the negative parenting of each parent would be positively
related to the negative parenting of the other parent.
Method
Participants
The participants in this study were a subset of the
Durham Child Health and Development Study (DCHDS), a
longitudinal investigation of early child development in a
socioeconomically and racially diverse sample living in and
around a mid-sized southeastern city. Families were recruited for participation in the study through phone contact
via birth record searches, fliers, and advertisements within
the child’s first 3 months of life. Of those families deemed
eligible, approximately 87% enrolled in the study. Of the
185 families participating in the study, 98 families included
fathers, and 97 of those families qualified for the present
analyses because both parents participated in a dyadic freeplay interaction with their 6-month-old infants. Although
data collection began when the infant was 3 months old and
continued throughout infancy and early childhood, we
chose the 6-month time point for the present analyses because observations of parenting by both mothers and fathers
were collected only at that time point. The subset of twoparent families was more economically advantaged and was
composed of a higher percentage of European American
families than the full sample. Of these parents, 80% (n ⫽
80) were married, but all parents were coresiding when the
child was 6 months of age. The sample was 42% (n ⫽ 41)
African American and 58% (n ⫽ 56) European American.
Approximately 49% (n ⫽ 48) of the infants were female.
Infant age at the actual time of assessment ranged from 6 to
10 months, with a mean of 7 months. The mean income–
needs ratio was 3.45 (SD ⫽ 2.25), with a range of 0 –10.87.
The mean number of years of education was 15.31 (SD ⫽
2.25) for fathers and 15.27 (SD ⫽ 2.50) for mothers, with a
range of 8 –20 years for both parents.
Procedure
Data were collected during a home visit when the child
was 6 months of age. The mother and the father were filmed
separately in a semistructured 10-min dyadic free-play interaction with the infant. The dyad was seated on a blanket
on the floor with a standard set of toys, and the caregiver
was instructed to play with the child as he or she normally
would if he or she had some free time during the day. The
order of participation in the dyadic interaction was determined by a coin toss. When possible, the infant–parent
interaction took place in a room apart from other household
members. Each parent separately filled out self-report questionnaires while the partner participated in the infant–parent
free-play interaction.
Measures
Parenting behavior. An ethnically diverse, trained team
of seven coders scored the videotapes for caregiver behavior, and a separate team of five coders scored the interactions for child behavior. All coders were blind to other
information about the families. Different coders coded the
mother– child and father– child interactions for each family.
Two criterion coders trained all other coders until excellent
reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] ⬎ .80)
was maintained for each coder on every scale. Once reliability was met, noncriterion coders coded in pairs while
continuing to code at least 20% of cases with a criterion
coder. Reliability was monitored throughout the coding
process. All interactions were coded by two coders. Each
coding pair met to discuss scoring discrepancies and to
reach a final consensus score for each scale.
Parent behavior during the parent–infant free-play interaction at 6 months was rated using seven 5-point global
rating scales (Cox & Crnic, 2002) revised from scales
adapted from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care (Cox et
al., 1999; NICHD ECCRN, 1999). These scales included
Sensitivity/Responsiveness, Intrusiveness, Detachment/
Disengagement, Positive Regard for the Child, Negative
Regard for the Child, Animation, and Stimulation of Development. To inform compositing of variables, we conducted
exploratory factor analysis with an oblique rotation (i.e.,
promax) separately for data from mothers and from fathers.
The orthogonal factor analysis suggested the presence of
two distinct, relatively independent composites for the behavior of both parents. On the basis of these factors, we
formed two composite parenting variables by calculating
the mean of the scores for each relevant subscale. Intercoder
reliability, which was determined by ICCs across each pair
of coders, ranged from .80 to .89, yielding reliabilities of .88
for maternal sensitivity, .82 for paternal sensitivity, .82 for
maternal negative intrusiveness, and .84 for paternal negative intrusiveness.
Negative parenting. The negative parenting factor,
Negative Intrusive Parenting (␣ ⫽ .87 for mothers; ␣ ⫽ .82
for fathers), consisted of the mean of negative regard and
intrusiveness scores (factor loadings were .92 and .77, respectively). The Negative Regard scale rates the quantity
and intensity of the parent’s expression of negative feelings
toward the child, including disapproving, harsh, or hostile
vocalizations or facial expressions and tense and abrupt
movements of the baby. The Intrusiveness scale measures
the degree to which the parent controlled the interaction in
a parent-centered manner. Intrusive behaviors include imposing parental agendas despite clear contrary signals from
the child, overstimulation, inappropriately fast pacing, and
physically manipulating the child in a way that fails to foster
autonomy or to facilitate the child’s exploration. Accordingly, higher scores on the Negative Intrusiveness subscale
represent parenting behaviors that are parent-focused, harsh,
and affectively negative.
Sensitive parenting. The second factor, Sensitive Parenting (␣ ⫽ .65 for mothers and for fathers), consisted of the
mean of the reverse score for Detachment/Disengagement and
MATERNAL AND PATERNAL PARENTING DURING INFANCY
the scores for Sensitivity/Responsiveness, Positive Regard,
Animation, and Stimulation of Development (factor loadings
were .73, .88, .85, .89, and .71, respectively). The Detachment/
Disengagement scale describes the degree to which the parent
was emotionally distant, uninvolved, or unaware of the child’s
signals or needs for appropriate facilitation or care. The
Sensitivity/Responsiveness scale, which was adapted from
Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, and Wall (1978), describes the
degree to which the parent was aware of and responsive to the
child’s bids and signals and achieved synchrony with the child.
The Positive Regard scale rates the quantity and intensity of the
parent’s expression of positive feelings toward the child, including praise, smiling, physical affection, playful behavior,
and overall enjoyment. The Animation scale rates the quantity
and intensity of parental vocal, physical, and affective energy
and animation during the interaction. The Stimulation of Development scale measures the degree to which the parent
engaged in age-appropriate behaviors that foster cognitive and
physical development with the child. Hence, higher scores on
the Sensitivity subscale reflect parenting behaviors that are
child-centered, engaged, warm, and stimulating.
Income–needs ratios. Mothers reported total household
income and household size. Income–needs ratios were calculated by dividing the reported household income by the
federally determined poverty threshold for the number of
individuals living in the household. Income–needs ratios
above 1 indicate that a family is able to provide for basic
needs, whereas ratios below 1 indicate that the family is
unable to do so.
Partner relationship. We measured the relationship between the mother and father in terms of emotional intimacy
and conflict using two different scales on which both partners self-reported. The Personal Assessment of Intimacy in
Relationships (PAIR) scale (Schaefer & Olson, 1981) measures the degree of intimacy in a romantic relationship. The
Emotional Intimacy subscale consists of six items rated on
a 5-point scale, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to
strongly agree (5). A sample item is “My (spouse/partner)
really understands my hurts and joys.” The mean of the
items is calculated, with higher scores indicating greater
emotional intimacy. The measure has demonstrated acceptable levels of test–retest validity and internal consistency
(Schaefer & Olson, 1981). The internal consistency for the
current sample was ␣ ⫽ .82 for mothers and ␣ ⫽ .75 for
fathers. The Conflict subscale of Braiker and Kelley’s
(1979) Relationships Scales, which measures the frequency
and intensity of overt antagonism and negativity in a relationship, consists of the mean of five items rated on a
9-point scale, ranging from not at all (1) to very much (9).
For example, respondents were asked to rate this item:
“How often do you feel angry or resentful toward your
partner?” The internal consistency ratings for the current
sample on the conflict scale were ␣ ⫽ .76 for mothers and
␣ ⫽ .75 for fathers. The Emotional Intimacy and Conflict
subscales were highly correlated for mothers (r ⫽ ⫺.65,
p ⬍ .001) and fathers (r ⫽ ⫺.68, p ⬍ .001). A marital
quality variable was constructed by first converting the
5-point scale into a 9-point scale (multiplying each item’s
score by 9 and dividing by 5) and then subtracting the
565
conflict score from the emotional intimacy score. Accordingly, higher levels of marital quality represent perceptions
that the marriage is high in emotional intimacy and low in
conflict.
Child affect. We also rated child behavior during the
parent– child free-play interaction at 6 months using 5-point
global rating scales (Cox & Crnic, 2002) revised from scales
developed in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care (Cox et
al., 1999; NICHD ECCRN, 1999). In the present investigation, only the ratings for the child’s positive and negative
mood were included. Both scales consider the intensity and
frequency of the child’s affective displays. Intercoder reliability ratings were ICC ⫽ .88 for negative mood and
ICC ⫽ .84 for positive mood. Negative and positive mood
were highly correlated (r ⫽ .72). A composite mood score
was created by subtracting negative mood from positive
mood, such that higher scores on the composite reflect
higher levels of positive mood.
Analytic Strategy
We estimated a nonrecursive path model, which included
reciprocal paths between paternal and maternal parenting, to
test the hypotheses (see Figure 1). This modeling technique
allows for within-family analyses by facilitating the simultaneous estimation of maternal and paternal parenting while
also allowing for the prediction of the parenting of mothers
and fathers by the parenting of the partner. This path model
provided a direct test of our hypotheses regarding the potential bidirectionality between each parent’s parenting behaviors, both alone and in combination with perceived marital quality. This is a relatively novel analytical approach
that conforms to the complex research questions regarding
parenting contingency. If we modeled these relationships
using separate regression equations to predict maternal and
paternal parenting, it would not allow for comparisons of
maternal and paternal results. Although multilevel regression modeling techniques account for within-family variance, they would not allow for the prediction of one parent’s
parenting by the other parent’s parenting. The bidirectional
relationships between maternal and paternal parenting could
be estimated only in a nonrecursive path model that allowed
the presence of multiple endogenous variables and feedback
loops among multiple endogenous variables in a single
model (Kline, 2005).
The nonrecursive path model included marital quality, an
interaction term between marital quality and partner parenting, and control variables consisting of income–needs ratios, ethnicity, child gender, and observed child affect during the dyadic interaction as exogenous variables. The four
parenting composites were included as exogenous and endogenous variables. It is important to note that this nonrecursive path model was identified because we included
instrumental variables in the model that were associated
with one variable in the reciprocal path but not the other.
For example, for the reciprocal paths between maternal and
paternal sensitive parenting, child affect during play with
mother and mother-perceived marital quality were associated with maternal sensitive parenting, whereas child affect
566
BARNETT, DENG, MILLS-KOONCE, WILLOUGHBY, AND COX
Figure 1. Path model predicting maternal and paternal parenting.
during play with father and father-perceived marital quality
were associated with paternal sensitive parenting. See Kline
(2005) for further description of the special issues related to
nonrecursive models, including identification and underlying assumptions.
Prior to conducting the path analysis, we examined the
univariate and multivariate normality assumptions of the
data using PRELIS 8.80 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1996). The
univariate skewness and kurtosis of each endogenous variable was not significant, indicating that every endogenous
variable was normally distributed. The multivariate test of
skewness and kurtosis also yielded nonsignificant results,
indicating multivariate normal distribution of the four endogenous variables.
We estimated the model using the full information maximum likelihood (FIML) estimation. We examined the
global fit of the final model using several fit indices, including the comparative fit index (CFI), for which values above
.90 indicate a good model fit (Bentler, 1990; Bollen, 1990;
Kline, 2005), the root-mean-square error of approximation
(RMSEA; Steiger, 1990), for which values below .05 indicate an excellent model fit and values of .05 to .08 indicate
a good fit (Browne & Cudeck, 1993), and the ␹2/df ratio for
which ratios of less than 2.5 or 3 reflect a good model fit
(Kline, 2005). If a variable was significantly associated with
the parenting of one parent but not with the parenting of the
other parent, the model was run with an equality constraint
imposed on the path from this particular variable to maternal parenting and on the path from the same predictor to
paternal parenting. If the fit of the model with the imposed
equality constraint decreased significantly from the fit of the
model without the equality constraint, it could be inferred
that the association between this variable and maternal
parenting was different from its association with paternal
parenting, and the corresponding path coefficients from the
model without the equality constraint were reported and
interpreted. Conversely, if imposing the equality constraint
did not produce a statistically significant decrease in the
model fit, it could be inferred that the relationship between
the predictor in question and parenting was likely to be
consistent for both parents, and the corresponding path
coefficients from the model with the equality constraint
were reported and interpreted.
Results
Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations
The descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations for the
variables included in all analyses appear in Table 1. Mothers
and fathers demonstrated similar levels of negative parenting behaviors (mean for mothers ⫽ 2.34; mean for fathers ⫽
2.30), t(97) ⫽ 0.43, p ⫽ .67. In addition, negative, intrusive
parenting by mothers and fathers were moderately corre-
MATERNAL AND PATERNAL PARENTING DURING INFANCY
567
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations Among Independent and Dependent Variables
Variable
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
M
SD
Maternal sensitive parenting
Paternal sensitive parenting
Maternal negative parenting
Paternal negative parenting
Income–needs ratio
Race/ethnicitya
Mother report of marital quality
Father report of marital quality
Child genderb
Child affect with mother
Child affect with father
1
2
3
4
5
—
.14
⫺.41***
⫺.18
.25*
⫺.20*
⫺.17
.00
.10
.41***
⫺.09
3.54
0.78
—
⫺.16
⫺.25*
.01
⫺.09
⫺.01
.10
.10
.07
.27**
3.17
0.74
—
.40***
⫺.17
.25*
.06
⫺.06
⫺.14
⫺.45***
⫺.10
2.34
0.81
—
⫺.01
.33***
⫺.08
.00
.15
⫺.31**
⫺.27**
2.30
0.82
—
⫺.07
⫺.13
.02
.00
⫺.03
⫺.17
3.45
2.25
6
—
⫺.16
⫺.15
⫺.03
⫺.10
.00
7
8
—
.45***
⫺.12
⫺.07
.12
2.50
1.28
—
.06
⫺.09
.04
2.47
1.18
9
—
⫺.03
.08
10
11
—
.23*
0.84
1.68
—
0.91
1.51
Note. N ⫽ 97.
0 ⫽ White, 1 ⫽ African American. b0 ⫽ female, 1 ⫽ male.
*
p ⬍ .05. **p ⬍ .01. ***p ⬍ .001.
a
lated (r ⫽ .40, p ⬍ .0001). Mothers, however, demonstrated
significantly higher levels of sensitive parenting than did
fathers (mean for mothers ⫽ 3.54; mean for fathers ⫽ 3.17),
t(97) ⫽ 4.53, p ⬍ .0001. Maternal and paternal sensitive
parenting scores were not significantly correlated. There
were no significant bivariate correlations between maternal
or paternal self-reported marital quality and observed sensitive or negative parenting behaviors.
Path Model
The nonrecursive path model was estimated using AMOS
Version 6 (Arbuckle & Wothke, 1999). All continuous
variables were mean-centered prior to model estimation. All
model fit indexes, ␹2(16, N ⫽ 97) ⫽ 16.99, p ⫽ .39; ␹2/df ⫽
1.06; CFI ⫽ .99; RMSEA ⫽ .025, indicated that the model
fit the data well. Parameter estimates from the path model
are summarized in Table 2.
Sensitive Parenting
Although the income–needs ratio and race/ethnicity were
shown to relate differently to sensitive parenting of mothers
and fathers in the base model, equality constraint tests, as
presented in Table 3, showed that neither the income–needs
ratio nor race/ethnicity were differentially related to the
observed sensitive parenting of mothers and fathers. When
an equality constraint was imposed on the path from the
income–needs ratio to maternal sensitive parenting and on
the path from the income–needs ratio to paternal sensitive
parenting, higher income–needs ratios were significantly
positively linked to higher levels of sensitive parenting (b ⫽
.05, p ⫽ .02). Child affect predicted sensitive parenting of
fathers (b ⫽ .14, p ⫽ .004) and mothers (b ⫽ .17, p ⬍ .001),
such that higher levels of positive affect predicted higher
levels of sensitive parenting.
In support of the hypotheses, there were significant interactions between self-perceived marital quality and partner sensitive parenting in the prediction of maternal and
paternal sensitive parenting. We used the pick-a-point
method to probe the significant interactions in multiple
regression analysis (Aiken & West, 1991). Specifically, the
simple slopes and their significance levels for the relationship between maternal and paternal sensitive parenting were
tested at three levels of self-ratings of marital quality (1 SD
above the mean, at the mean, and 1 SD below the mean).
Table 2
Path Coefficients and Significance Levels for Path Model in Figure 1
Paternal negative
parenting
Maternal negative
parenting
Paternal sensitive
parenting
Maternal sensitive
parenting
Variable
B
SE
␤
B
SE
␤
B
SE
␤
B
SE
␤
Income–needs ratio
Race/ethnicitya
Child genderb
Child affect
Marital quality
Partner parenting
Partner Parenting ⫻ Marital Quality
.02
.34
.42
⫺.12
.02
.58
⫺.04
.04
.17
.15
.05
.06
.22
.06
.06
.20*
.26**
⫺.21*
.03
.57**
⫺.05
⫺.06
.20
⫺.27
⫺.18
.01
.18
⫺.03
.03
.22
.16
.06
.05
.34
.05
⫺.15
.12
⫺.17
⫺.37**
.01
.19
⫺.04
.01
⫺.04
.10
.14
.05
.20
.21
.04
.82
.50
.00
.06
.20
.08
.03
⫺.02
.06
.28**
.08
.21
.25**
.09
⫺.31
.14
.17
⫺.05
⫺.08
.21
.03
.14
.14
.04
.06
.26
.08
.26**
⫺.20*
.09
.38***
⫺.08
⫺.07
.23**
Note. ␹2(16, N ⫽ 97) ⫽ 16.99, p ⫽ .39; ␹2/df ⫽ 1.06; comparative fit index ⫽ .99; root-mean-square error of approximation ⫽ .025.
a
0 ⫽ White, 1 ⫽ African American. b0 ⫽ female, 1 ⫽ male.
*
p ⬍ .05. **p ⬍ .01. ***p ⬍ .001.
568
BARNETT, DENG, MILLS-KOONCE, WILLOUGHBY, AND COX
Table 3
Equality Constraint Tests Between Mothers and Fathers
Chi-square
test
Chi-square
difference test
Equality constraint test
␹2
df
␹2
df
CFI
RMSEA
Base model without any equality constraint (model in Figure 1)
Equality constraint on income–needs ratio 3 sensitive parenting
Equality constraint on race/ethnicity 3 sensitive parenting
Equality constraint on race/ethnicity 3 negative parenting
Equality constraint on child gender 3 negative parenting
Equality constraint on partner parenting 3 self-parenting
17.00
20.03
18.72
17.20
21.25
17.89
16
17
17
17
17
17
3.03
1.73
0.20
4.26*
0.90
1
1
1
1
1
.99
.98
.99
1.00
.97
.99
.025
.043
.033
.011
.051
.023
Note. CFI ⫽ comparative fit index; RMSEA ⫽ root-mean-square error of approximation.
p ⬍ .05.
*
The results (as shown in Figure 2) revealed that the slope
defining the effect of maternal sensitive parenting on paternal sensitive parenting was significantly different from zero
when paternal ratings of marital quality were 1 SD above
the mean (b ⫽ .33, p ⫽ .01). Accordingly, paternal ratings
of marital quality moderated the relationship between maternal and paternal sensitive parenting such that higher
levels of maternal sensitive parenting were related to higher
levels of paternal sensitive parenting only when fathers
reported higher levels of marital quality. Similarly, as presented in Figure 3, the slope defining the effect of paternal
sensitive parenting on maternal sensitive parenting was significantly different from zero when maternal ratings of
marital quality were 1 SD above the mean (b ⫽ .29, p ⫽
.03). Accordingly, maternal ratings of marital quality moderated the relationship between paternal and maternal sen-
Figure 2. Paternal perceived marital quality moderates the effect of maternal sensitive parenting
on paternal sensitive parenting.
MATERNAL AND PATERNAL PARENTING DURING INFANCY
569
Figure 3. Maternal perceived marital quality moderates the effect of paternal sensitive parenting
on maternal sensitive parenting.
sitive parenting such that higher levels of paternal sensitive
parenting were related to higher levels of maternal sensitive
parenting only when mothers reported higher levels of marital quality.
Negative Parenting
Although race/ethnicity was shown to relate differently to
negative parenting of mothers and fathers in the model,
equality constraint tests, as presented in Table 3, showed
that race/ethnicity was not differentially related to negative
parenting of mothers and fathers (b ⫽ .29 p ⫽ .02). This
indicated that African American parents exhibited higher
levels of negative parenting during play with their children.
Child gender was differentially associated with negative
parenting of mothers and fathers. When an equality constraint was imposed on the path from child gender to paternal negative parenting and from child gender to maternal
negative parenting, the model fit decreased significantly (as
presented in Table 3). Specifically, male child gender was
significantly associated with paternal negative parenting
only (b ⫽ .42, p ⫽ .005). Child affect predicted paternal
(b ⫽ ⫺.12, p ⫽ .02) and maternal (b ⫽ ⫺.18, p ⫽ .005)
negative parenting, indicating that higher levels of child
positive affect during the dyadic interaction predicted lower
levels of negative parenting by both mothers and fathers.
There was no support for the hypothesis suggesting a moderating role for perceived marital quality in the relationship
between maternal and paternal negative parenting. Although there was evidence of only a positive main effect of
maternal negative parenting on paternal negative parenting
but not vice versa in the model, an equality constraint test
showed that the path coefficient for the link from maternal
negative parenting to paternal negative parenting did not
differ from that for the path from paternal negative parenting to maternal negative parenting. Accordingly, partner
negative parenting showed the same positive effect on negative parenting for both mothers and fathers (b ⫽ .53, p ⫽
.007).
Discussion
The primary goal of this investigation was to study relationships among early parenting by mothers and fathers of
infants within the same family. Although theoretical work
has suggested that early fathering may be contingent on
570
BARNETT, DENG, MILLS-KOONCE, WILLOUGHBY, AND COX
early mothering (Bradford & Hawkins, 2006; Doherty et al.,
1998; Parke, 1996), this study explicitly tested this hypothesis by estimating the relationship between the observed
parenting of one partner and the observed parenting of the
other partner. Traditional notions of spillover in family
research have explored how the marital relationship may
influence parenting (Cummings & Davies, 2002; Erel &
Burman, 1995; Fincham, 1998; Krishnakumar & Buehler,
2000). In this study, we used a novel analytical approach by
estimating a nonrecursive path model to explore how sensitive and negative interactions between the infant and one
parent may spill over to interactions between the other
parent and the infant. We examined whether the relationship
between maternal and paternal parenting may vary depending on perceptions of marital conflict and emotional intimacy. We found consistent evidence for the interdependence of parenting by mothers and fathers.
Parenting Spillover
Identifying family systems in which negative emotions
and behavior in one parent– child dyad spill over to the other
parent– child dyad presents an important research goal. If
the negative, intrusive parenting that characterizes one parent’s interaction with the child does not spill over to the
other parent– child interaction, then the parenting of the less
negative parent may serve as a buffer so that the child may
be less likely to experience the poor outcomes associated
with negative, intrusive parenting. Our results suggest that
negative, intrusive parenting in each parent–infant dyad is
positively associated with negative, intrusive parenting in
the other parent–infant dyad. Thus, contrary to the hypothesis, early fathering was not unidirectionally contingent
upon early mothering. Rather, there is evidence of contagion of negative, intrusive parenting across parent–infant
dyads. This finding suggests that children are likely to
experience similar levels of negative, intrusive parenting in
interactions with mothers and fathers. Thus, consistency in
exposure to negative parenting is likely, such that opportunities for one parent to buffer the child from the poor
outcomes associated with the negative parenting of the other
parent may be rare. In fact, perhaps one reason for consistent links between parental negative parenting and child
behavior problems (Campbell, Shaw, & Gilliom, 2000;
NICHD ECCRN, 2004; Shaw, Gilliom, Ingoldsby, & Nagin, 2003; Shaw, Keenan, & Vondra, 1994) is related to
experiencing negative parenting with both parents.
Optimal childrearing environments likely feature contagion of positive feelings and behavior between the mother–
child and father– child dyads so that the child experiences
sensitive, responsive parenting with both parents (Gable et
al., 1995; Ryan et al., 2006). Positive marital processes may
be associated with positive child outcomes not only because
high quality marriages support sensitive parenting by each
partner (Cox et al., 1999; Cummings & Davies, 2002;
Fincham, 1998; Grych, 2002) but also because these marriages promote the contagion of sensitive parenting from
one parent– child dyad to the other parent– child dyad. The
findings from this study, in support of the hypothesis, sug-
gest that when parents experience a marital relationship that
is low in conflict and high in emotional support, sensitivity
that characterizes one parent– child relationship may spill
over to the other parent– child relationship. This flow of
positive behavior is similar for mothers and fathers, as
perceived marital quality functioned in the same manner for
both parents. Parents in high-quality marriages may spend
more time in triadic family interactions, and thus each may
have the opportunity to emulate the partner’s sensitive parenting behaviors. Alternatively, parents who perceive high
marital quality may be more supportive of a positive relationship between the child and the other parent. Parents who
are not experiencing marital conflict and who feel emotionally close to their partners may be more open to learning and
adopting the sensitive ways in which the partner successfully interacts with the infant. Further, perhaps higher levels
of marital quality indicate a more affectively positive environment that in turn promotes similar levels of sensitivity
for both parents (Bradford & Hawkins, 2006; SchoppeSullivan et al., 2007). Alternatively, one source of conflict
in parental relationships may involve differences in parenting, so that partners who parent in similarly sensitive ways
may report experiencing greater marital quality (Feinberg,
2002). These findings are in line with evidence suggesting
links between positive marital relations and harmonious
coparenting behaviors (J. McHale et al., 2002; SchoppeSullivan et al., 2007). It is important to note, however, that
despite similar relations between self-reported marital quality and the associations between sensitive parenting by
mothers and fathers, it is premature to conclude that the
same processes are linking marital quality and parenting for
mothers and fathers. More specific process-oriented longitudinal research is necessary to tease apart potential differences linking marital and parenting processes for mothers
and fathers.
Maternal and Paternal Parenting
Mothers and fathers displayed similar mean levels of
negative parenting, and negative intrusiveness by mothers
and fathers was moderately correlated, suggesting withinand across-parent gender similarities. Mothers displayed
higher mean levels of sensitivity than fathers. This finding
adds to the growing research base suggesting that mothers
of infants and young children tend to provide more cognitive stimulation and to display more positive affect than do
fathers (Lamb, 1997; Parke, 1996; Power, 1985; Roopnarine et al., 2005). The ways in which fathers interact with
young children may be qualitatively different from the ways
in which mothers do so. Viewing fathering through a mothering lens may fail to detect important individual differences and to identify paternal behaviors that ultimately may
be related to child outcomes (Lamb, 1997). Fathers may
have displayed lower levels of sensitivity in this task due to
lack of experience in a dyadic play context, given that
mothers may be the primary caregivers at this age. The path
model results enhance the bivariate findings because there is
a significant positive relationship between sensitive parent-
MATERNAL AND PATERNAL PARENTING DURING INFANCY
ing by mothers and fathers in families characterized by high
levels of perceived marital quality.
Although not the focus of these analyses, the consistency
of predictors of parenting by mothers and fathers highlights
the importance of examining mothering and fathering as
embedded within particular family contexts. These findings
strongly suggest that early parenting behaviors by mothers
and fathers are associated with similar family, parent, and
child characteristics. However, child gender emerged as the
one exception to the homogeneous pattern of predictors of
maternal and paternal parenting. Fathers of boys displayed
more negative intrusiveness than did fathers of girls,
whereas child gender was not associated with parenting by
mothers. This finding adds to the mixed literature on the
effects of child gender on parenting by providing some
support for the more gendered early parenting of fathers
(S. M. McHale, Crouter, & Whiteman, 2003; Roopnarine et
al., 2005) and, more specifically, by suggesting that father–
son dyads may be characterized by less optimal parenting
than other parent– child dyads (Lovas, 2005). Perhaps fathers of sons engaged in more rough-and-tumble or physical
play with their infants than did fathers of daughters (Lamb,
1997; MacDonald & Parke, 1986; Marsiglio et al., 2000;
Power, 1985). Fathers may be less experienced at picking
up on the behavioral cues of their infants, so continuing to
engage in this play despite protests from the child would be
considered intrusive (Lovas, 2005; Power, 1985).
Child affect during the dyadic interaction was included in
the models as a control variable, and in fact child affect was
associated with maternal and paternal parenting. Each parent is interacting with the same child, so including child
mood with each parent can account for some of the
situation-specific variance. The direction of effects is unclear and may not be consistent for both types of parenting
and for both parents. Harsher, more intrusive parenting
behaviors may cause child negative affect, or alternatively,
child negative affect may elicit these negative parenting
behaviors. Similarly, sensitive parenting may elicit positive
affect from the child, or positive affect from the child may
be more conducive to sensitive parenting behaviors. A microanalytic approach to the affective nature of these interactions may help to tease apart directionality.
Limitations
Our findings highlight the interdependence of negative
and sensitive parenting behaviors in mother–infant and
father–infant interactions. Marital quality moderated the
relationship between maternal and paternal sensitive parenting, but negative, intrusive parenting by both parents was
similar irrespective of self-reported marital quality. Other
factors, including stress, depression, and parental relationship duration, may influence the interrelations between parenting and thus should be included in future investigations.
This study focused on parent factors, and although child
affect during the interactions was used as a control variable,
future studies should consider the role of child factors
(temperament and gender) in potentially moderating the
571
relationship between maternal and paternal parenting (Lovas, 2005; Schoppe-Sullivan et al., 2007).
Further, these findings are restricted to parenting of
6-month-old infants from working and middle-class families. Fathers may become more involved as their children
age, and thus future investigations should examine the relative trajectories of mothering and fathering and the influences of family system dynamics across development. The
interactive effects of parenting may be especially important
to study longitudinally, as parents may rely more on their
partners for parenting guidance during particular points in
child development (Bell et al., 2007; Cox et al., 1999).
Additionally, although this study did include a relatively
diverse sample, the findings may vary in more affluent and
in more disadvantaged samples. We did not directly examine the potential for race/ethnicity or the income–needs ratio
to moderate the relationships between maternal and paternal
parenting. Although we did find that race/ethnicity was
associated with the parenting of mothers and fathers, it is
important to note that, as in many community samples,
race/ethnicity and economic advantage were likely confounded, such that the race effects may have been partially
explained by race-based differences in socioeconomic status. There is a paucity of marital research on African American families, so little is known about how the marital,
father– child, and mother– child subsystems may be related
(McLoyd, Cauce, Takeuchi, & Wilson, 2000). Finally, child
outcomes were not included in this study, yet understanding
how parenting by mothers and fathers may differentially
influence child outcomes is a clear next step. It will also be
important to extend this approach to whole-family interactions to understand how similarities in mother– child and
father– child dyads may be linked to coparenting processes.
There is little evidence to suggest that the nature of the
dyadic relationship will extend directly to the coparenting or
triadic relationship (J. McHale et al., 2002).
Implications
This study expands the current research base by using
multiple methods to examine relations among early parenting by mothers and fathers within the same family. These
findings provide support for examining interactions across
multiple family systems, as the relationship between the
mother– child and father– child relationships interacts with
the marital relationship for sensitive parenting. The interdependence of paternal and maternal negative parenting supports the inclusion of paternal parenting in studies linking
maternal behaviors and negative child outcomes. Perhaps
the strength of the relationship between maternal negative
parenting behaviors and child outcomes is in part accounted
for by exposure to negative parenting in both parent– child
relationships. In addition, the long-term stability of child
behavior problems (Campbell et al., 2000; NICHD ECCRN,
2004; Shaw et al., 1994, 2003) may in part be accounted for
by exposure to negative parenting by both parents. Thus, the
parenting behaviors of both parents should be considered
when examining predictors of behavior problem trajectories. Moreover, these findings may suggest that intervening
572
BARNETT, DENG, MILLS-KOONCE, WILLOUGHBY, AND COX
to reduce the negative parenting of one parent may have
positive, indirect effects on the parenting of the other parent.
This study lends support to mounting evidence that effective
family interventions may need to target marital, parenting,
and coparenting relationships (Feinberg, 2002; Kaczynski et
al., 2006). Enhancing marital quality by reducing conflict
and promoting emotional intimacy may not only support
positive parenting in each dyad, but it may also indirectly
support contagion of positive parenting from one parent–
child dyad to the other parent– child dyad and thus promote
positive child development.
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Received June 6, 2007
Revision received January 8, 2008
Accepted January 30, 2008
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