Can the American Dream Survive the New Multiethnic America? Evidence from Los Angeles
Author(s): Mara A. Cohen-Marks and Christopher Stout
Source: Sociological Forum, Vol. 26, No. 4 (DECEMBER 2011), pp. 824-845
Published by: Wiley
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Vol.26,No.4,December
2011
Forum,
Sociological
DOI: 10.1111/j.
1573-7861.201
1.01286.x
Can
the American
America?
Dream
Evidence
Survive
the New
from Los
Multiethnic
Angeles1
Mara A. Cohen-Marks2and Christopher
Stout3
conducted
in Los Angeles,
weexamine
and
Drawing
froma survey
perceptions
of achievement
aboutreaching
theAmerican
dream
andnativity
Wefind
racial,ethnic,
optimism
among
groups.
blacks
andAsianAmericans
lesslikely
thanwhites
tobelieve
havereached
theAmerican
dream.
they
Latinos
standoutfortheir
with
naturalized
citizens
a stronger
sense
assessments,
upbeat
possessing
andnoncitizens
thattheywilleventually
theAmerican
ofachievement
generally
optimistic
fulfill
dream.
Wediscuss
between
theracialandethnic
as wellas variation
patterns
ofvariation
groups
within
eachgroup.
andnativity,
Notwithstanding
interesting
differences
alonglinesofrace,ethnicity,
wefindnoevidence
thatthenation's
ethnic
stewhasdiluted
dream.
changing
faithintheAmerican
KEY WORDS:achievement
and optimism;
American
economic
dream;American
identity;
raceandethnicity.
security;
immigration;
INTRODUCTION
"The Americandreamthatwe wereall raised on is a simplebut powerful
one- if you work hard and play by the rulesyou should be givena chance to
go as faras yourGod-givenabilitywill take you" (Hochschild,1995:18).With
thesewords,then-President
Bill Clintoncaptureda deeplyengrainedconstruct
in the social and politicalcultureof the United States. The Americandream
has lured millionsacross waters,mountains,and plains with this deceptively
simpleproposition:All Americans,regardlessof theirbackgroundor origins,
have a reasonable chance to achieve success throughtheir own efforts.It
is an ideal that has inspired great achievementsand led to crushing
disappointments.
1 Weare
forhelpful
comments
onearly
drafts
ofthisarticle
from
MattBarreto,
grateful
Stephen
andKelsyKretschmer.
Nuno,James
TheSupplemental
canbe found
Faught,
at
Appendix
Editor's
note:Thisarticle
is partof
https://sites.google.com/site/americadreamnewmultiethnic/.
a specialsection
in thisissueentitled
Research
on Contemporary
Issuesand
"Sociological
Events."
Forother
entries
inthesection,
seeClarkandHall(2011),Hass(2011),Hawdon
and
andSmith
andWidner
andChicoine
Ryan(2011),Longest
(2011),
(201П.
fortheStudy
ofLos Angeles,
LeaveyCenter
1 LMU Drive,
LoyolaMarymount
University,
Suite4119,LosAngeles,
California
90045;e-mail:
[email protected].
ofPolitical
106Central
Department
Science,
MassachuWellesley
Street,
College,
Wellesley,
setts
02482.
824
©2011
Eastern
Sociological
Society
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CantheAmerican
Dream
Survive
theNewMultiethnic
America?
825
Hochschild (1995:xi) has observed that the American dream functions
brilliantlyas an ideology but provides a poor guide for practice. Not all
Americansshare it, and some categoriesof Americansshare it less than others. Against those realities,the Americandream has withstoodconsiderable
societalchange,beatingout competitorsforideologicalprimacy.Its endurance
atteststo mostAmericans'insistenceon the dreamas an ideal, if not as a reality(Daleiden, 1999; Hochschild,1995).
Could that widespreadfaithfinallyshatterunder the profoundtransformation now underwayin the racial and ethnic compositionof the United
States? Between 2000 and 2008, blacks, Latinos, and Asian Americans
accountedfor 83% of U.S. population growth.Latino and Asian immigrants
and their U.S. -born childrenwill make ours a "majorityminority''nation
beforemid-decade(U.S. Census, 2010).
Some analysts have speculated that recent immigrationpatternscould
dilutefundamentaltenetsof U.S. culturalvalues and upend the nation's ideological moorings.No less than the esteemedHarvard politicalscientistSamuel
Huntingtonwarned that "immenseand continuingimmigrationfrom Latin
America,especiallyfromMexico" poses "the singlemost immediateand serious challenge to America's traditionalidentity"(2004a:31, see also 2004b).
Huntington(2004a:41) argued: "There is no Americanodream. There is only
the Americandream createdby an Anglo-Protestant
society.Mexican Americans will share in that dream and in that societyonly if theydream in English." If Huntingtonis correct,recentgrowthin new ethnic/racial
populations
may diminishoveralllevelsof attachmentto the Americandream.
If diversitythreatensthe ideology of the American dream, the society
based on the ideologyis threatenedtoo. Ideals do matter.Individualswho are
are morelikely
pessimisticabout theirlack of social and politicalopportunities
are
and efficacy,
to engage in criminalactivity,have lowerlevelsof self-esteem
less likelyto pursue higherlevels of education,and are less likelyto plan for
the long term(Finkel, 1985; McCord, 1979; Taylor and Betz, 1983). In short,
dilutionof the Americandream could have significantand troublingconsequences forU.S. society.
The City of Los Angeles is an ideal laboratoryto gauge whetherthe
nation's increasingdiversitythreatensattachmentto the American dream.
One of the most racially and ethnicallydiverse cities in the United States,
Los Angeles is also home to one of the largest concentrationsof immigrants. A recent public opinion survey from this demographicallydiverse
city provides a rich data set with which to examine confidencein the
American dream among various racial, ethnic,and immigrantpopulations.
numbersof ethnic
National polls on this topic have contained insufficient
minoritiesand foreign-bornresidentsto deduce general patternsfor these
populations.Nor are we aware of any researchthat has incorporatedstatistical comparisonsbetweennew nonwhiteimmigrantgroups such as Latinos
and Asian Americans,their native-borncounterparts,and black and white
Americans.
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Cohen-Marks
andStout
826
The Los Angelessurvey'srichsample of diverseracial, ethnic,and nativwithin
itypopulationsalso enables us to considerpossiblesubgroupdifferences
in
the
current
racial and ethnicpopulations,an avenue of investigation
absent
body of literature.The nation's diversityof culturesand sociohistoricallegacies providesample reason to considerwhetherracial and ethnicgroupshold
a commonvisionof theAmericandreamand whetherit applies to them.Also,
analyzingvariationwithineach racial, ethnic,and nativitypopulationyieldsa
more nuanced understanding
of whygroupsmay differin theirassessmentsof
the Americandream.
We have twin-foldobjectivesin thisarticle.We firstconsiderthe similarities and differences
in how racial and ethnicgroups assess theirprogressand
prospectsin reachingthe Americandream. Findingseveralintergroupdifferences, we next investigatepatternsof variationwithineach racial or ethnic
To accomplishthese
group thatmay underliethe gross intergroupdifferences.
twinobjectives,we startby reviewingthe richliteratureexaminingthe American dream to formulateour hypothesisfor the racial and ethnicgroups we
consider here. We then test our expectationsusing the 2007 Center for the
Study of Los Angeles citywidesurvey,beginningby observingresponsepatterns across the four major racial and ethnic groups in the United States
(whites,blacks, Latinos, and Asian Americans).We thenproceed to examine
patternswithineach of the fourdemographicgroups.
We findthat Latinos and particularlynaturalizedLatinos are more likely
to believe that theyhave alreadyachieved the Americandream; however,we
findthat thereare no racial/ethnic
in perceptionsof achievgroup differences
ing the American dream in the future.Thus, we find no evidence that the
nation's changingethnicstew has dilutedfaithin the Americandream. Interwe findrespondents'anxiety
estingly,in this period of economic uncertainty,
about the sufficiencyof retirementsavings clouds their confidenceabout
achieving the American dream, regardlessof their race or ethnicity.This
- should
resultsuggeststhat cracked nest eggs and other economic anxieties
theybecome a permanentor pervasivefeatureof U.S. society may pose a
biggerthreatto the Americandream than the nation's changingmultiethnic
stew.
RACE, ETHNICITY, AND NATIVITY
Many scholarshave minedpollingdata to examinehow ideas about the
American dream differamong rich and poor Americans,among black and
whiteAmericans,and how these ideas have shiftedover time. Of these,JenniferHochschild's 1995 studyremainsthe gold standard.Analyzingdecades
of surveydata, Hochschild (1995) found that faithin the Americandream
differssignificantly
for blacks and whitesand along lines of income,educaand
tion,
gender. AlthoughHochschild (1995) considersthe views of white
she
does not explicitlyexamine the beliefs of Latinos or Asian
ethnics,
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CantheAmerican
Dream
Survive
theNewMultiethnic
America?
827
- the so-called new immigrants(see also Feagin, 1972; Huber and
Americans
Form, 1973; Kluegel and Smith,1986; Robinson and Bell, 1978). In this section, we will discuss why we expect differencesacross racial and ethnic
differences.
groups and within-group
Blacks
We suspectrace is highlycorrelatedwithrespondents'evaluationsof their
achievementsand prospectsin reachingthe Americandream. A centraltenet
of the ideologyof the Americandream holds thathard work leads to success,
a notion blacks regardwithparticularskepticism,accordingto previousstudies. Whereasa majorityof whitesblame blacks' lower socioeconomicstanding
on blacks not tryinghard enough, blacks are much more likelyto attribute
thisdisparityto lack of opportunityin the United States (Hanson and Zogby,
2010; Hochschild,1995; Schumanet al., 1997).
Blacks' long and turbulenthistoryin the United States fromslaveryto
JimCrow to currentconcernsabout racial profilingand political disenfranchisementhas led a sizable portionof blacks to be doubtfulthat the United
States is the land of opportunityfor all (Schuman et al., 1997; Sigelmanand
Welch, 1991). Moreover,higherlevels of cynicismabout the Americandream
withtheir
now than in previousyearsmay be attributedto blacks' frustration
lack of economicand social opportunitieseven afterde jure barriersto equality have been removedwith the 1964 Civil RightsAct. As Thomas Shapiro,
the Directorof the Instituteon Assets and Social Policy, notes: "Even when
- get an education and work hard at
AfricanAmericansdo everything
right
well-payingjobs theycannot achieve the wealth of theirwhitepeers in the
workforce"(Shapiro et al., 2010).
in overall life satisfactionalso provide reaStudies on racial differences
son to anticipateblacks will be less optimisticabout the American dream.
Wolfers and Stevenson (2010) report that the gap between blacks' and
whites' levels of life satisfactionwere growing smaller between 1970 and
1990 but began to grow again during the 2000s. They find that wealthier
blacks have lower levels of life satisfactionthan poorer whites.If blacks are
generallyless happy about theirstandingin the United States than whites,
it would not be surprising
even thoughsome are enjoyinggreaterprosperity,
to findblacks as a group less optimisticabout someday attainingtheiraspirations.
Given theirhistoryin the United States and the inequalitiestheycontinue
to face,we anticipatethatblacks are less likelythanwhitesto believethatthey
have or will reach the Americandream (Kohut, 2007; Sinclair-Chapmanand
Price, 2008). Finding blacks less satisfiedwith their achievementsand less
optimistic about their prospects would be consistent with Hochschild's
(1995:72-88) conclusion that blacks are "succeeding more" by objective
measuresbut "enjoyingit less" on opinionmeasures.
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andStout
Cohen-Marks
828
Latinosand Asian Americans
We are less confidentin predictingthe perceptionsof Latinos and Asian
Americans,but we suspectLatinos and Asian Americansmay be more likely
than whites to view the Americandream as an ideal that lies withintheir
grasp. Previous studies indicate that Latinos are more likelythan whitesto
will do what is rightmost of the time,to be
believethat the U.S. government
patriotic,to believe ordinaryindividualscan influencegovernmentdecisions,
and to believe hard work leads to success (Abrajano and Alvarez, 2010;
De La Garza et al., 1996; Michelson, 2001; Newton and Salvanto, 2005).
Sanguineoutlooks on the U.S. social and politicalsystemcould well spill over
onto Latinos' perceptionsof theirown prospectsand achievementsin reaching
the Americandream.
What would account for Latinos' optimismgiven theirlower levels of
socioeconomicstatus?The answermay lie in theirlargeimmigrant
populations
and a self-selection
effectof immigrantswho choose to migrateand stay in
the United States. Many Latino immigrants
who settlein to the United States
do so because theybelieve that the United States providesbettersocial, economic, and political opportunitiesthan theirhome country(Wampleret al.,
who stay permanently
and those who leave
2009). In effect,those immigrants
may be votingwiththeirfeet,renderingtheirverdictsregardingtheiropportunitiesin the United States (Wampleret al., 2009).
The process of socialization representsan additional reason why we
expectoptimismamong Latinos and Asian Americans.It is plausible that the
to suboptimismpervasiveacross the firstgenerationmay also be transmitted
sequent generationsborn and raised in the United States. Previous studies
indicate that parental socialization can influencean offspring'spartisanship
and political attitudes,career aspirations,and notions of ideal familysize
(Dalton, 1982; Hitlin,2006; Jenningsand Niemi, 1981; Starrelsand Holmes,
be entirelysurprisingif optimisticLatino and
2000). It would not, therefore,
Asian-Americanparentsin the firstgenerationsocialize theirchildrenin the
second generationto believe that the United States providesthe opportunity
forsuccess.
On balance, we expectthat Latinos as a group,unlikeblacks and whites,
are predominatelycomposed of first-or second-generationAmericans,4to
exhibitgreateroptimismabout the Americandream. We anticipatea similar
phenomenonamong the Asian-Americanpopulation, that is, generallyoptimistic foreign-born
parents passing on faithin the possibilitiesopen to all
Americans.
Moreover,given that a large proportionof immigrantsenterthe United
States withlower levels of incomeand education,second and subsequentgenerations in the Latino and Asian-Americancommunitymay have a lower
4 A 2009PewCenter
shows
thatnearly
65%ofLatinos
areinthefirst
orsecond
Survey
generation.A majority
ofLatinos
areinthesecond
generation
(52%)(FryandPassei,
2009).
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CantheAmerican
Dream
Survive
theNewMultiethnic
America?
829
benchmarkfor success in America(Portes et al., 1978). Previousstudieshave
shown that perceptionsof an individual'sachievementsin lifeare oftenmeasuredby assessingsuccess relativeto the person'sparents'successand/ortheir
progresson severalsocial and economicmeasures(Judgeand Hurst,2007). As
long-settledAsian-Americanand Latino immigrantsand their native-born
childrencontinueto make progresson indicatorssuch as povertyrates,educational attainment,and English-languageacquisition,theirlevels of optimism
in the Americandream may also continueto grow (Park, 1997). We expect
Asian Americans,who have highermedian levels of income and education
than otherracial/ethnicgroups,5to be particularlylikelyto believe that they
have achievedthe Americandream.
THE NEW IMMIGRANTS AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
A keyadvantageof the Los Angelesdata set is thatit enables us to examine variationalong lines of nativityamong Asian Americansand Latinos. It is
plausible that despite generallylower levels of socioeconomic status, immigrantspossess relativelyupbeat assessmentsof theirprogressand prospectsin
reachingthe Americandream. Many immigrantscome to the United States
because they believe the United States affordssuperioropportunitiescomwho settlehereperpared withthose of theirhome countries,and immigrants
manentlymay be more optimisticabout their opportunitiesin the United
States than are their counterpartswho leave (Park, 1997; Wampler et al.,
2009). In effect,the pool of Asian and Latino immigrantsmay be a selfselected bunch, optimisticthat the American dream is withintheir reach.
have
Togetherwiththe findingof Porteset al. (1978) that Latino immigrants
lower benchmarksfor occupational success than their white counterparts,
we expect Latinos and Asian-Americanimmigrantswho have enjoyed some
success in the United States to be more optimisticabout the Americandream
than their native-borncounterpartswho have achieved the same level of
success.
DIVERSITY WITHIN EACH RACIAL AND ETHNIC GROUP
of grosspatternsacross the racial and ethTo gain a betterunderstanding
withineach population,and nativityis but
nic groups,we exploredifferences
we examine.With the exceptionof AfricanAmericans,we
one characteristic
also anticipateintragroupvariationalong social class lines. Individualsmay
have different
imagesof what constitutessuccessin life,but most associate the
Americandream withmaterialsuccess (Hochschild, 1995:15). Previousstudies
5 According
levelsof
havehigher
AsianAmericans
to the2007Current
Survey,
Population
racial/ethnic
ofallother
andeducation
income
groups.
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830
Cohen-Marks
andStout
lead us to expectthatwhites,Asian Americans,and Latinos withgreaterlevels
of income and education will possess sunnierassessmentsof theirachievementsand lifechances comparedwiththeirless materiallywell-offco-ethnics
(Feagin, 1972; Haveman and Smeeding,2006; Huber and Form, 1973; Kluegel
and Smith,1986; Robinson and Bell, 1978).
We do not anticipatethis patternbased on social class to hold true for
blacks. Othershave found comparativelyaffluentand highlyeducated blacks
take a dimmerview of theiropportunities,
theirabilityto shape theirown desthan are less well-offblacks
tinies,and to be more cognizantof discrimination
(Gay, 2004; Hochschild, 1995). Based on previousstudies,we expect blacks'
socioeconomicstatusexertsa minoreffect,if any, on theirperceptionsof the
Americandream. If even blacks who have succeededin the United States are
to close the gap
pessimisticabout the Americandream,thenit will be difficult
in optimismbetweenblacks and whites.
We are also interestedin whethermaritaland familystatusis associated
with respondents'perceptionof theirprogresstoward the Americandream,
and whetherthe association is uniformfor all racial and ethnicgroups. The
image of a happy familygatheredaround the hearthis, forsome, the embodimentof the Americandream. On objectivemeasures,marriedcouples are less
likelyto be in poverty,have longerlifeexpectancies,and are more likelyto be
homeowners (Astone and McLanahan, 1991; Brown and Booth, 1996;
Popenoe, 1993). Some scholarshave linkedlifeoutcomesand lifesatisfaction
forblacks and Latinos to a strongfamilynucleus,leadingus to anticipatethat
for Latinos and blacks in particular,perceptionsregardingthe American
dream are correlatedwithfamilystructure(Clark, 1984; Garcia, 2003; Parillo,
1991; Rumbaut, 1997).
statusto be strongly
Finally,regardlessof race, we expecthomeownership
associated with opinions regardingthe American dream above and beyond
othermeasuresof materialwell-being.We also anticipatefinancialanxietiesto
depressconfidencein the Americandream. Equity in owned homes and subsidies forownershipembeddedin the U.S. tax code have made homeownership
a source of economic securityand a significantsource of intergenerational
mobility.Homeownershipalso conveys social status- a sign that one "has
made it." For some, homeownershipconstitutesthe American dream itself
(Hughes and Zimmerman,1993). We expecthomeowners'greaterfaithin the
Americandream to operate independently
of other demographictraits,such
as income or gender(Hayden, 2002) and regardlessof neighborhoodquality
(Reid, 2007). If so, homeownershipmay serve as a great booster,smoothing
racial and ethnicgroup opiniondifferences
regardingtheAmericandream.
about theirfinancialsecuritymay
Conversely,individualswho are fretful
be hesitantabout claimingto have achievedtheAmericandreamand less confidentof doing so someday. In the U.S. capitalistsystem,financialsecurity
may have a close association with the American dream (Feagin, 1972;
Haveman and Smeeding,2006; Huber and Form, 1973; Kluegel and Smith,
1986). Conversely,individualsfearfulabout theirfinancialsecurityare likely
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CantheAmerican
Dream
theNewMultiethnic
Survive
America?
831
to feelgreaterpessimismabout fulfilling
theirdreams.As homeownership
may
boost hopefulness,financialworriesmay depressfaithin the Americandream.
We doubt any particularracial or ethnicgroup would be immuneto these
influences.
DATA
To determinethe relationshipbetweenrace and the Americandream we
use a surveyconductedin 2007 by researchersat Loyola MarymountUniversity'sLeavey Centerforthe Studyof Los Angeles.Markingthe 15thanniversaryof the 1992 Los Angelesriots,pollstersinterviewed1,651cityresidentsby
telephoneon such topics as the politicalreformsinstitutedin responseto the
and mattersof public policy.As
riots,race and ethnicrelations,immigration,
part of the poll, Los Angeles residentswere asked if they had reached the
Americandream or if theybelievedtheywould do so someday. Respondents
were drawn froman ethnicallyand raciallystratified
sample of listedresidential telephoneexchanges.As is the case in many U.S. urban areas, highlevels
of ethnicand racial separationcharacterizemost of Los Angeles' residential
survey
samplingdesignensureda representative
neighborhoods.The stratified
of opinionamong the city'sracial and ethnicgroups(Barretoet al., 2006).
DependentVariables
We derive our dependentvariables fromthe followingsurveyquestion:
"With regardto the Americandream,do you thinkyou have alreadyreached
it, will reach it in the futureor will not reach it any time in your lifetime?"
Our firstdependentvariable is a dichotomousmeasurewe code 1 forrespondentswho answered"have alreadyreachedit" and 0 for others.For our second dependentvariable,we examineonlyrespondentswho feelthat theyhave
not yet reached the Americandream. We code as 1 those respondentswho
affirmthat they will reach the American dream in their lifetimeand as 0
respondentswho doubt theywill do so.
IndependentVariables
Our main independentvariables of interestare four dichotomousvariof the respondent.To betterisolate
ables that account for the race/ethnicity
the effectsof race and nativityon perceptionsof the Americandream,we also
include controlsfor age, income, education, sex, and employmentstatus,as
well as several othercontrolsincludingfamilystatus (maritalstatus,number
of children).We also controlfor forward-looking
opinions,includingrespondents' fears about theirpersonal safety(expectationsabout fallingvictimto
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832
Cohen-Marks
andStout
gang violence) and theirfinancialoutlooks (expectationsregardingthe adequacy of theirretirement
savings,theirplans to purchase a home, and their
worriesabout themselvesor a familymemberlosing a job). In addition to
individualdemographictraitsand opinions,we considerthe respondents'residentialcontext(levels of crimein theirzip code, medianhousingvalue in their
Census tract,and percentminoritiesin theirCensus tract).6
METHODOLOGY
We createtwo sets of logitregressionmodels forour two dependentvariables. Our initialset of regressionsincludesthe entiresample of respondents
so that we may make comparisonsacross racial and ethnicgroups.With this
of respondentswho reporthaving
sample,we firstconsiderthe characteristics
achievedthe Americandream. Our second logitregressionenables us to idenof those who have not yet achieved the Americandream,
tifycharacteristics
but remainoptimisticthat theywill someday.In the second logit analysis,we
excluderespondentswho alreadybelievethattheyhave achievedtheAmerican
dream. We then replicatethese two initialregressionmodels for each of our
fourracial and ethnicgroups.Whereas our initialanalysesenable us to make
statisticalcomparisonsbetweenthe racial and ethnicgroups,thissecond set of
analysesrevealscharacteristics
likelyassociatedwiththe beliefin theAmerican
dreamwithineach of the racial or ethnicpopulations.
Because the substantivemeaningsof logitcoefficients
are difficult
to interwe performa postestimationanalysis for
pret beyond sign and significance,
each regressionmodel. Here, we measurethe changein the dependentvariable
when the independentvariable of interestchangesfromits minimumvalue to
its maximumvalue, holding all othervariables at theirmean (see Long and
Freese,2001).
RESULTS
Table I displays the percentof respondentswho believe that theyhave
already achieved the Americandream, will reach the Americandream, and
individuals who believe that they will never achieve the American dream,
Consistentwith previousstudies on this
disaggregatedby race or ethnicity.7
topic (Hochschild, 1995), the resultsin Table I indicate that whitesare the
most likelyto believe theyhave achieved the Americandream, followedby
Asian Americans.As we expected,blacks tendto be the least likelyto say that
theyhave achievedthe Americandream.
6 Seethe
forcoding
oftheindependent
variables.
Supplemental
Appendix
SeetheSupplemental
formoreinformation
ontheaverage
andmedian
Appendix
age,income,
andeducation
ofrespondents
whobelieve
thatthey
reachtheAmerihave,will,orwillnever
candream
disaggregated
byraceorethnicity.
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833
America?
Dream
Survive
theNewMultiethnic
CantheAmerican
theAmerican
WhoBelieve
ThatTheyHaveReached
ofRespondents
TableI. Percent
Dream,
DreambyRace/Ethnicity
orWillNever
ReachtheAmerican
WillReachtheAmerican
Dream,
Variable
Whites
Blacks
Latino
dream
reached
American
Already
dream
WillreachAmerican
dream
Willnever
reach
American
48.35%
19.17%
32.48%
21.75%
46.63%
31.62%
24.34%
64.07%
11.59%
AsianAmerican
29.50%
45.68%
24.82%
Asian Americansand Latinos, the two groupswiththe highestimmigrant
populations,are the most optimisticabout theirchances of one day achieving
the Americandream.Whereasabout one-thirdof blacks and whiteswho have
not reachedthe Americandream doubt thattheyeverwill,fewerthan a quarter of Asian Americanslack faiththat theywill eventuallyreach that milestone. Latinos stand out for their optimism regardingtheir chances of
reachingthe American dream. Latinos are almost six times more likelyto
believe they will eventuallyachieve the American dream if they have not
alreadythan theyare to doubt everdoing so.
The resultspresentedin Table I suggestthat race and ethnicityplay a
powerfulrole in shapingindividualattitudestowardsthe Americandream.To
are not merelyartificesof sociodemographicdifferensure these differences
ences among the racial and ethnicgroups,particularlyincome,education,and
nativitystatus,we employ logisticregressionanalysis to isolate the effectof
of respondentson theirbeliefsin theAmericandream.
the race and ethnicity
Table II displaystwo sets of logit regressionmodels. Model 1A summarizesthe resultsforthose who believetheyhave alreadyreachedthe American
dream,and Model IB summarizesthe resultsfor those who expect to reach
the Americandream in the futureif theyhave not already. The resultsdisplayed for Model 1A affirmthe powerfulimpactof racial and ethnicidentity
less likely than
on outlooks. Blacks and Asian Americans are significantly
whitesto believe they have achieved the American dream. For blacks, this
resultis expected. However, it is noteworthythat Asian Americansare less
satisfiedwiththeirlifeachievementsgiventheirhighlevelsof incomeand edumore confidentthan
cation. Also noteworthyis that Latinos are significantly
whitesto believethattheyhave reachedthatmilestone,holdingothervariables
constant.
Figure 1 displaysthe postlogisticregressionpredictedprobabilitiesforsigbetween
nificantvariablesin the models. The figureillustratesthat differences
but
the racial and ethnicgroups are not only statisticallysignificant, are also
substantialin magnitude.Asian Americansand blacks are almost 10% less
likelythan whites to believe that they have achieved the Americandream,
holding other variables at their mean. Conversely,Latinos are 23% more
likelythanwhitesto believethattheyhave achievedthe Americandream.Citizenship status also appears to temperone's views of life achievement,with
those who have yet to attain Americancitizenship10% less likelyto believe
thathave achievedthe Americandreamthan others.
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834
Cohen-Marks
andStout
TableII. LogitRegression
Whether
Perceives
Achieved
the
(A) Respondent
Predicting
Having
American
Dreamor (B) If Not,Respondent
Believes
He or SheWillAchieve
theAmerican
DreamDuring
HisorHerLifetime
Variables
Race
Black
Latino
AsianAmerican
SES & Sociodemographic
Age
Income
Education
Divorced/separated
Married
1-2children
3+ children
Female
Unemployed
Mortgage
Homeowner
Status
Citizenship
Noncitizen
Naturalized
citizen
Perceptions
ofFuture
Plantobuyhome
Retirement
savings
Jobsecurity
Gangfear
Residential
Context
Crime
inzipcode
Median
homeprice
Census
tract
Minority
Constant
Observations
LR chi-square
А
HaveReached
American
Dream
В
WillAchieve
American
DreaminLifetime
-.572(.243)**
.616(.276)**
-.560(.288)*
.217(.271)
.528(.358)
-.134(.362)
.029(.006)***
.013(.002)***
.036(.028)
.093(.062)
.286(.186)
-.441(.187)**
-.064(.280)
.268(.150)
-.061(.045)
.564(.215)***
.650(.173)***
-.045(.007)***
.004(.003)
.037(.034)
.053(.070)
-.075(.205)
.030(.201)
-.024(.313)
.407(.167)**
-.024(.052)
.322(.208)
.049(.153)
-.594(.295)**
.299(.255)
.784(.351)**
.619(.337)*
-.320(.193)
-.572(.110)***
-.242(.102)**
-.036(.078)
.634(.221)***
-.288(.126)**
-.040(.112)
.085(.090)
.000(.000)
.000(.000)
.157(.113)
-2.469(.757)***
1,245
328
.000(.000)
-.000(.000)
.119(.131)
1.626(.884)*
890
154
at .10;**significant
at 05; ***significant
at .01.Standard
♦Significant
errors
arein parentheses.
Comparison/excluded
whites,
renters,
males,
groups:
Rs,single
Rs,Rs withno child,
employed
citizens.
In additionto race and nativity,severalotherfactorsappear relatedto a
respondent's belief that he or she has achieved the American dream.
The resultsconfirmthe strongassociation betweenhomeownershipand the
Americandream.8Those who own theirhome outrightare 13% more likely
to believe that they have achieved the American dream than are renters.
Mortgage-holdersare about 12% more likelyto believe they have achieved
that Americandream than are renters.Perceptionsof life achievementsalso
seem to be powerfullyshaped by time. Residentsin theirgolden years- the
is a strong
oftheAmerican
Homeownership
TableС intheSupplepredictor
dream;
however,
mental
showsthatwhenthehomeownership
variables
areexcluded
Appendix
from
thefull
model
theresults
do notsignificantly
change.
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America?
theNewMultiethnic
Dream
Survive
CantheAmerican
835
theAmeriachieved
whoreport
for(A) respondents
having
probabilities
Fig.1. Predicted
dream.
reachtheAmerican
willeventually
whoreport
and(B) respondents
candream
they
are
variables
in which
all otherindependent
arepredicted
Notes
: Min-max
probabilities
thedifferismeasured
variable
inthedependent
heldatthemeanandthechange
bytaking
valuetoits
itsminimum
itfrom
ischanging
ofinterest
variable
theindependent
encewhen
maximum.
- are 42% more likelyto reporthavingreachedthe Amerioldest respondents
can dreamthan are the youngestrespondents.
An individual'sassessmentof whetherhe or she has achievedthe American dream also appears tightlylinkedwitheconomicfactors.Income is highly
correlatedwithperceptionsof achievementof the Americandream. Angelinos
withthe highesthousehold incomesare 50% more likelyto believethat they
have achieved the Americandream than are the poorest respondentsin our
data set. Economic insecuritiesalso exerta stronginfluenceon respondents'
degree of satisfactionwith theirprogressin achievingthe Americandream.
Those least confidentabout the adequacy of their retirementsavings were
22% less likelyto believe theyhad reached the Americandream, and those
expressingconcern about job securityof household memberswere 9% less
likelyto believethattheyhave achievedthe Americandream.
related to an individual's
None of the other variables were significantly
beliefthathe or she will reach the Americandream.We wereparticularlysurprisedthatto the extentfamilystatusplays any predictiverole,the association
is negative.Respondentswithone or two childrenare 7% less likelyto believe
that theyhave achievedthe Americandream than those withno children.We
focusnexton those whom- thoughtheydo not yetfeeltheyhave reachedthe
Americandream- remainoptimisticthattheywill do so someday.
The resultshighlightedin Table II under Model IB exclude those who
reportedthat theyhave reachedthe Americandream and indicatethe characteristicslikelyto be possessed by the steadfastoptimists.The predictedprobabilitiesfromthisestimationare displayedin Fig. 1.
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836
andStout
Cohen-Marks
Aftercontrollingforseveralvariables,includingage, income,and citizenship status, we see no significantdifferencesbetween the racial and ethnic
betweenthe racial groups
groups.The resultssuggestthatthe large differences
I
to
some other factor.This
in
Table
could
be
attributed
that we observed
in
the
United States will not
indicates
that
racial
resultalso
diversity
growing
have long-termconsequenceson adherenceto the Americandream.
Nativity,however,is stronglypredictive.Respondentsborn outside the
United States appear to be the most optimisticabout theirchances of eventually achievingthe Americandream. Noncitizensare 14% more likelyand naturalizedcitizensare 11% more likelyto believetheywill achievethe American
dream than are native-borncitizens.These resultsprovidenothingto indicate
that new immigrants
have weakenedthe Americandream's gripon the imagination of a demographically
America.
transforming
Only a handfulof variables are correlatedwith respondents'beliefsthat
theywill achieve the Americandream if theyhave not already reached that
milestone.Age- positivelyassociated witha respondent'sbeliefthathe or she
has already reached the American dream- is negativelyassociated with an
individual'sbeliefthathe or she will reach the Americandream if the individual has not done so yet. Pessimismreignsamong the oldest respondentswho
have not achieved the Americandream. They are a whopping65% less likely
than the youngestrespondentsto believe that theywill reach the American
dreamin the future.
Respondentswith higherlevels of education are more optimisticabout
the possibilityof achievingthe Americandream in theirlifetime,with a 9%
spread betweenthe most highlyeducated and the least educated. In lightof
persistentgender inequalitiesin the United States, we were surprisedthat
women are more likelythan men to believethat theywill achieve the American dream, a differenceof approximately7% holding all other variables at
theirmean.
Confidencein the Americandream is also associated withothermeasures
of confidencein the future.Rentersplanningto become homeownerswithin
the year are 11% more likelythan otherrentersto expect theywill someday
achieve the Americandream. Respondentswho are skepticalabout the adequacy of theirretirement
savingsare the mosthesitantto believethattheywill
achieve the Americandreamin theirlifetime.
Our focus in this initialanalysis on the generalpopulation has given us
the opportunityto examine the differencesbetweeneach racial and ethnic
group. Using the same dependentvariables,we shiftnow to an inspectionof
differences
withineach racial and ethnicgroup.
Given the contentiousdebate over immigrationin recentyears, we are
particularlyinterestedto findthat naturalizedLatinos are 12% more likelyto
believe theyhave achieved the Americandream than U.S. -born Latinos. The
resultsin Table III and Fig. 2, whichpresentcorrespondingpredictedprobabilities,suggestthat Latinos who become citizenstake a lot of pride in this
achievement.Citizenshipstatushad no recognizableimpactforothergroups.
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837
America?
theNewMultiethnic
Dream
Survive
CantheAmerican
Reached
Perceives
Whether
TableIII. LogitRegression
Already
Having
Respondent
Predicting
theAmerican
DreambyRaceorEthnicity
Variables
Black
AsianAmerican
White
Latino
.024(.012)** .041(.014)*** .027(.012)*
.020(.014)
Age
.024(.006)*** .012(.004)*** .013(.004)*** .011(.005)*
Income
.030(.059)
.095(.065)
.039(.054)
.066(.069)
Education
-.004(.219)
.102(.132)
.192(.131)
Divorced/separated .149(.120)
.454(.347)
.391(.388)
.681(.483)
-.153(.427)
Married
-.373(.345)
.239(.422)
-1.249(.502)** -.694(.400)
1-2children
-.244(.448)
-.810(.862)
.031(.806)
.373(.570)
3+ children
.175(.295)
.846(.302)*** -.259(.349)
.079(.340)
Female
.899(.414)** .850(.343)*
.875(.431)** .197(.379)
Mortgage
-.309(.499)
-.368(.562)
-.073(.136)
-.066(.078)
Unemployed
1.010(.462)** 1.440(.532)**
.464(.495)
.349(.490)
Homeowner
Status
Citizenship
-.904(.708) -1.391(1.062) -.353(.462)
Noncitizen
(a)
.672(.407)+
-.521(.759)
-.163(.658)
.291(.903)
citizen
Naturalized
ofFuture
Perceptions
-.488(.311)
-.341(.451) -1.049(.550)
.287(.410)
Plantobuyhome
Retirement
savings -.622(.244)** -.630(.226)*** -.766(.262)*** -.514(.219)*
-.304(.209)
-.110(.239)
-.415(.218)
.004(.213)
Jobsecurity
.169(.152)
-.138(.199)
-.055(.156)
-.119(.172)
Gangfear
Context
Residential
-.000(.000)
-.000(.000)
.000(.000)
.000(.000)
inzipcode
Crime
.000(.000)
.000(.000)
-.000(.000)
Median
homeprices .000(.000)
.004(.184)
.070(.352)
-.085(.203)
tract .042(.312)
Census
Minority
-4.38(1.804)**-1.600(1.618) -3.189(1.964) -2.069(1.581)
Constant
347
236
327
312
Observations
80.36
80.8
76.45
81.95
LR chi-square
at .01.
at05;***significant
at .10;**significant
*Significant
torunanalysis.
ofrespondents
number
(a) Insufficient
Rs,
areinparentheses.
males,
errors
renters,
Notes
: Standard
single
groups:
Comparison/excluded
citizens.
nochild,
Rswith
With the exceptionof AfricanAmericans,age is positivelylinked with
satisfactionwith having achieved the Americandream. For whites,age is a
particularlyrobustpredictor.Holding othervariablesat the mean, the oldest
whitesin the sample were 62% more likelyto believe theyhave achieved the
Americandreamthan the youngestwhitesin the sample.
Income is also stronglyrelated to perceptionsof reachingthe American
dream forall racial and ethnicgroups,particularlyforblacks. Counterto our
expectations,income is stronglyand positivelyassociated with blacks' assessment of theirlife achievements.Blacks with the greatestincomes are 77%
more likelyto believetheyhave achievedthe Americandream than are blacks
with the smallest incomes. Although income is a positive predictorof the
Americandream forall groups,anxietyabout retirement
savingsis negatively
correlatedwithrespondents'perceptionsthattheyhave achievedthe American
dream,regardlessof race or ethnicity.
Despite the many similaritiesamong racial and ethnicgroups,thereare
Blacks withone or two childrenin the household
differences.
some noteworthy
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838
Cohen-Marks
andStout
forrespondents
whobelieve
haveachieved
theAmeriFig.2. Predicted
probabilities
they
candream
byracialandethnic
group.
Notes
: Min-max
arepredicted
in which
all otherindependent
variables
are
probabilities
heldatthemeanandthechange
inthedependent
variable
ismeasured
thedifferbytaking
encewhen
theindependent
variable
ofinterest
ischanging
itfrom
itsminimum
valuetoits
maximum.
are less likelyto believe they have achieved the American dream than are
blacks withoutchildrenat home. This resultcountersour expectationthat
blacks with familieswould have a more sanguine outlook of the American
dream.However,thisresultcould be based on theadditionaleconomicburden
thatchildrenplace on black householdsas theseare more likelyto face financial strain.As forhomeownership,
blacks, whites,and Latinos who own their
homes outrightare more likelyto believe they have reached the American
dreamthan theircounterparts
who rent.Whitesand Asian Americanscarrying
a mortgageon their homes are also more likely to believe that they have
reachedtheAmericandreamthan theirracial counterparts
who rent.For most
did
not
account
for
differences
in
views
of the American
groups,gender
large
dream. However, Asian-American femaleswere 16% more likelyto believe
theyhave achievedtheAmericandreamthan theirmale counterparts.
As we foundthatnaturalizedcitizensweremorelikelyto believethatthey
have achieved the Americandream in Table III, the resultsin Table IV indicate thatnativitystatusalso tempersone's beliefthatthe Americandreamwill
be achieved in the future.Among Latinos and Asian Americans,citizenship
status remainsa strongpredictorof optimismabout someday achievingthe
Americandream.NaturalizedAsian Americansare 35% more likelyto believe
that theywill achieve the Americandream than native-bornAsian Americans.
Latinos who are noncitizensare 11% more likelyto believe that they will
reach the Americandreamthan native-bornLatinos.
Just as respondentsof different
ethnicitieswho believe that they have
reachedtheAmericandreamsharecommontraits,thoseconfident
thattheywill
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839
America?
CantheAmerican
Dream
Survive
theNewMultiethnic
Reached
theAmerican
WhoHaveNotAlready
TableIV. Among
Dream,Logit
Respondents
theAmerican
DreamDuring
Lifetime
Individual
ofReaching
Regression
Predicting
Expectations
Disaggregated
byRaceandEthnicity
Variables
Independent
Black
AsianAmerican
White
Latino
-.044(.012)*** -.058(.014)*** -.082(.021)*** -.066(.020)***
Age
.002(.008)
.006(.006)
.002(.007)
Income
-.002(.006)
.102(.066)
.239(.104)** .073(.090)
Education
-.009(.070)
.103(.317)
.511(.171)** .196(.209)
Divorced/separated -.085(.107)
-.045(.473)
1.023(.532)* -.076(.584)
Married
-.188(.385)
.692(.518)
-.348(.604)
-.237(.467)
1-2children
-.183(.347)
.157(.632)
-.004(.564)
-.064(.918) (a)
3 + children
1.206(.436)***
-.084(.514)
.084(.348)
.510(.299)*
Female
-.241(.608)
-.395(.526)
-.486(.743)
-.035(.256)
Unemployed
1.96(.771)** .449(.501)
.234(.440)
.491(.384)
Mortgage
.402(.962)
-.324(.684)
-.487(.702)
.258(.440)
Homeowner
Status
Citizenship
-.493(1.266) 1.525(.682)**
1.150(.879)
Noncitizen
(a)
-.055(1.084) 1.014(.665)
1.44(.864)*
.622(.827)
citizen
Naturalized
ofFuture
Perceptions
1.302(.494)***
.764(.701)
.893(.383)** -.271(.561)
Plantobuyhome
-.203(.253) -1.183(.456)*** -.599(.362)*
Retirement
savings -.217(.222)
.096(.324)
-.106(.351)
-.071(.253)
-.142(.185)
Jobsecurity
.883(.300)*** .237(.221)
.365(.202)*
-.167(.164)
Gangfear
Context
Residential
-.000(.000)
-.000(.001)
.000(.000)
.000(.000)
inzipcode
Crime
.000(.000)
.000(.000)*
.000(.000)
homeprice -.000(.000)
Median
-.241(.214)
-.138(.309)
-.043(.224)
tract .063(.248)
Census
Minority
4.639(1.746)*** 2.621(1.675) 1.807(2.231) 2.343(2.113)
Constant
258
118
226
246
Observations
42.21
41.23
55.66
40.32
LR chi
at .01.
at05;***significant
at .10;**significant
*Significant
torunanalysis.
number
ofrespondents
(a) Insufficient
areinparentheses.
Rs,
errors
males,
Notes'.
Standard
renters,
single
groups:
Comparison/excluded
Rswith
nochild,
Rs,citizens.
employed
whereasolder
eventuallydo so also have much in common. Not surprisingly,
that
to
believe
they have
respondentsof all ethnic groups are more likely
all
achieved the Americandream,youngerrespondentsof
groups expressthe
dream if theyhave
American
greatestoptimismabout eventuallyachievingthe
withpercepcorrelated
not already.Once again, age was particularlystrongly
the
with
tions of the Americandream for whiterespondents,
youngestwhite
the American
will
achieve
that
they
respondents90% more likelyto believe
in
the
whites
dreamin theirlifetimethantheoldest
sample.Youngerblacks are
about
blacks
much more optimisticthan older
believingthat theywill achieve
lifetime
theAmericandreamin their
but,sadly,theyare not as optimisticas the
ethnicgroups.Black and Latino females
or
racial
youngestrespondentsin other
of achievingthe Americandreamthan
chances
their
are more optimisticabout
11% morelikelyto believethatthey
are
females
Black
theirmale counterparts.
thanare black males.
lifetime
in
their
dream
American
willachievethe
are more likely
white
to
With regard homeownership,
mortgage-holders
one day.
dream
American
the
achieve
will
to
believe
than whiterenters
they
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andStout
Cohen-Marks
840
Black rentersplanningto purchase a home withinthe year were 18% more
likelythan black renterswho did not plan to purchasea home to believethey
would someday achieve the American dream. Latinos expectingto become
homeownerswere 10% more likelyto believethattheywill achievethe American dreamthan otherLatino renters.
Fear of gang violence is also correlatedwith Asian Americans' and
whites'optimismabout achievingthe Americandream. This resultis intriguing and somewhatsurprisinggiven that blacks and Latinos in Los Angeles
tend to live in neighborhoodswith higher levels of violent crime (Travis,
1999). However,because whitesand Asian Americansmay be generallyinsulated fromgang violence,this resultmay be based on heightenedfearsof the
unknown.
Both whitesand Latinos who wereworriedabout theirretirement
savings
were skepticalof theirabilitiesto achieve the Americandream. This variable
had a particularlystrongimpact for Latinos. Latinos who were most concernedabout theirretirement
were 80% less likelyto believethat theywould
reach the Americandream than theircounterpartswho feltsecureabout their
retirement.
Among Asian Americans,unmarriedrespondentshave less confidencein
eventuallyachieving the American dream than their marriedcounterparts.
Married Asian Americans are 30% more likely to believe that they will
achieve the Americandream than singleAsian Americans.Surprisingly,
even
Asian Americanswho are divorced or separated believed themselvesto be
more likelyto achieve the Americandream than singleAsian Americans.No
otherracial or ethnicgroup's view of the Americandream was influencedby
the familyor marriagevariables. Finally, whiteswho have higherlevels of
educationand live in areas withhighermedianhome values are most optimistic about theirchances to achievethe Americandream.
DISCUSSION
Our findingsunderscorethe powerfulassociation race, ethnicity,and
nativityhas with respondents'estimationsof theirachievementor prospects.
Latinos constitutethe vast majorityof Los Angeles' foreign-born
population,
and our findingsfor this group are heartening.Latinos are significantly
more
likely than whites,holding several variables constant,to believe they have
achieved the Americandream. It is also noteworthythat noncitizenLatinos
are less likelythan native-bornLatinos to have fulfilled
theirAmericandream
but more optimisticthat theywill do so someday.Foreign-bornLatinos who
have takenthe significant
step of pledgingtheirallegianceto the United States
and becomingU.S. citizensare more likelythan even native-bornLatinos to
perceivehavingreachedthe Americandream.
It remainsto be seen whetherrecentgrowthin the U.S. Latino population stimulatesrenewalof the Americandream or proves to be a short-lived
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CantheAmerican
Dream
Survive
theNewMultiethnic
America?
841
cohort effect.Still, that Latinos' assessmentof theirprogressor prospectsin
achievingthe Americandream exceeds that of all other racial/ethnicgroups
does not supportthe fearsraised by Huntington(2004a) and othersthat the
growthof the Latino populationthreatenswidespreadallegianceto America's
most deeply-cherished
ideals. Research based on subsequent surveyscould
revisitour findings.Examiningdifferences
fruitfully
among Latinos by generation and national-origin
useful.9
groupwould be particularly
Asian Americans,the second fastestgrowingpopulation in the United
States, are notably pessimisticabout the American dream. While Asian
Americanshave on average higherlevels of income and education than all
less likely to believe
other racial and ethnic groups, they are significantly
that they have achieved the American dream. Moreover, Asian Americans
are largely first-and second-generationAmericans. Thus, we expected to
observehigherlevels of optimismabout the Americandream as we did with
the Latino population. This unexpectedresult provides fertileground for
futurescholarship.Why are Asian Americans,a group that includesa large
immigrantpopulation and is often considered the model minorityin the
United States, less likely to believe that they have achieved the American
dream?
One possible explanationfor this unexpectedresultcould lie in socialization that takes place in Asian-Americanfamilies.Accordingto some scholars,
those in the second and thirdgenerationoftenencounterpressurefromtheir
parentsto neverbe satisfiedwith theirsocioeconomicstanding(Goyetteand
Xie, 1999; Peng and Wright,1994), and thiscould primeAsian Americansto
feel they have not achieved their full potential regardlessof theirmaterial
accomplishments.Another possibilityis that like middle-classblacks, Asian
Americansperceivethat theiropportunitiesfor success are constrainedby a
10
glass ceiling(Woo, 1994). The reasons whyAsian Americansare less apt to
believethattheyhave achievedthe Americandreamposes an interesting
paradox we leave to futureresearchersto unravel.
Like Hochschild(1995), we findthat despitethe objectivegains blacks as
a group have made in the United States,theyremainthe least likelyto believe
thattheyhave achievedthe Americandream.Among our most troublingfindings is that blacks remainless likelythan whitesto believetheyhave reached
the Americandream.Of even greaterconcern,youngerblacks are less optimistic about theirprospectsthan other racial or ethnicgroups. Given parents'
societal values to theirchildren,it is also disheartening
role in transmitting
that blacks with childrentend to be more pessimisticabout the American
dream.
9 Ourdatado notallowustoexamine
TableD intheSupplemental
however,
effects;
generation
and
residents
thatevenwhen
shows
(second
generation
onlynative-born
considering
Appendix
theAmerican
haveachieved
tobelieve
thanwhites
arestillmorelikely
Latinos
they
beyond),
dream.
ofsocialandeconomic
ourdatado notallowustomeasure
opporperceptions
Unfortunately,
thisshortcoming.
studies
address
Wehopethatfuture
States.
intheUnited
tunities
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842
Cohen-Marks
andStout
forrespondents
whobelieve
willachieve
theAmerican
Fig.3. Predicted
probabilities
they
dream
iftheyhavenotalready
Notes
: Min-max
arepredicted
byracialandethnic
group.
inwhich
allother
variables
areheldat themeanandthechange
probabilities
independent
in thedependent
variable
is measured
thedifference
whentheindependent
bytaking
variable
ofinterest
ischanging
itfrom
itsminimum
valuetoitsmaximum.
Some comfortmay be derived from the fact that blacks are no more
discouraged about their futureprospects than are whites. In contrast to
Hochschild (1995), moreover,we find more affluentblacks and those who
own theirown homes possess considerablyrosierviews of theirachievements
than do less well-offblacks. These resultssuggestthat if blacks continueto
realize materialsuccess,theymay eventuallybe as likelyas whitesto believe
thattheyhave achievedthe Americandream.
differences
in racial and ethnicgroups' satisNotwithstanding
significant
factionregardingtheirachievements,we findthat membersof all racial and
ethnicgroupsare equally optimisticthattheywill achievetheAmericandream
in the future,controllingforseveralfactors.This generaloptimismrevealsthat
the Americandreamcontinuesto exerta powerfulhold in theAmericanimagination,regardlessof color or hue. Moreover,our resultssuggestthatpopulation diversityin the United States, driven most recentlyby the arrival of
immigrantsfrom Asia and Latin America and their native-bornchildren,
could renewratherthan diminishwidespreadallegianceto the ideologyof the
Americandream.
This is not to suggestthat all is well. Those who fretabout the size of
theirnest eggs could be the canariesin the coal mine. Individualswho feared
about theireconomic futurewere universallyless likelyto believe that they
have achieved the Americandream. Moreover,homeownership'sstrongrole
in promotingfaithin the Americandream may prove to be a double-edged
sword if the widespreadequitydeclines,defaults,and foreclosuresthat began
around the timepollsterswere fieldingthe Los Angeles surveycontinue.The
ramifications
could be particularlyseriousfor Latinos and blacks, the groups
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
America?
theNewMultiethnic
CantheAmerican
Dream
Survive
843
most likely to lose their homes when the housing bubble collapsed (Ojeda
et al., 2009).
We are encouraged,though,that neitherimmigrationnor the growing
to erode the
racial and ethnicdiversityof the United States seem sufficient
all
Americandream. Our resultssuggestthat
Angelinos,regardlessof their
race or class, are equally optimisticabout one day achieving success in
the United States. Although Los Angeles representsa leading frontof the
economic crisis, our findingsfrom this city indicate the nation's strongest
intact.
asset- an optimisticpopulation- fornow remainsfirmly
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