The Baikal Region: History,
Culture, Contemporary Society
A guest lecture by Vsevolod Bashkuev,
Candidate of Sciences in History
(IMBTS SB RAS)
Geographical survey of the Baikal region
Map of the Baikal region prepared
by the Institute of Geography in
Irkutsk
Composition of the Baikal region
(as of 01.01.2009):
1. Pink – Republic of Buryatia
2. Light tan – Irkutsk oblast
3. Tan – Ust-Orda Buryat district
4. Light yellow – Zabaikalskii krai
5. Yellow – Aginskii Buryat
district
Notes on the contemporary geographical and
geopolitical terminology
Neutral, mostly geographical terms
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The Baikal region
Cisbaikalia
Transbaikalia
West and East
Transbaikalia
Circumbaikalia
Terms with geopolitical and ethnic
connotations
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Baikal Asia
Ethnic Buryatia
The Mongolian world
(northern periphery)
Contact zone
Frontier zone
Inner Asia
The Republic of Buryatia
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Territory: 351.300 sq km (135.600
sq mi).
Population: 972.021 (2010),
Russians – 66.1%, Buryats –
30%, Evenks – 0,3%, Soyots –
0,4%, Tatars – 0,7%, Ukrainians –
0,6%, others – 1,7%.
Average July temp.: +18C;
average January temp.: - 22C;
average annual precipitation: 244
mm; sunshine: 1900-2200 hours.
Religion: Tibetan Buddhism,
Orthodox Christianity,
Shamanism, Old Belief.
Lake Baikal: facts and figures
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Max. length 636 km (395 mi)
Max. width 79 km (49 mi)
Max. depth 1642 m (5.387 ft)
Average depth 744.4 m (2.442 ft)
Catchment area 560.000 sq km
(216.000 sq mi)
Shore length 2100 km (1.300 mi)
Primary inflows: Selenga, Uda,
Chikoi, Khilok, Barguzin, Upper
Angara
Primary outflow: Angara
Basin countries: Russia, Mongolia
Age 25-30 million years
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Biodiversity: 1.085 species
of plants and 1.550 species
and varieties of animals (2/3
are endemic).
Water quality: extremely low
content of mineral
substances (96.7 mg/l),
extremely few organic
substances, low
temperature (+8-9C,
sometimes +15C in surface
layers).
Lake Baikal is the only
confined fresh water lake in
which evidence of gas
hydrates exists.
The Baikal seal (pusa sibirica)
Omul fish (Coregonus migratorius)
Tourist and recreational potential
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Buryatia has a high recreational
potential. 60% of shoreline in
Buryatia are sandy beaches. There
are good possibilities for sport
fishing and hunting.
There are 255 mineral springs and
therapeutic muds.
Four mountain ranges, the East
Sayan, Hamar-Daban, Barguzin and
Baikal ranges with facilities for
mountaineering, mountain skiing,
etc.
266 natural monuments and places
of interest.
24 museums, 6 theaters, 20
religious centers. A total of 1858
historical monuments.
Survey of ethnic history of the region
The prehistoric population of the Baikal
region
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According to craniological data the Neolithic
population of regions around Lake Baikal had
some obvious Caucasian features.
The Neolithic population is classified
according to the presence of Mongoloid or
Caucasian features.
According to the recent studies two main
migration flows, Caucasian from the west and
Mongoloid from the east formed the
prehistoric population of the Baikal region.
The Bronze and early Iron Ages
population of the Baikal region
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During the Bronze and
early Iron Ages the
Baikal region was
populated by people
belonging to the tiled
graves culture and the
builders of khereksurs.
They are rightly
considered the first
nomadic population of
the Baikal region.
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People of the tiled graves culture were better
studied anthropologically and
archaeologically than the khereksur culture.
According to anthropological data they
definitely were North-Asian Mongoloids close
to the Baikal race.
From the 7th century BC the people of the
tiled graves culture were constantly attacked
by the Xiongnu or their ancestors. By the 3rd
century BC they either fled from the region, or
were assimilated by the invaders and settled
on the margins of the region.
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Most skulls from the khereksurs studied by
the scholars belonged to people of
Caucasian race. However, there were also
Mongoloid skulls excavated from some
khereksurs.
Scholars agreed that the tiled grave people
and the khereksur builders contacted and
mixed with each other during these contacts.
In this way, at the turn of the 2nd and 1st
millennia BC ethno-genetic contacts in the
region have been proven not only between
different ethnic groups, but also between
different races.
The Xiongnu and Xianbei peoples and
their traces in the Baikal region
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The Xiongnu were
ancient nomadic people
who roamed the
steppes north of China
between 220 BC and
2nd century AD and built
a powerful nomadic
empire.
The Great Wall of
China was built against
their attacks.
Map of the Xiongnu Empire during the
reign of Modu Chanyu (circa 250 BC)
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Skulls excavated from the
Xiongnu monuments in the Baikal
region belonged to people of both
Mongoloid and Caucasian races.
This suggests probable late
infusions of Caucasian blood into
the heterogeneous Xiongnu ethnic
entity.
Contemporary studies in
Transbaikalia lead to the
conclusion that during that period
Caucasian and Mongoloid races
co-existed in the region and
actively contacted with each other.
Genetic continuity was traced
between the Mongoloid population
of the Xiongnu period and earlier
inhabitants from the tiled graves
culture. Probably it continues even
now.
The origins of the Caucasian
people are not so obvious.
Scholars believe they were
kindred with the khereksur people.
Arms and clothes of a noble
Xiongnu warrior (2nd century
BC – 1st century AD)
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The Xianbei were Northeast
Asian Mongoloid nomads
who inhabited Eastern
Transbaikalia at the same
period as the Xiongnu.
Archaeological and
anthropological research
showed that they were
probable descendants of
the tiled graves people.
The Xianbei reached their
peak under Tanshikhuai
khan (r. 156-181 AD) who
built a strong and vast, but
short lived nomadic empire.
The Xianbei Empire under Tanshikhuai
(141-181 AD)
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In the period of ancient nomadic states there was no
rigid ethnic and even racial differentiation among the
Central Asian nomads. Tribes, clans and individuals
easily integrated into larger nomadic entities,
accepting the culture and way of living of the
stronger and more successful.
At that time there an unprecedented amalgamation
of clan and tribal self-consciousness and under
pressure of circumstances people easily changed
their tribal identity.
The ancient Asian nomads, such as the Xiongnu
and Xianbei were direct ancestors of medieval
Turkic and Mongolian tribes.
Medieval population of the Baikal region.
Mongolization of the population in
Circumbaikalia.
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The most important historical events that shaped the
contemporary ethnic composition and geopolitical situation in this
region took place in the medieval epoch.
By the 6th century AD the Kurykan tribal confederation formed in
Cisbaikalia from the earlier tiled graves people, Bronze Age
people and remnants of Xiongnu. They most probably were
Turkic-Mongolian bilinguals. The Chinese sources show that the
Kurykan lived by Lake Baikal.
From the 10th century migration of the Mongolian tribes started in
the region. Mongols actively mixed with the local population. By
the 14th century remnants of the Kurykan people were fully
Mongolized.
Genghis Khan (1162-1227) and his empire
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Temujin was born around 1162 in
Delun Boldog near Burkhan Haldun
mountain in Mongolia.
By 1206 he united the Mongolian
tribes into a khanate and was
proclaimed Genghis Khan
(Universal Ruler).
In 1209 his military campaigns
against neighboring empires started.
By 1227 he conquered Western Xia,
Jin empire, Kara-Khitan khanate,
Khawarezmian empire, Volga
Bulgaria.
After his death in 1227 his
successors created the largest land
empire from Korea to Iran and the
Middle East.
In 1368 with the fall of the Yuan
dynasty the golden age of the
Mongols came to its end.
Genghis Khan’s empire in 1227
Political Situation in Central Asia and the
Baikal Region in the 15th -17th Centuries
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In 1368 the fall of the Yuan (Mongolian) Dynasty in
China signified a new stage in ethnic and political
history of Central Asia and neighboring regions.
The late 14th century internecine wars started between
Eastern and Western Mongols over trade ways to
China through Mongolia.
At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries Mongolia
broke into three parts: Southern (Chaqar), Eastern
(Qalqa) and Western (Dzungaria).
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The most ferocious wars were
fought between the Oirats of
Dzungaria and Eastern
Mongols of Qalqa.
Aggressive policy of Oirat
khans, particularly of Galdan
Boshigt Khan (r. 1671-1697)
forced Qalqa princes to swear
allegiance to the Manchu Qin
dynasty in 1691.
The Oirat Dzungaria khanate
fought the Qin till the 1750s
when the Dzungars were
almost totally destroyed by the
Qin armies.
As a result of constant wars,
many Mongolian tribes
migrated north and later
became kernels of larger tribal
entities of Buryats (BuryatMongols).
Map of Central Asia, 1720-1725
Buryatia in the early 17th century (tribal map)
Map by B.Z. Nanzatov
Buryats and Evenks
Types of Evenks from
various tribes
Buryats in the 17th century
The Russian conquest of the Baikal region
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The Russian conquest of East
Siberia started in 1618 with the
erection of the Eniseisk ostrog
and ended with the conclusion
of the Kyakhta treaty in 1728.
Russians first learned about
Buryats around 1609 when
they wanted to take tribute in
furs from Siberian tribes. It
turned out the latter already
paid tribute to the Buryats (or
Brats in Russian).
Russian policy of peaceful
incorporation of the Buryats
was based on political and
military calculations. Buryats
were powerful opponents.
Tower of the Bratsk ostrog (burg)
Russo-Buryat armed struggle during colonization of
the region
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After the erection of Lensk (Ilimsk,
1630), Ust’-Kut and Bratsk (1631),
Tutursk and Yakutsk (1632) ostrogs
Buryats understood that they were
being colonized by the Russians
and started fighting back.
In 1635 Buryats besieged and burnt
down Bratsk ostrog.
In 1644 Buryats besieged
Verkholensk ostrog three times, but
without firearms they failed to take
it.
In 1658 Balagansk Buryats fled to
Mongolia to escape from atrocities
of Russian captain Ivan Pokhabov.
The Russian incorporation of the
Baikal region was a military
conquest followed by colonization
and laying under tribute in fur of the
local population.
From confrontation to co-existence and allegiance
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Russian plans to expand in the Far
East and prospects of major
confrontations with the Qin Empire
necessitated creation of new armed
forces in the region.
In 1760 a 500-men Evenk Cossack
regiment was created to guard the
frontier with the Qin. The Buryats
also volunteered for Russian
service.
By 1765 four 600-men Buryat
regiments were created.
By the Senate decrees dated 17
October 1760 and 22 June 1765
Evenks and Buryats were officially
recognized as Russian military
irregulars.
Mounted Buryat warriors in Russian
service
Religions of the Baikal region
Buddhism
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Buddhism started spreading in
Buryatia in the mid-17th century from
Mongolia. Migration of Mongolian
tribes to the region greatly facilitated
this process.
In 1712 100 Mongolian and 50 Tibetan
lamas fled from military turmoil to
Transbaikalia. Presence of so many
educated lamas gave a powerful
impetus to further spread of Buddhism
here.
First Buddhist temples were just
worship yurts of Buryat princes. Only
in the mid-18th century first stationary
temples (“datsans”) were constructed.
In 1741 Empress Elizabeth officially
recognized Lamaism as one of the
religions of the Russian Empire. The
number of lamas was set at 150. 11
Lamaist worship places were allowed.
Lamas were tax-exempt.
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The main purpose of the Russian government was in making of
the Buddhist church a useful tool of administration over the nonRussian ethnic groups (Buryats, Tuvinians, Kalmyks),
incorporated into the Russian empire. This purpose was mainly
pursued by empowering the Buddhist hierarchs with certain
juridical rights and duties and making them controllable by the
tsarist authorities. It should be noted that the Russian
government did not set a goal to influence somehow the
teachings and dogmas of Buddhism. Nor did it establish any kind
of censorship over the contents of Buddhist religious literature.
By the beginning of the 19th century the number of lamas in
Transbaikalia exceeded 2.500 and that caused anxiety in the
government and among the Russian Orthodox clergy. On 15 May
1853 the Senate passed the “Statute about the Lamaist Clergy in
East Siberia” in which the number of datsans was set at 34 and
lamas at 285.
High-ranking Buddhist priesthood
Pandido-hambo-lama the 12th
Dashi-Dorzho Itigelov
Orthodoxy in Buryatia
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Orthodox Christianity appeared in the region with the first
Russian conquerors. Each ostrog normally had a chapel or
church of some sort. However, officially, it started with the
foundation of the Daurian mission in 1681.
In 1727 Irkutsk eparchy was founded. Its main goal was to
spread Orthodoxy among the indigenous peoples of the region.
Yet in the 17th and 18th centuries the number of baptized
aboriginals was very small, only a few dozen.
The number of new Orthodox Christians grew only by the late
18th century with a large influx of Russian settlers.
From the late 18th to the early 19th centuries seven stone
cathedrals were built in Buryatia alone. Two cathedrals were built
in Verkhneudinsk in 1789. Buryats took an active part in the
construction of these churches.
Missionary service among the Evenks
Old church in Transbaikalia
Troitsk monastery by Lake Baikal
In the 19th century the Russian government took measures to convert Buryat
nobles and tribal chiefs to Christianity. Being an Orthodox convert could
significantly improve social status of a Buryat.
Russian Orthodox cathedrals in Buryatia
St. Odigitrii Cathedral in
Vserkhneudinsk (Ulan-Ude)
Missionary church in Alar
Old Believers
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Old Belief formed as a result of Patriarch Nikon’s church reform
in the mid-17th century. Old Believers rejected new church rituals
and practices.
First Old Believers appeared in the Baikal region with rebellious
Avvakum, whose stayed in Bratsk ostrog 1656-1657. He stayed
in Transbaikalia till 1662.
After open repressions started in 1682 many Old Believers fled to
Siberia. Most Old Believers in this region were from Ukraine and
Poland.
In 1764 Empress Catherine started a second wave of forced
resettlement of Old Believers from Poland to Siberia. By the late
18th century Old Believers lived in over 30 settlements throughout
Transbaikalia.
In Buryatia they founded such settlements as Tarbagatai,
Mukhorshibir, Urluk, Bichura, Novaya Bryan, etc.
Meeting of Old Believers of the world
“The Way of Avvakum”, 2007
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Semeiskie in Buryatia nowadays
The Old Believers created a distinct colorful culture that still
exists in Buryatia and the region under the name of
“semeiskie.”
The Old Believers were severely oppressed by the state,
especially in the 1840s-1850s, when rebellions started in their
villages. However, in the final analysis, the state could not
fully suppress their faith, identity and culture.
Shamanism
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Shamanism of Buryat and Evenks stems from archaic traditions and
worldview. Despite considerable differences in rituals between Buryat
and Evenk shamanism, both represent a single Central Asian ethnocultural enclave.
In Buryat shamanism there is a large pantheon of deities and spirits. It
is hierarchic with the Eternal Blue Sky (Huhe-Munhe Tengeri) as the
supreme deity.
Every spirit or deity is a master of a certain natural or social
phenomenon. There are different names for different spirits and deities:
burkhan, tengeri, khan, ongon zayan, ezhin.
The Buryat shamanistic hierarchy: celestials (tengri) headed by the
Eternal Blue Sky, khans, noions, great ezhins and zayans, spirits of
great shamans, chieftains, and leaders, local spirits of creeks,
mountains, forests, spirits of illnesses, old men, women, maidens. The
last step belongs to spirits of mortals. Lower demonology formed a
special group: various demons, usually souls of poor, offended people.
Shamans
Tungusic (Evenki) shamans
Shaman of Irkutsk Buryats
Contemporary shamans
The Soviet period 1917-1991
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In February 1921 the
government of the buffer
Far Eastern Republic
recognized the autonomy of
Buryats in its borders
In January 1922 the RSFSR
recognized the autonomy of
west Buryats in its borders
On May 30, 1923 the two
autonomies merged to form
the Buryat-Mongolian
Autonomous Republic
Within its 1923 borders
Buryat-Mongolia existed
until September 26, 1937
Territory of the Buryat-Mongolian
ASSR as of December 1926
Years of loss and repression (1937-1958)
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In the 1920s – 1930s national construction was successfully
carried out: considerable successes were achieved in education,
development of traditional culture, language, and health
The Great Terror of 1937-1938 took a heavy toll on the Buryat
national elite: intelligentsia, national-democrats, political leaders,
and clergy were purged
On September 26, 1937, in the aftermath of Pan-Mongolism trials,
Buryat-Mongolia lost 4 western and 2 eastern aimaks, which
formed 2 new autonomous okrugs (enclaves) within the newly
created Irkutsk and Chita regions
In 1958, supposedly due to geopolitical concerns (growing
confrontation with China) the Buryat-Mongolian ASSR was
transformed into the Buryat ASSR, losing “Mongolian” as a part of
its name
Division of Buryat-Mongolia in 1937
Buryat-Mongolian autonomies in 1921
Buryat-Mongolia in 1937
Buryat-Mongolian ASSR in 1926
Buryatia and autonomous regions
1958-2006
National revival: second start (1990-2006)
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Coat of arms of the Republic of
Buryatia, April 20, 1995
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Flag of the Republic of Buryatia,
October 29, 1992
State sovereignty of the
Buryat Soviet Socialist
Republic was proclaimed on
October 8, 1990
On March 27, 1991 Buryatia
received its present name,
the Republic of Buryatia
The Constitution was
ratified in 1994
The institutes of President,
Parliament and
Constitutional Court were
created
Reconstruction of identity
Imagery of the heroic past
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The most common reference to the
heroic past is Genghis Khan and the
legacy of the Mongol Empire;
Creation of a new mythology around
the name of Genghis Khan
legitimizing Buryats as his direct
successors;
Tracing Genghis Khan’s origins in
the Buryat lands (Bargujin-Tukum);
Localization of burial places of
Genghis Khan’s successors (Ikh
Horig);
The image of Genghis Khan is the
single symbol of Buryat and BuryatMongolian identity discourses
Genghis Khan, 1162-1227
(contemporary Mongolian image)
Traditional culture, religion, and spirituality
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Revitalization of traditional culture is
considered equal in importance to
economic security and national-territorial
sovereignty
Traditional culture today is much closer
associated with religion than in the Soviet
times
There is no consensus which religion is
traditional for Buryats, Shamanism or
Tibetan Buddhism
Both Tibetan Buddhism and Shamanism
are positioned as “national” or ethnointegrating religions differentiating
Buryats from non-Buryat citizens of the
republic
Both Buddhist and Shamanist
communities today display lack of
internal coherence as well as dissolution
of spiritual values and religious rules
Thank you for your attention!